Lecture Notes: EEE 164

Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution

Systems

Lecture 5: Transmission Line Model

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 1

 Transmission Line Modeling
• Transmission lines are represented by an equivalent
circuit with parameters on a per-phase basis
➢ Voltages are expressed as phase-to-neutral
➢ Currents are expressed for one phase
➢ 3 phase system is reduced to an equivalent single-phase
• All lines are made up of distributed series inductance
and resistance, and shunt capacitance and conductance
➢ Line parameters: R, L, C, & G
• Three types of models
➢ depend on the length and the voltage level
➢ short, medium, and long length line models
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 2
 Transmission Line Representation
• Series impedance
z = r + j x  / mi Z = z = R+ j X 

• Shunt admittance
y = g + j b S / mi Y = y = G+ j B S

• G is almost always ignored

• R is sometimes ignored for analysis purposes
(loss-less line), but never in the real world!
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 3
 Lossy Transmission Line Model

􀂄Short line model (shorter than 80km/50 miles, voltage < 69kV)
􀂄Medium line model (80km/50miles < medium <
250km/150miles)
􀂄Long line model (longer than 250km/150miles)
􀂄Equivalent π model is used for medium and long lines

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 4

 ABCD Two-Port Network
⚫ All transmission line models may be described as a two-port
network
⚫ The ABCD two-port network is the most common representation
⚫ The network is described by the four constants: A, B, C, & D
⚫ Network equations: +
IS IR
+
VS
Two-port VR
–
Network –

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 5

ABCD Two-Port Network

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 6

ABCD Two-Port Network: Example

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 7

 ABCD Parameters
• Series impedance Z: A = D = 1, B = Z , C =0

• Shunt admittance Y: A = D = 1, B = 0, C =Y S

• Why use ABCD?

– Easier than circuit analysis for hand calculations
– Easier to concatenate elements
IS IR IS IR
+ + +

+
 A1 B1   A2 B2   A1 B1   A2 B2 
C C D1  C2 D2 
VR
C D1  D2 
VS VR VS
 1  2  1
– – – –

􀂄 In general, the medium line matrix, ABCD have complex constants

and symmetrical with A=D, and AD-BC=1
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 8
Short Transmission Line Model

Ignore shunt
admittance

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 9

Short Transmission Line Model

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 10

 Short Transmission Line Model
􀂄 Voltage regulation of the line

􀂄 Transmission line efficiency

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 11

Two-Port Representation

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 12

 Short Transmission Line: Example
A 69-kV, three-phase short transmission line is 16 km long. The line
has a per phase series impedance of 0.125 + j0.4375 ohm per km.
Determine the sending end voltage, voltage regulation, the sending
end power, and the transmission efficiency
when the line delivers 70 MVA, 0.8 lagging power factor at 64 kV.

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 13

Short Transmission Line: Example

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 14

Short Transmission Line: Example

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 15

Medium Transmission Line Model

Nominal 
circuit

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 16

Medium Transmission Line Model

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 17

Two-Port Representation

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 18

Medium Transmission Line: Example

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 19

Medium Transmission Line: Example

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 20

Medium Transmission Line: Example

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 21

 Long Transmission Line Model
• Impedance and admittance parameters are distributed rather than
lumped
• At 60 Hz (or 50 Hz), effects of distributed parameters are
significant for long lines (>150 miles or 250 km)
Accuracy obtained by using distributed parameters
• Need a new model to accurately represent “long” transmission
lines
– Derive exact model for a generic transmission line represented
as a two-port network (ABCD matrix)
– Determine relationship to nominal  model
The series impedance per unit length is z
The shunt admittance per unit length is y
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 22
Transmission Line Equivalent Circuit
• Model of a transmission line is shown below

Units on
z and y are
per unit
length!
For operation at frequency  , let z = r + j L
and y = g +jC (with g usually equal 0)
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 23
 Derivation of V, I Relationships
• Let series impedance per unit length be
• z = r + j ωL [Ω/m]
• Let shunt admittance per unit length be
• y = g + j ω C = 0 + j ωC [S/m]
• Let x be the distance from the receiving end toward
the sending end:
We can then derive the following relationships:
dV = I z dx
dI = (V + dV ) y dx  V y dx
dV ( x) dI ( x)
= zI = yV
dx dx
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 24
Long Transmission Line Model

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 25

Setting up a Second Order Equation
dV ( x) dI ( x)
= zI = yV
dx dx
We can rewrite these two, first order differential
equations as a single second order equation
d 2V ( x) dI ( x)
2
=z = zyV
dx dx
d 2V ( x)
2
− zyV = 0
dx

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 26

 V, I Relationships, cont’d
Define the propagation constant  as
 = yz =  + j 
where
 = the attenuation constant
 = the phase constant

Use the Laplace Transform to solve. System

has a characteristic equation
( s 2 −  2 ) = ( s −  )( s +  ) = 0
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 27
 Equation for Voltage
The general equation for V is
V ( x) = k1e x + k2e − x
Which can be rewritten as
e x + e − x e x − e − x
V ( x) = (k1 + k2 )( ) + (k1 − k2 )( )
2 2
Let K1 = k1 + k2 and K 2 = k1 − k2 . Then
e x + e − x e x − e − x
V ( x) = K1 ( ) + K2 ( )
2 2
= K1 cosh( x) + K 2 sinh( x)
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 28
 Real Hyperbolic Functions
•For real x the cosh and sinh functions have the
following form:

d cosh( x) d sinh( x)
=  sinh( x) =  cosh( x)
dx dx
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 29
 Complex Hyperbolic Functions
•For x =  + j the cosh and sinh functions
have the following form

cosh x = cosh  cos  + j sinh  sin 

sinh x = sinh  cos  + j cosh  sin 

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 30

 Determining Line Voltage
The voltage along the line is determined based upon
the current/voltage relationships at the terminals.
Assuming we know V and I at one end (say the
"receiving end" with VR and I R where x 0) we can
determine the constants K1 and K 2 , and hence the
voltage at any point on the line.

Boundary conditions V(0) = VR and I(0) = IR:

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 31

Determining Line Voltage, cont’d
V ( x) = K1 cosh( x) + K 2 sinh( x)
V (0) = VR = K1 cosh(0) + K 2 sinh(0)
Since cosh(0) = 1 & sinh(0) = 0  K1 = VR
dV ( x)
= zI = K1 sinh( x) + K 2 cosh( x)
dx
zI R IR z z
 K2 = = = IR
 yz y
V ( x) = VR cosh( x) + I R Z c sinh( x)
z
where Zc = = characteristic impedance
y
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 32
 Determining Line Current
By similar reasoning we can determine I(x)
VR
I ( x) = I R cosh( x) + sinh( x)
Zc
where x is the distance along the line from the
receiving end.
Pout
Define transmission efficiency as  =
Pin

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 33

 Line Voltage & Current
• After simplifying, we obtain:
 e x + e − x   e x − e − x 
V ( x) =  VR + Z c   I R
 2   2  Algebra!
1  e x − e − x   e x + e − x 
I ( x) =  VR +   I R
Zc  2   2 
or
V ( x) = cosh( x)VR + Z c sinh( x) I R
sinh( x) Trigonometry!
I ( x) = VR + Z c cosh( x) I R
Zc
• In matrix form:
cosh( x) Z c sinh( x) Defines voltage and current
V ( x )    VR 
 I ( x)  =  sinh( x)
at all points along the line,
  cosh( x)   I R  not just at the terminals
 Zc 
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 34
Long Line Transmission Matrix Model
 VS   A B  VR 
With   =   I 
 S 
I C D  R
Use voltage/current relationships to solve for A,B,C,D
VS = VR cosh  l + Z c I R sinh  l
VR
I S = I R cosh  l + sinh  l
Zc
 cosh  l Z c sinh  l 
A B 1 
T =   =
 C D   sinh  l cosh  l 
 Z c 

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 35

 Equivalent Circuit Model
The common representation is the  equivalent circuit

IS IR

VS VR

Next we’ll use the T matrix values to derive the

parameters Z' and Y'.
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 36
Equivalent Circuit Parameters
VS − VR Y'
− VR = I R
Z' 2

VS = 1 +
Z 'Y ' 
VR + Z ' I R
 2 
Y' Y'
I S = VS + VR + I R
2 2
I S = Y ' 1 +
Z 'Y '  1 + Z 'Y '  I
V +
 R   R
 4   2 
 1 + Z 'Y ' Z ' 
VS   2  VR 
 I  =   Z 'Y '   Z 'Y '    I 
 S Y ' 1 +   1+   R
  4   2  
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 37
Equivalent circuit parameters
We now need to solve for Z' and Y'. Using the B
element solving for Z' is straightforward
B = Z C sinh  l = Z'
Then using A we can solve for Y'
Z 'Y '
A = cosh l = 1 +
2
Y' cosh  l − 1 1 l
= = tanh
2 Z c sinh  l Z c 2

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 38

 Simplified Parameters
These values can be simplified as follows:
zl z
Z ' = Z C sinh  l = sinh  l
yl z
sinh  l
=Z with Z zl (recalling  = zy )
l
Y' 1 l yl y l
= tanh = tanh
2 Zc 2 zl y 2

tanh l
Y 2 with Y
= yl
2 l
2

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 39

 Two-Port Representation
• Relationship to nominal  circuit model:
cosh() Z c sinh() 
VS    VR 
 I  =  sinh()
Exact network equations
cosh()  I 
 S  R in ABCD format
 Zc 
 Y'Z' 
1 + Z' Equivalent  circuit equations
VS   2  VR 
=  Y ' Z '
I  I  (Z’ and Y’ are the series
 S  Y ' 1 + Y ' Z '  1+   R impedance and shunt
  4  2  admittance of the equivalent
Y ' tanh(  2)  circuit that models the
Z ' = Z c sinh(), = terminal behavior exactly)
2 Zc

• In terms of the “usual” Z = z and Y = y:

sinh() Y ' Y tanh(  2)
Z'= Z and =
 2 2  2

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 40

Medium Length Line Approximations
For shorter lines we make the following approximations:
sinh  l
Z' = Z (assumes  1)
l
Y' Y tanh( l / 2)
= (assumes  1)
2 2 l /2
sinhγl tanh(γl/2)
Length
γl γl/2
50 miles 0.9980.02 1.001 − 0.01
100 miles 0.9930.09 1.004 − 0.04
200 miles 0.9720.35 1.014 − 0.18
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 41
 Three Line Models
Long Line Model (longer than 200 miles)
 l
sinh  l Y ' Y tanh
2
use Z ' = Z , =
l 2 2 l
2
Medium Line Model (between 50 and 200 miles)
Y
use Z and
2
Short Line Model (less than 50 miles)
use Z (i.e., assume Y is zero)

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 42

Long Transmission Line: Example 1

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 43

Long Transmission Line: Example 1

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 44

Long Transmission Line: Example 2

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 45

Long Transmission Line: Example 2

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 46

Long Transmission Line: Example 2

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 47

Long Transmission Line: Example 2

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 48

Long Transmission Line: Example 2

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 49

Long Transmission Line: Example 3

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 50

Long Transmission Line: Example 3

>

<

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 51

Circuit and Speed of Light

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 52

 Motion Analogy

Motion is transmitted successively Wave motion in water.

from one car to next.

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 53

 Characteristic Impedance
Equivalent circuit showing stray capacitance and inductance.

Voltage charges capacitance, current charges inductance.

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 54

 Characteristic Impedance
Uncharged transmission line. Continue wave propagation.

Begin wave propagation. Propagate at speed of light.

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 55

 Cable Behavior

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 56

 Cable Behavior

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 57

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT WAVES
Instantaneous voltage equations in terms of (t,x)
􀂄 the second order voltage equation is:

􀂄 substituting α+jβ for γ, voltage equation becomes

􀂄 transform from phasor to time domain

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 58

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT WAVES

􀂄 First term of v (t,x) is the incident wave (magnitude

increase with x increase), second term is the reflected
wave (magnitude decrease with x increase)
􀂄 Current expression is like voltage as the traveling
waves moving along the line

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 59

 Surge Impedance

= 2π
β

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 60

 Lossless Transmission Lines
For a lossless line the characteristic impedance, Zc ,
is known as the surge impedance.
jwl l
Zc = =  (a real value)
jwc c
If a lossless line is terminated in impedance
VR
Zc =
IR
Then I R Z c = VR so we get...

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 61

 Surge Impedance Loading
V ( x) = VR cosh  x + VR sinh  x
I ( x) = I R cosh  x + I R sinh  x
V ( x)
= Zc
I ( x)
2
V(x)
Define as the surge impedance load (SIL).
Zc
Since the line is lossless this implies
V ( x) = VR
If P > SIL then line consumes
I ( x) = I R
vars; otherwise line generates vars.
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 62
Voltage Profile in the Lossless Line
Ferranti effect

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 63

Voltage & Current Wave in Lossless Line
􀂄For a lossless line, γ=jβ, voltage
and current becomes

􀂄At the sending end x=l,

the sending end V,I

􀂄For open circuit line, IR=0,

􀂄For short circuit line, VR=0,

V,I equations reduce to

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 64

 Surge Impedance Loading
􀂄The transmission line is loaded by an impedance equal to
its characteristic impedance
- the receiving end current is IR=VR/Zc
- surge impedance loading (SIL)

􀂄Using surge impedance loading, the sending end V,I

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 65

 Surge Impedance Loading
The surge impedance loading or SIL of a transmission line is
the MW loading of a transmission line at which a natural
reactive power balance occurs.
Transmission lines produce reactive
power due to their natural capacitance
and also utilize reactive power to support
their magnetic fields.

A transmission line’s surge impedance

loading or SIL is simply the MW loading
(at a unity power factor) at which the
line’s Mvar usage is equal to the line’s
Mvar production. SIL occurs when:

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 66

 Surge Impedance Loading

The term in the above equation is by definition the

“surge impedance”.

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 67

 Surge Impedance Loading
􀂄For transmission line with surge impedance loading,
- magnitude of v(x)= VSand i(x) =IS at any point
- no reactive power in line QS=QR=0, since Zc has no reactive
component, the reactive loss from inductance is offset by reactive
supply from capacitance

Surge Impedance Loading

of a Transmission Loading

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 68

 Surge Impedance Loading
Surge Impedance Loading Rating
􀂄SIL varies from 150MW for 230kV line to 2000MW for 765
kV line
Usage of surge impedance loading (SIL)
􀂄a useful measure of transmission line capacity as its loading of
reactive requirement is small
􀂄for loads >> SIL: shunt capacitors are needed to minimize
voltage drop along the line
􀂄for loads << SIL: shunt inductance is needed
􀂄generally, full loaded line is much larger than SIL

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 69

 Power Transfer in Short Lines
• Often we'd like to know the maximum power that
could be transferred through a short transmission line
I1 I1
+ Transmission +
V1 S12 Line with S21 V2
- Impedance Z -
*
 V1 − V2 
S12 = = V1 
V1I1* 
 Z 
with V1 = V1 1 , V2 = V2  2 Z = Z  Z
2
V1 V1 V2
S12 =  Z −  Z + 12
Z Z
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 70
Power Transfer in Lossless Lines
If we assume a line is lossless with impedance jX and
are just interested in real power transfer then:
2
V1 V1 V2
P12 + jQ12 = 90 − 90 + 12
Z Z
Since - cos(90 + 12 ) = sin 12 , we get
V1 V2
P12 = sin 12
X
Hence the maximum power transfer is
V1 V2
P12Max =
X
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 71
Power Flow Through A Transmission Line
From And let

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 72

COMPLEX POWER FLOW

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 73

 Complex Power in Receiving End

Where  = B
 = A

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 74

 Power Diagram obtained
by shifting the origin

Coordinate of Power Flow

through Transmission Line

This distance will not change as

VS & VR constant

This coordinate will not change as VR constant

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 75
 Receiving-End
Power Circles

PR,max =

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 76

COMPLEX POWER FLOW

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 77

COMPLEX POWER FLOW

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 78

 Loadability
• Power transfer capability of a transmission
line may be limited by any one of the
following:
1. Conductor temperature & sag requirements
2. Voltage profile
3. Stability considerations
4. Real power losses
5. Reservation requirements

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 79

 Temperature / Sag limitations
• Operate within conductor or insulator
temperature rating
– Heat gain (I2R, other heat sources)
– Heat dissipation (wind, conduit)
– Summer vs. winter ratings; continuous vs. emergency
ratings
• Meet minimum sag requirements
– Heat causes conductors to stretch, which reduces
ground clearance for overhead lines
• For most short transmission lines, temperature /
sag limitations dictate transfer capability
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 80
Limits Affecting Max. Power Transfer
• Thermal limits
– limit is due to heating of conductor and hence
depends heavily on ambient conditions.
– For many lines, sagging is the limiting constraint.
– Newer conductors limit can limit sag. For
example, in 2004 ORNL working with 3M
announced lines with a core consisting of
ceramic Nextel fibers. These lines can operate at
200 degrees C.
– Trees grow, and will eventually hit lines if they
are planted under the line.
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 81
Tree Trimming: Before

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 82

Tree Trimming: After

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 83

 Voltage profile
• Voltage regulation (typically, VR  10%)
VR NL − VR FL VS
VR (%) = 100, VR NL =
VR FL A
• Voltage drop (typically, VD  0.95)
VR
VD =
VS
• Operating range

0.95  VR  1.05 pu and 0.95  VS  1.05 pu

• Voltage profile is a consideration for all lines

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 84

Other Limits Affecting Power Transfer
• Angle limits
– while the maximum power transfer occurs
when line angle difference is 90 degrees, actual
limit is substantially less due to multiple lines
in the system
• Voltage stability limits
– as power transfers increases, reactive losses
increase as I2X. As reactive power increases
the voltage falls, resulting in a potentially
cascading voltage collapse.
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 85
 Stability Considerations
• Steady-state stability limit PMAX

For a loss-less 3-phase line (R=G=0),

Real Power
ignoring distributed effects:
VRVS
P = PS = PR = sin d , d = V − V
X s R

0 30 60 90 120 150 180

VRVS VRVS d
PMAX = or PMAX 3 = 3
X X
– For d > 90o, synchronism between sending and receiving
end cannot be maintained
– Lines are operated at d < 35o to prevent transient instability
during system disturbances
• Long lines are typically stability-limited
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 86
 Line Compensation
􀂄On long transmission line, its surge impedance
load will have approximately a flat voltage along
the line
􀂄When loading >> SIL, a voltage dip occurs at the
receiving end of line, which needs shunt capacitors,
static var control, and synchronous condensor to
increase voltage
􀂄When loading << SIL, a voltage rise occurs at the
receiving end of line, which needs shunt reactors to
reduce voltage
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 87
 Reactive Power Compensation
• Installation of compensation devices to
overcome stability and/or voltage profile
limitations
– Part of new transmission line design, or
– Retrofit existing transmission lines - usually more
cost-effective than building new transmission lines
• Types of devices
– Passive (capacitors, reactors)
– Active (SVC, FACTS, synchronous condensers)
– Shunt, series
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 88
 Series and Shunt Compensation
􀂄Passive device as capacitors and reactors can be used for
reactive power compensation

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 89

 Capacitor Compensation
􀂄Usage of shunt capacitors
- correct power factor caused by heavy loads
- supply reactive power to maintain VR
- capacitors are connected to a bus or to the tertiary winding of a
main transformer
􀂄Series capacitor compensation
- connected in series with line located at midpoint
- for a lossless line, the power transfer profile

􀂄XCser/X is percentage compensation, in the range of 25 to 70%

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 90
 Series Compensation
• Increase stability limit by effectively lowering
series impedance
+ ½jX ½jX + + jX +
VS -jXC VR VS -j½XC -j½XC VR
– – – –

X TOT = X − X C = X − C X = X (1 − C ) C = compensation level

VR VS
PC = sin d
X (1 − C )

1
– Transfer capability is increased by
1 − C
– Typically, C is between 0.3 and 0.7
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 91
 Series Compensation
• Advantages
– Cost-effectiveness - 345 kV series cap station costs $5–$10M
– Self-regulation - No need for complex controls
– Outage time
• Disadvantages
– Higher short circuit currents
– Sub-synchronous resonance issues
• Alternatives
– Build a new line. Hard to justify cost and environmental impact
– Re-conductor. Prolonged line outage; installing a larger conductor may
require heavier structures
– Operate at higher voltage. Install higher-voltage, higher-cost equipment
(transformers, insulators, etc)

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 92

 Series compensation design steps
1. Determine compensation level to meet
transient stability requirements
– Cost of incremental compensation is marginal
– Higher compensation level, better transient stability
performance but more prone to resonance

2. Determine best location

– Has a major impact on steady-state voltage profile
and terminal reactive-power requirements.
– Cost is a major factor (existing vs. new substation)
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 93
 Capacitor Compensation
􀂄 Drawback of series capacitor compensation
- series capacitors are vulnerable to high current caused by short
circuit fault, a bypass protective device is required
- series capacitors establish a resonant circuit that oscillate at a
frequency below normal frequency, it’s called subsynchronous
resonance (SSR)
- if fturbine torsional mode = fsynchronous-fresonance, damage to turbine-
generator can occur
- the resonant frequency

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 94

Series Compensation: Example

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 95

Series Compensation: Example

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 96

 Shunt Reactors
􀂄Shunt reactors are applied to compensate for the undesired
voltage effect by line capacitance and loading condition
􀂄Shunt reactor compensation
- assume reactance is connected at the receiving end of the line
- receiving end current:

􀂄for a lossless line, substituting IR and solve XLsh in terms of VS,

VR

􀂄for VS=VR,

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 97

 Shunt Reactors
􀂄we get Isin terms of IR under condition that VS=VR,
then IS=-IR
􀂄The effect of shunt reactor compensation of line
- the voltage profile is not uniform along the line, voltage start
to rise from the sending end and reach voltage peak at the mid
point, then voltage start to drop until reaching the receiving end
at VR=VS
- voltage at the midspan:

- current at the midspan is zero

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 98

 Charging Current
When a transmission line, with or without series compensation,
has the desired load transmission capability, attention is turned
to operation under light loads or at no load. Charging current is
an important factor to be considered and should not be allowed
to exceed the rated full-load current of the line.
From total inductive
Charging Current usually defined as
susceptance
by connecting
shunt reactor

From total capacitive

susceptance
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 99
 Benefit of Shunt Compensation

From
If the shunt capacitance is neglected A=1
Capacitances in medium & long line reduce A, A < 1 VR > VS
By using the shunt inductors as load is removed, the reduction of the
shunt susceptance to a value of (BC - BL) can limit the rise of the no-
load voltage at the receiving end.

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 100

Shunt Compensation: Example

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 101

Shunt Compensation: Example

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 102

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 103
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 104
INTRODUCTION TO STABILITY
• What is stability
– the tendency of power system to restore the state of equilibrium
after the disturbance
– mostly concerned with the behavior of synchronous machine after
a disturbance
– in short, if synchronous machines can remain synchronism
after disturbances, we say that system is stable
• Stability issue
– steady-state stability – the ability of power system to regain
synchronism after small and slow disturbances such as
gradual power change
– transient stability – the ability of power system to regain
synchronism after large and sudden disturbances such as a
fault

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 105

 POWER ANGLE
• Power angle
– relative angle dr between
rotor mmf and air-gap
mmf (angle between Fr
and Fsr), both rotating iin
synchronous speed
– also the angle dr between
no-load generated emf E
and stator voltage Esr
– also the angle d
between emf E and
terminal voltage V, if
neglecting armature
resistance and leakage
flux

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 106

 DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION
• Synchronous machine operation
– consider a synchronous generator with electromagnetic
torque Te running at synchronous speed ωsm.
– during the normal operation, the mechanical torque
Tm = Te
– a disturbance occur will result in
accelerating/decelerating torque Ta=Tm-Te (Ta>0 if
accelerating, Ta<0 if decelerating)
– introduce the combined moment of inertia of prime
mover and generator J
– by the law of rotation -- d 2 m
J = T = T −T a m e
dt 2
– m is the angular displacement of rotor w.r.t. stationery
reference frame on the stator

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 107

 DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION
• Derivation of swing equation
– m = ωsmt+dm, ωsm is the constant angular velocity
– take the derivative of m, we obtain –
dm dd
= sm + m
dt dt
– take the second derivative of m, we obtain –
d 2 m d 2d m
2
=
dt dt 2
– substitute into2 the law of rotation
d dm
J 2
= Ta = Tm − Te
dt
– multiplying ωm to obtain power equation
d 2d m d 2d m
Jm 2
=M 2
= mTm − mTe = Pm − Pe
dt dt
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 108
DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION
• Derivation of swing equation
– swing equation in terms of inertial constant M
d 2d m
M 2
= Pm − Pe
dt
– relations between electrical power angle d and
mechanical power angle dm and electrical speed and
mechanical speed
p p
d= dm , = m where p is pole number
2 2
– swing equation in terms of electrical power angle d
2 d 2d
M 2 = Pm − Pe
p dt
– converting the swing equation into per unit system
2 H d 2d 2H
= P − P , where M =
s dt 2 m ( pu ) e ( pu )
s
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 109
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS
FOR STABILITY STUDY
• Simplified synchronous machine model
– the simplified machine model is decided by the proper
reactances, X’’d, X’d, or Xd
– for very short time of transient analysis, use X’’d
– for short time of transient analysis, use X’d
– for steady-state analysis, use Xd
Vg V

jX’d ZL
E’
Zs

– substation bus voltage and frequency remain constant is referred

as infinite bus
– generator is represented by a constant voltage E’ behind direct
axis transient reactance X’d
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 110
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS
FOR STABILITY STUDY
• Converting the network into  equivalent circuit
– for the conversion, please see Eq.11.23
E’ V
I1 I2
1 y12 2

y10 y20

– use  equivalent line model for currents

 I1   y10 + y12 − y12   E '
 I  = − y  
 2   12 y 20 + y12  V 
– real power at node 1
Pe = E ' Y11 cos11 + E ' V Y12 cos(d − 12 )
2

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 111

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS
FOR STABILITY STUDY
• Real power flow equation
– let –y12 = 1 / X12
E' V
– simplified real power equation: Pe = sin d
X 12
• Power angle curve Pe
Pmax

Pe
Pm
E' V
Pmax = d
X 12 0 d0 π/2 π

– gradual increase of generator power output is

possible until Pmax (max power transferred) is reached
– max power is referred as steady-state stability limit at
d=90o
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 112
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS
FOR STABILITY STUDY
• Transient stability analysis
– condition: generator is suddenly short-circuited
– current during the transient is limited by X’d
– voltage behind reactance E’=Vg+jX’dIa
– Vg is the generator terminal voltage, Ia is prefault
steady state generator current
– phenomena: field flux linkage will tend to remain
constant during the initial disturbance, thus E’ is
assumed constant
– transient power angle curve has the same form as
steady-state curve but with higher peak value,
probably with smaller X’d
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 113
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS
INCLUDING SALIENCY
• Phasor diagram of salient-pole machine
– condition: under steady state with armature
resistance neglected
Iq
a d E

jXqIq
Id Ia V XdId
– power angle equation in per unit
EV 2 Xd − Xq
P= sin d + V sin 2d
Xd 2Xd Xq
– voltage equation in per unit
E = V cosd + X d I d = V cosd + X d I a sin(d +  )

– E is no-load generated emf in pu, V is generator

terminal voltage in pu
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 114
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS
INCLUDING SALIENCY
• Calculation of voltage E
– starting with a given (known) terminal voltage V and
armature current Ia, we need to calculate d first by
using phasor diagram and then result in voltage E
 X q I a cos 
d = tan  −1
 E = V cosd + X d I a sin(d +  )

 V + X q I a sin  
– once E is obtained, P could be calculated
• Transient power equation
– for salient machine
Eq' V X d' − X q
Pe = sin d + V sin 2d
2
' '
X d 2X Xq
d
– this equation represents the behavior of SM in early
part of transient period
– calculate d first, then calculate |E’q|:
– see example 11.1 Eq' = V cosd + X d' I a sin(d +  )
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 115
 Steady-State Stability – Small Disturbance
• Steady-state stability
– the ability of power system to remain its synchronism
and returns to its original state when subjected to
small disturbances
– such stability is not affected by any control efforts
such as voltage regulators or governor
• Analysis of steady-state stability by swing
equation
– starting from swing equation
H d 2d
= Pm ( pu ) − Pe ( pu ) = Pm − Pmax sin d
f 0 dt 2

– introduce a small disturbance Δd

– derivation is from Eq.11.37 (see pg. 472)
– simplify the nonlinear function of power angle d
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 116
 Steady-State Stability – Small Disturbance
• Analysis of steady-state stability by swing equation
– swing equation in terms of Δd
H d 2 d dP
+ Pm cosd 0 d = 0 PS = d0 = Pmax cosd 0
f 0 dt 2
dd
– PS=Pmax cosd0: the slope of the power-angle curve at
d0, PS is positive when 0 < d < 90o (See figure 11.3)
– the second order differential equation
H d 2 d
+ PS d = 0
f 0 dt 2

f 0
• Characteristic equation: s2 = − PS
H
– rule 1: if PS is negative, one root is in RHP and system
is unstable
– rule 2: if PS is positive, two roots in the jω axis and
motion is oscillatory and undamped, system is
marginally stable
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 117
 Steady-State Stability – Small Disturbance
• Characteristic equation:
– rule 2 (continued): the oscillatory frequency of the
undamped system f 0
n = PS
H
• Damping torque
– phenomena: when there is a difference angular velocity
between rotor and air gap field, an induction torque will
be set up on rotor tending to minimize the difference of
velocities
– introduce a damping power by damping torque
dd
Pd = D
dt
– introduce the damping power into swing equation
H d 2 d dd
+ D + PS d = 0
f 0 dt 2
dt
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 118
 Stability Analysis on Swing Equation
• Characteristic equation:
d d
2
dd
– 2
+ 2n + n d = 0
2

dt dt
• Analysis of characteristic equation
– s + 2n s + n = 0
2 2

D f
– for damping coefficient  =
2 HP
0

S
1

– roots of characteristic equation

s1 , s2 = -n  jn 1 −  2
– damped frequency of oscillation
d = n 1 −  2
– positive damping (1>>0): s1,s2 have negative real part
if PS is positive, this implies the response is bounded
and system is stable
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 119
 Stability Analysis on Swing Equation
• Solution of the swing equation
– d 2 d + 2 dd +  2 d = 0
2 n n
dt dt
– roots of swing equation
d 0 d 0
d = e − nt sin(d t +  ), d = d 0 + e − nt sin(d t +  )
1− 2 1− 2

– rotor angular frequency

n d 0 − t  d
 = − e sin(d t ),  = 0 + n 0 e − t sin(d t )
n n

1− 2 1− 2
– response time constant
1 2H
= =
n f 0 D

– settling time: tS  4
– relations between settling time and inertia constant H:
increase H will
ENG164 Powerresult
Generation,in longerandtSDistribution
Transmission , decrease n 
Systems ω and 120
 Solving The Swing Equation Using
State Space Matrix
• State space approach
– state space approach can solve multi-machine system
– let x1=Δd, x2=Δω=Δd
–  x1  = 0 1   x1 
= x (t ) = Ax (t )
 x   2  
 2 − n − 2n   x2 

–  y1  1 0  x1 
 y  = 0    = y (t ) = Cx (t )
 2  1  x2 

– taking the Laplace transform, from Eq.11.52

s -1 
X ( s ) = (sI − A) x (0), (sI − A) = 
−1

n s + 2n 
2

– solution of the X(s)

 s + 2n 1
 −  x(0)
X ( s) =  2 n
s
s + 2and
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission n2
n +Distribution Systems 121
 SOLVING THE SWING EQUATION
USING STATE SPACE MATRIX
• State space approach
– x ( s ) = d ( s ) = u
s (s 2 + 2n + n2 )
1

u
x 2 ( s ) =  ( s ) =
(s 2
+ 2n + n2 )
– taking the inverse Laplace transform with initial state
x1(0)=Δd0, x2(0)=Δω0=0
– state solution: x1(t)=Δd(t), x2(t)=ω(t)
d 0 d 0
d = e − nt sin(d t +  ), d = d 0 + e − nt sin(d t +  )
1− 2 1− 2
–
n d 0 − t  d
 = − e sin(d t ),  = 0 + n 0 e − t sin(d t )
n n

1− 2 1− 2
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 122
 STEADY STATE STABILITY
EXAMPLE
• Example 11.3
– using the state space matrix to solve d and ω
– the original state d0=16.79o, new state after ΔP is
imposed d=22.5o
– the linearized equation is valid only for very small
power impact and deviation from the operating state
– a large sudden impact may result in unstable state
even if the impact is less than the steady state power
limit
– the characteristic equation of determinant (sI-A) or
eigenvalue of A can tell the stability of system
– system is asymptotically stable iff eigenvalues of A are
in LHP
– in this case, eigenvalues of A are -1.3  6.0i
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 123
 TRANSIENT STABILITY
• Transient stability
– to determine whether or not synchronism is maintained
after machine has been subject to severe disturbance
• Severe disturbance
– sudden application of loads (steel mill)
– loss of generation (unit trip)
– loss of large load (line trip)
– a fault on the system (lightning)
• System response after large disturbance
– oscillations of rotor angle result in large magnitude that
linearlization is not feasible
– must use nonlinear swing equation to solve the
problem
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 124
 EQUAL AREA CRITERION
• Equal area criterion
– can be used to quickly predict system stability after
disturbance
– only applicable to a one-machine system connected to
an infinite bus or a two-machine system
• Derivation of rotor relative speed from swing
equation
– starting from the swing equation with damping
neglected
H d 2d
= Pm − Pe = Pa , Pa = acceleration power
f o dt 2

– for detailed derivation, please see pp.486

– the swing equation end up with
– dd 2f o d
(P − P )dd
dt
=
H d o
m e
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 125
 EQUAL AREA CRITERION
• Synchronous machine relative speed equation
– dd 2f o d

dt
=
H d (P
o
m − Pe )dd

– the equation gives relative speed of machine with

respect to the synchronous revolving reference frame
– if stability of system needs to be maintained, the speed
equation must be zero sometimes after the disturbance
• Stability analysis
– stability criterion
d
d (P
o
m − Pe )dd = 0
– consider machine operating at the equilibrium point do,
corresponding to power input Pm0 = Pe0
– a sudden step increase of Pm1 is applied results in
accelerating power to increase power angle d to d1 126
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems
 EQUAL AREA CRITERION
• Stability analysis
– the excess energy stored in rotor
d1
d (Po
m − Pe )dd = area abc = area A1

– when d=d1, the electrical power matches new input

power Pm1, rotor acceleration is zero but relative speed
is still positive (rotor speed is above synchronous
speed), d still increases
– as long as d increases, Pe increases, at this time the
new Pe >Pm1 and makes rotor to decelerate
– d max
 (Pm1 − Pe )dd = area bde = area A2
d1

– rotor swing back to b and the angle dmax makes

– |area AENG164
1|=|area
Power A 2|
Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 127
 EQUAL AREA CRITERION
• Equal area criterion (stable condition)
A2 A2max
d
A
c1 b e
Pm1 Pm1 dmax

d1
Pm0 a
d0

d0 d1 dmax t0 t

Equal Criteria: A1 = A2

A1 < A2max Stable

A1 = A2max Critically Stable
A1 > A2max Unstable

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 128

 APPLICATION TO SUDDEN
INCREASE OF POWER INPUT
• Stability analysis of equal area criterion
– stability is maintained only if area A2 at least equal to A1
– if A2 < A1, accelerating momentum can never be
overcome
• Limit of stability
– when dmax is at intersection of line Pm and power-angle
curve is 90o < d < 180o
– the dmax can be derived as (see pp.489, figure 11.12)

(d maxcan
– dmax )sincalculated
− dobe d max + cosdby = cosd0 method
max iterative

– Pmax is obtained by Pm=Pmaxsind1, where d1 = -dmax

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 129

SOLUTION TO STABILITY ON SUDDEN
INCREASE OF POWER INPUT
• Calculation of dmax
– (d max − do )sind max + cosd max = cosd0
– dmax can be calculated by iterative Newton Raphson
method
– assume the above equation is f(dmax) = c
– starting with initial estimate of /2 < dmax(k) < , Δd gives
c − f (d max
(k )
)
d (k )
max =
– where df
= (d max − d 0 )cosd max
df
dd max d ( k ) (k ) (k )

– dd max
max d max
(k )

– the updated dmax(k+1)

dmax(k+1) = dmax(k) + Δ dmax(k)

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 130

 APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE
FAULT
• Three phase bolt fault case
– a temporary three phase bolt fault occurs at sending end of line at
bus 1 1
Pe
F
f
– fault occurs at d0, Pe = 0
– power angle curve corresponds e
to horizontal axis A2
– machine accelerate, a d g
Pm
increase d until fault cleared at dc A1
– fault cleared at dc shifts operation b c d
to original power angle curve at e d0 dc dmax
– net power is decelerating, stored
– energy reduced to zero at f
– A1(abcd) = A2(defg)
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 131
APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT
- NEAR SENDING END
• Three phase bolt fault case
Pe
– when rotor angle reach f, Pe>Pm
f
rotor decelerates and retraces
along power angle curve passing e
through e and a A2
– rotor angle would swing back and a d g
Pm
forth around d0 at ωn A1
– with inherent damping, operating d
b c
point returns to d0 d0 dc dmax
• Critical clearing angle
– critical clearing angle is reached when further increase in dc cause
A2 < A1
dc d max
d Pmdd = 
dc
(Pmax sin d − Pm )dd
0

– we obtain dc
Pm
cosd c = (d max − d 0 ) + cosd max
Pmax Transmission and Distribution Systems
ENG164 Power Generation, 132
 APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE
FAULT- NEAR SENDING END

• Critical clearing time

– from swing equation H d 2d
= Pm
f 0 dt 2

– integrating both sides from t = 0 to tc

– we obtain the critical clearing time

2 H (d c − d 0 )
tc =
f 0 Pm

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 133

 APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE
FAULT- AWAY FROM SENDING END
• Three phase bolt fault case
– a temporary three phase fault occurs away from sending end of bus
1
1
Pe
F
f A
– fault occurs at d0, Pe is reduced
– power angle curve corresponds e C
to curve B A2
a d g
– machine accelerate, increase d Pm
from d0 (b) until fault cleared at dc A1 c
b B
(c) d
– fault cleared at dc shifts operation d0 dc dmax
to curve C at e
– net power is decelerating, stored
energy reduced to zero at f
– A1(abcd) =ENG164
A2(defg)
Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 134
APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT-
AWAY FROM SENDING END
• Three phase bolt fault case Pe
–when rotor angle reach f, Pe>Pm f A
rotor decelerates and rotor angle e C
would swing back and forth A2
a d g
around e at ωn Pm
–with inherent damping, operating A1 c
b B
point returns to the point that Pm d
line intercept with curve C d0 dc dmax
• Critical clearing angle
–critical clearing angle is reached when further increase
in dc cause A2 < A1
dc d max
Pm (d c − d 0 ) −  P2 max sin d dd =  P3 max sin d dd − Pm (d max − d c )
d0 dc

–we obtain dc cosd c = Pm (d max − d 0 ) + P3 max cosd max − P2 max cosd 0

max − P2 max
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission andP3Distribution Systems 135
APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT-
AWAY FROM SENDING END
• The difference between curve b and curve c
is due to the different line reactance
–curve b: the second line is shorted in the middle
point (Fig. 11.23)
–curve c: after fault is cleared, the second line is
isolated
• See example 11.5
–use power curve equation to solve dmax and then
dc

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 136

 NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF
NONLINEAR EQUATION
• Euler method
dx
–tangent evaluation: dt x0
dx
–updated solution: 1 0
x = x + x = x0 + x0 t
dt
–drawback: accuracy
• Modified Euler method
dx dx
x0 +
–tangent evaluation: dt dt x1p

–updated solution: 2
 dx dx 
x1 = x0 + x = x0 +  x0 + x1  t / 2
 dt dt 
–feature: better accuracy, but time step Δt should
be properly selected
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 137
 NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF
NONLINEAR EQUATION
• Higher order equation
–use state space method to decompose higher
order equation
–use modified Euler method to solve state space
matrix
–for swing equation of second order, use 22
state space matrix to solve
 x1  0 1   x1 
 x  =  2    = x (t ) = Ax (t )
 2  − n − 2n   x2 

–see pp. 504

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 138
 NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF
SWING EQUATION
• Swing equation in state variable form
dd
= 
– dt
d   f 0
= Pa
dt H
–use modified Euler method
dd d
=  p
i +1 , where ip+1 = i + d t
dt i +1
p
dt i
d f 0 dd
p = Pa where d i p+1 = d i +  t
dt di +1 H d ip+1
dt i
–the updated values (see Ex. 11.6)
 dd dd   d d 
 i + ip   di + di p 
d i +1 = d i +  dt
c dt t , i +1 = i +  dt
c dt t
 2   2 
   
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 139
 MULTIMACHINE SYSTEMS
• Multi-machine system can be written similar to
one-machine system by the following assumption
– each synchronous machine is represented by a
constant voltage E behind Xd (neglect saliency and flux
change)
– input power remain constant
– using prefault bus voltages, all loads are in equivalent
admittances to ground
– damping and asynchronous effects are ignored
– dmech = d
– machines belong to the same station swing together
and are said to be coherent, coherent machines can
equivalent toPower
ENG164 oneGeneration,
machine Transmission and Distribution Systems 140
 METHOD TO SOLVE
MULTIMACHINE SYSTEMS
• Solution to multi-machine system
– solve initial power flow and determine initial bus voltage
magnitude and phase angle
Si* Pi − jQi
Ii = * = *
, Ei' = Vi + jX d' I i
Vi Vi
– calculating load equivalent admittance
Pi − jQi
yi 0 = 2
Vi

– nodal equations of the system

0  Ynn Ynm  Vn 
I  =  t  ' 
 m   nm
Y Ymm   Em 

– electrical and mechanical power output of machine at

steady state prior to disturbances
Pei = Pmi = ReEi I i =  Ei' E 'j Yij cos(ij − d i + d j )
m
*

j =1
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 141
 MULTIMACHINE SYSTEMS
TRANSIENT STABILITY
• Classical transient stability study is based on the
application of the three-phase fault
• Swing equation of multi-machine system
H i d 2d i
j Yij cos( ij − d i + d j ) = Pmi − Pei
– m

f 0 dt 2
= Pmi − 
j =1
Ei
'
E '

– Yij are the elements of the faulted reduced bus

admittance matrix
– state variable model of swing equation
dd i
= i , i = 1,, n
dt
di f 0
= (Pmi − Pei )
dt Hi
– see example 11.7
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 142
 Equivalent circuit

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 143

Transmission lines and cables
RLine XLine

Equivalent network of a short line.

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 144

Transmission lines and cables

RLine LLine

CLine / 2 CLine / 2

Equivalent network of a medium-length line.

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 145

Transmission lines and cables
IS jX R Ir

Ics ICR
I
VS VR
C/2 C/2

Equivalent network of a medium-length line.

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 146

 Transmission lines and cables

···
Sending Receiving
end end

Equivalent network for a long transmission line.

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 147

 Numerical exercise
Transmission lines Loading
MATCAD

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 148

 Transmission lines Parameter calculation
MATCAD

XCL = XCS XCL = −1.383k

ZCS = j XCS ZCS = −1.383jk ZCL = j XCL ZCL = −1.383jk

Inet1_short
Xnet1 RLine XLine

Vnet1_ln IL_short
ICS_short XCS XCL IL_short

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 149

 Transmission lines and cables

• Given data:
VL_ll = Vline VL_ll = 500kV pfL = 0.8 ( lagging )

• The power is variable, selected value is: PL = 400M  W

• Load current calculation: PL VL_ll
PL1( PL) = VL_n =
3 3

( )
PL1 PL ( )
j  acos pfL
( )
SL1 PL =
pfL
e ( )
SL1 PL = 133.333+ 100jM V A

⎯
( )
 SL1 PL 
( )
IL PL =   ( )
IL PL = 461.88 − 346.41jA
 VL_n 

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 150

 Transmission lines and cables

• Capacitive current:
VL_n
ICL = ICL = 208.798jA
ZCL
• Line current
( ) ( )
ILine PL = ICL + IL PL ( )
ILine PL = 461.88 − 137.612jA

• Supply voltage:

( ) ( )
VS_n PL = VL_n + ILine PL  ZLine ( )
VS_n PL = 308.156+ 55.926jkV

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 151

 Transmission lines and cables

• Capacitive current:

( )
VS_n PL
( )
ICS PL =
ZCS
( )
ICS PL = −40.451 + 222.888jA

• Supply/network current

( ) ( )
Inet1 PL = ILine PL + ICS PL ( ) ( )
Inet1 PL = 421.429+ 85.276jA

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 152

Transmission Line Model: Example 1
Assume we have a 765 kV transmission line with
a receiving end voltage of 765 kV(line to line),
a receiving end power SR = 2000 + j1000 MVA and
z = 0.0201 + j0.535 = 0.53587.8 
mile
y = j 7.75  10−6 = 7.75  10−6 90.0 S
mile
Then
 = zy = 2.036 88.9 / mile
z
 = = 262.7 -1.1 
y
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 153
Transmission Line Model: Example 1
Do per phase analysis, using single phase power
and line to neutral voltages. Then
VR = 765 = 441.70 kV
3
 (2000 + j1000)  10 6 *
IR =  3 
= 1688 − 26.6 A
 3  441.70  10 
V ( x) = VR cosh( x) + I R Z c sinh( x)
= 441, 7000 cosh( x  2.03688.9) +
443, 440 − 27.7  sinh( x  2.03688.9)

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 154

Transmission Line Model: Example 1

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 155

 Loadability – Example
• The summer rating for each conductor bundle for the
line of Long line (Ex. 2) is 2 kA. Compare the thermal
and stability transfer limits. Assume nominal voltage.
SThermal = 3 VLL I PHASE = 3 (345 kV )(2 kA ) = 1195 MVA

VRVS 3452  106

PStability 3 =3 sin 35 = sin 35 = 533 MW
X 128
The stability limit for this line is roughly half
the thermal limit.
– Careful! Example 2 (d) showed that, to supply a
500 MVA load, a sending-end voltage of 1.3 pu
would be required!
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 156
 Homework
Consider a 350-mile, 345 kV power line with per-mile
parameters as in Example 2.
a) Calculate the nominal  circuit series impedance (Z) and
shunt admittance (Y). Calculate the “corrected” values Z’ and
Y’. What is the error in magnitude of the approximate Z and
Y?
b) Compute exact ABCD parameters for the uncompensated
line.
c) If the sending-end voltage (VS) is fixed at 345 kV, determine
the open-circuit voltage at the receiving end (VR) and the
sending-end current (IS). Hint: IR = 0. Is shunt
compensation would be required?
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 157
 Homework (continued)
d) Estimate the power transfer capability of the
uncompensated line assuming at nominal sending and
receiving end voltage and 35o angle separation. How
much would the transfer capability increase if the
operating voltage is 500 kV?
e) Estimate the series compensation level required to
increase the line transfer capability to 500 MW at 345 kV.
Assume an angle separation of 35 degrees and power
factor near unity along the line.

Feel free to e-mail me your questions (or answers)

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 158

 Series Compensation – Example
Design series compensation to allow the line of
the previous examples to serve an 800 MW
load at 0.9 pf.
1. Get an idea of minimum compensation level
VSVR 3452  106
3 sin 35 = sin 35  800  106 W  C  0.33
X (1 − C ) 128(1 − C )

– Minimum requirement for transient stability performance

– Steady-state voltage profile and reactive power requirements
are likely to dictate a higher compensation level

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 159

 Series Compensation – Example
2. Explore solutions for different locations and
compensation levels
– Decide on possible locations
• Usually at line terminals (lowest cost?)
• Two capacitor at 1/3 and 2/3 of the line
• One capacitor placed in the middle of the line

– Analyze voltage profile and reactive power

requirements. Cost of additional shunt compensation
should be considered in the overall project cost

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 160

Series compensation – Example 5
Possible locations

B-A

Guadalupe

Blackwater

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 161

Series compensation – Example 5
After MANY computer runs …

• One satisfactory solution:

– C = 50% at Guadalupe
– Need shunt reactors at Guadalupe to control peak
voltage (must be West of the series capacitors)
– May need shunt compensation at BA
• Further refinements may be needed
– Sub-synchronous resonance analysis
– Cost compromises
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 162
Series compensation – Example 5
1.1

1.08
A

1.06
Voltage, pu

1.04

1.02

0.98 B

0.96

0 50 100 150 200

Miles from BA 345 kV station

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 163

Series compensation – Example 5
1.12

1.1

1.08
Voltage, pu

1.06
B

1.04 C

D
1.02

1
0 50 100 150 200
Miles from BA 345 kV station

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 164

Series compensation – Example 5
High MVAr deficit at BA

Blackwater
BA voltage, Blackwater Line losses, BA Reactive Guadalupe
reactive power
pu voltage, pu MW Power, MVAr Reactors
MVAr
1.01 68 105 43
0.95 1.03 67 63 75 OFF
1.05 66 20 107
1.01 67 181 -52
1.00 1.03 65 139 -24 OFF
1.05 63 95 8
1.01 67 242 -77
1.03 1.03 64 198 -48 40 MVAr
1.05 62 154 -17
1.01 67 284 -91
40 and 65
1.05 1.03 64 240 -61
MVAr
1.05 62 195 -30

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 165

Line losses and reactive injection at BA and Blackwater for 50% compensation at
Long Transmission Line: Example 2
A 345 kV transmission line has z = 0.05946 + j0.5766 /mi,
y = 7.3874×10-3 S/mi and  = 222 mi. Calculate:
A) ABCD parameters, assuming nominal  circuit model
Z = z = 13.2 + j128 , Y = y = j1.64  10−3 S

A = D = 1 + YZ = 0.895110.69 pu, B = Z = 128.6884.11 

2
(
C = Y 1 + YZ
4
) = 1.554 10 −3
90.33 S

B) Receiving-end no-load voltage

VS = AVR + BI R IR = 0

VS 345 3
VR = = = 222.5 − 0.69 kV
A 0.895110.69
VR LL = 385.4 kV (12% above nominal)
ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 166
Long Transmission Line: Example 2
C) Receiving-end “no-load” voltage with 50 Mvar shunt
capacitor is inserted at the receiving end of the line
Q 50  106
YSHUNT =−j 2 =−j = − j 0.00042 S
V 345  10
2 6

 0.895110.69 128.6884.11  1 0
ABCDTotal = −3  − 0.0004290 1
1.554  10 90.33 0.895110.69 
 0.94880.32 128.6884.11
= −3 
1.178  10 90.21 0.895110.69

VS 345 3
VR = = = 209.93 − 0.32 kV
A 0.94880.32
VR LL = 363.6 kV (5% above nominal)

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 167

Long Transmission Line: Example 2
D) Sending-end voltage, real and reactive power required to
supply a 500 MVA, 0.9 lagging p.f. load at the receiving end
(assume VR = 1 pu, shunt reactor off)
500
SR =  cos−1 0.9 = 166.725.84 MVA = 149.4 + j72.4 MVA
3

I R =  R  = 836.8 − 25.84 A
S
VR = 345 = 199.20 kV


3  VR 
VS   0.895110.69 128.6884.11   199.2 103 0 
 I  = 1.554 10−3 90.33 0.895110.69  
 S   836.8 − 25.84 
252.9 103 21.8 
=  
 676 . 3 − 0 . 74 

VS LL = 438.1 kV S S = VS I S = 158 + j 65.4 MVA S S 3 = 51322.5MVA

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 168

Long Transmission Line: Example 3
For the line in Example 2, calculate:
A) Propagation constant and characteristic impedance
z
 = zy = 2.069 10−3 87.06 m −1 , Zc = = 280.11 − 2.94
y

B) Equivalent  circuit parameters

sinh()
Z'= Z = 1.242284.32 ( 4% lower )

Y ' Y tanh(  2)
= = 0.8346  10−3 89.9
2 2  2
Y ' = 1.6693 10−3 89.9 ( 2% higher )

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 169

Long Transmission Line: Example 3
• No-load voltage at receiving end
Y'Z'
A = 1+ = 0.89690.67 (compare with 0.89510.69)
2
VS 345 3
VR = = = 222.1 − 0.67 kV
A 0.89690.67
VR LL = 384.6 kV (compare with 385.4)

ENG164 Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Systems 170