Learning.

Behavior, why we behave in this way? the definition of relatively permanent change, response to the
environment. Learning psychologist mean a change in organism action that affect through emotion
feeling or thought and experiences.

Habituation is the process of response overtime to repeat stimuli, a decrease in response to a stimulus
after repeated presentations or involves growing accustomed to a situation or stimulus, thereby
diminishing its effectiveness. For example, a new sound in your environment, such as a new ringtone,
may initially draw your attention or even be distracting. Over time, as you become accustomed to this
sound, you pay less attention to it and your response will diminish. This diminished response is
habituation.

Classical Conditioning.

Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was studying the digestive system of dogs when he noticed an
interesting behavioural phenomenon: the dogs began to salivate when the lab technicians who normally
fed them entered the room, even though the dogs had not yet received any food. Pavlov realized that
the dogs were salivating because they knew that they were about to be fed; the dogs had begun to
associate the arrival of the technicians with the food that soon followed their appearance in the room.

Terminologies of classical conditioning.

The unconditioned stimulus (US) is something (such as food) that triggers a naturally occurring
response, the unconditioned response (UR) is the naturally occurring response (such as salivation) that
follows the unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that, after being
repeatedly presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar response as the
unconditioned stimulus, the sound of the tone served as the conditioned stimulus that, after learning,
produced the conditioned response (CR), which is the acquired response to the formerly neutral
stimulus.

Principle of classical conditioning.

The principles of classical conditioning help understand the classical conditioning process. Those
principles are acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalization, and stimulus
discrimination.

Acquisition is the first stage of classical conditioning, where the response to a stimulus is established for
the first time and begins to strengthen gradually over time. A stimulus is paired with another stimulus
repeatedly until the presence of the stimuli elicits the same response. When this happens, the desired
response has been acquired. For example, in Pavlov's experiment, he repeatedly paired the presence of
food with the sound of a bell. The presence of food already caused the dogs to salivate, but the bell did
not. As he repeatedly paired them together, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell.
Extinction happens when the conditioned response is no longer present. For example, if Pavlov stopped
ringing the bell with the presence of food, eventually, the sound of the bell ringing would not be
associated with being fed.

Spontaneous recovery happens when a conditioned response comes back after being extinct for some
time. For example, if the salivation when ringing a bell stopped, and later a bell rang and salivation
occurred again, this would be considered spontaneous recovery. If spontaneous recovery occurs,
extinction usually happens quickly after.

Stimulus generalization occurs when a person or animal has the same response to a stimulus that is like
the original stimulus. For example, if the dogs are conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, they may
also salivate at the sound of other things that sound similar.

Stimulus discrimination is the ability to discriminate between different stimuli. For example, if the
conditioned stimuli were the ring of a bell, that bell would be the only sound that would elicit salivation.
The dogs would be able to discriminate between that bell and all other sounds.

Higher-Order Conditioning.

Higher-Order Conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus becomes associated with a new
unconditioned stimulus.

These higher-order conditioned stimuli can elicit responses even when the original unconditioned
stimulus is no longer present.

This process can result in complex behavioral patterns, such as taste aversion and fears.

Classical conditioning in everyday of life.

The general idea is to create a classical conditioning in advertisement that has positive features such
that the ad creates enjoyment in the person exposed to it. The enjoyable ad serves as the unconditioned
stimulus (US), and the enjoyment is the unconditioned response (UR). Because the product being
advertised is mentioned in the ad, it becomes associated with the (US), and then becomes the
conditioned stimulus (CS). In the end, if everything has gone well, seeing the product online or in the
store will then create a positive response in the buyer, leading him or her to be more likely to purchase
the product.

The process of classical conditioning can explain how we acquire phobias. For example, we learn to
associate something we do not fear, such as a dog (neutral stimulus), with something that triggers a fear
response, such as being bitten (unconditioned stimulus).

The Little Albert experiment presents an example of how classical conditioning can be used to condition
an emotional response.

- Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response (the white rat).
- Unconditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response (the loud noise).
- Unconditioned Response: A natural reaction to a given stimulus (fear).
 - Conditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an
unconditioned stimulus (the white rat).
- Conditioned Response: The response caused by the conditioned stimulus (fear).

Classical Conditioning in drug tolerance shows that drug tolerance can be conditioned to the
environment in which the drug is normally consumed is used to introduce Siegel's classical conditioning
model of drug tolerance. Tolerance refers to decreased sensitivity to a drug because of repeated
exposure to the drug. Larger amounts of the drug must be administered to produce an effect. Caused by
compensatory mechanisms that oppose the effects of the drug.

Conditioned compensatory response is an automatic response that is opposite to the effect of alcohol
or substance usage. Conditioned behavior is a key part of substance addiction.

Operant Conditioning.

Operant conditioning or instrumental conditioning is a method of learning that uses rewards and
punishment to modify behavior, learning controlled by consequences of organism’s behavior. Through
operant conditioning, behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, and behavior that is punished
will occur.

Operant conditioning changes behaviors by using consequences, and these consequences will have two
characteristics: Reinforcement or punishment.

-Reinforcement is a response or consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater frequency.

-Punishment is a response or consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency.

Positive or negative

-Positive means adding a new stimulus.

-Negative means removing an old stimulus.

Classical VS Operant.

Classical conditioning pairs a behavior with an arbitrary stimulus, while operant conditioning pairs a
behavior with a punishment or a reward.

Law of effect It holds that responses that produce a satisfying or pleasant situation in a particular
situation are more likely to occur again in a similar situation.

Terminology of operant conditioning.

The five principles of operant conditioning are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive
punishment, negative punishment, and extinction.

Positive reinforcement are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In
positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise or a
direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a positive
reinforcer.

Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a
behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered
unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of a restaurant, but stops once you
hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition, negatively reinforcing
your behavior (not your child's).

Positive punishment sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavorable

event or outcome to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for misbehavior is an example of
punishment by application.

Negative punishment also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome
is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following misbehavior is an
example of negative punishment.

Extinction occurs when a response is no longer reinforced or punished, which can lead to the fading and
disappearance of the behavior.

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Schedules.

Reinforcement is pattern of reinforce behavior, may not necessarily a straightforward process, and there
are several factors that can influence how quickly and how well new things are learned. Skinner found
that when and how often behaviors were reinforced played a role in the speed and strength of
acquisition. In other words, the timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new behaviors
were learned and how old behaviors were modified.

Continuous reinforcement involves delivering a reinforcement every time a response occurs. Learning
tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is quite low. Extinction also occurs very quickly
once reinforcement is halted.

Partial reinforcement refers to a conditioning process in which a behavior or response is reinforced only
a portion of the time, rather than every time it occurs. Four Basics of partial reinforcement schedules.

Fixed-ratio schedules are those in which a response is reinforced only after a specified number of
responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the
delivery of the reinforcer. An example of a fixed-ratio schedule would be delivering a food pellet to a rat
after it presses a bar five times.

Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of

responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good
examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule. In a lab setting, this might involve delivering
food pellets to a rat after one bar press, again after four bar presses, and then again after two bar
presses.

Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of
time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval but
slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer. An example of this in a lab setting
would be reinforcing a rat with a lab pellet for the first bar press after a 30-second interval has elapsed.

Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time
has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.

Latent learning.

Latent learning is a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response. It occurs
without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned. Latent learning is
not readily apparent to the researcher because it is not shown behaviorally until there is sufficient
motivation.

Observational learning.

Observational learning is the process of learning by watching the behaviors of others. The targeted
behavior is watched, memorized, and then mimicked. Also known as shaping and modeling,
observational learning is most common in children as they imitate behaviors of adults.