UNIT 3 DBMS

1.1 Table fundamentals

A table is database object that holds user data. The simplest analogy is to think of a table as
a spread sheet. The cells of the spread sheet equate to the columns of a table having a
specific data type associated with them. If the spread sheet cell has a number data type
associated with it, then storing letters (i.e characters) in the same cell is not allowed. The
same logic is applied to a table’s column of the table will have specific data type bound to it.
Oracle ensures that only data, which is identical to the data type or column, will be stored
within the column.

1.2 Oracle data type

Each value manipulated by Oracle Database has a data type. The data type of a
value associates a fixed set of properties with the value. These properties cause
Oracle to treat values of one data type differently from values of another.

Data type Description

CHAR(size) A FIXED length string (can contain
letters, numbers, and special
characters). The size parameter
specifies the column length in
characters - can be from 0 to 255.
Default is 1
VARCHAR(size)/ VARCHAR2(size) A VARIABLE length string (can
contain letters, numbers, and special
characters). The maximum this data
type can hold up to 4000 characters.
DATE A date data type is used to represent
date and time. Format: YYYY-MM-DD.
The supported range is from January
1,4712BC to December 31, 4712AD
NUMBER(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers.

The p parameter indicates the

maximum total number of digits that
can be stored (both to the left and to
the right of the decimal point). p
must be a value from 1 to 38. Default
is 18.

The s parameter indicates the

maximum number of digits stored to
the right of the decimal point. s must
be a value from 0 to p. Default value
 is 0

LONG Stores variable length character

strings containing upto 2 GB. LONG
data can be used to store arrays of
binary data in ASCII.
RAW/LONG RAW It is used to store binary data, such
as digitized picture or image. It can
contain upto 4GB

1.3 CREATE TABLE command

The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table in a database. For
creating table we have to define the structure of table by adding name to
columns, providing data type and size of data to be stored in columns. Each
column definition is a single clause in the create table syntax. Each table
column is separated from the other by a comma.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
....
);

Example:

CREATE TABLE Persons (

“PersonID” int,
“Name” varchar(25),
“Address” varchar(255),
“City” varchar(255)
);

Rules for creating table

1. A name can have maximum upto 30 characters

2. Alphabets from A-Z, a-z and numbers are allowed
3. A name should begin with an alphabet
4. The use of the special character like _ is allowed and also recommend
5. SQL reserved words are not allowed. Example create, select etc
1.4 Inserting data into table

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.

Syntax:

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two ways:

1. Specify both the column names and the values to be inserted to insert
data into specified columns. :
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3, ...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);
2. 2. If you are adding values for all the columns of the table, you do not
need to specify the column names in the SQL query. However, make
sure the order of the values is in the same order as the columns in the
table because table columns and value have one to one relation.
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

Example:

INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City,

PostalCode, Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Tom B. Erichsen', 'Skagen
21','Stavanger',4006,'Norway');

Here data should match the data type of the column.

1.5 Viewing data in the tables

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

Filtering table data

The ways of filtering table data are :

 Selected columns and all rows

Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name;

Example: SELECT CustomerName, City FROM Customers;

Here, column1, column2, ... are the field names of the table you want to
select data from.
 All rows and all columns

If you want to select all the fields available in the table, use the following
syntax:

SELECT * FROM table_name;

Example: SELEC * FROM Customers;

 Selected rows and all columns

The WHERE clause is used with SELECT statement to return only those rows from the
table, which satisfy the specified condition in the query.

In SQL, the WHERE clause is not only used with SELECT, but it is also used with other SQL
statements such as UPDATE, ALTER, and DELETE statements.

Syntax:
SELECT * FROM Name_of_Table WHERE [condition];
Example:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE id=101;

 Selected rows and selected columns

To view a specific set of rows and columns from a table.
Syntax: SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];
Example:
SELECT Student_Id, Age, Percentage, Grade FROM Employee WHERE id=101;

Eliminating Duplicate Rows using SELECT DISTINCT statement

Inside a table, a column often contains many duplicate values; and
sometimes you only want to list the different (distinct) values.
The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to return only distinct (different)
values.
Syntax:
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;
Example :
SELECT DISTINCT Country FROM Customers;
1.6 Sorting data in a table
The ORDER BY statement in SQL is used to sort the fetched data in either
ascending or descending according to one or more columns.
 By default ORDER BY sorts the data in ascending order.
 We can use the keyword DESC to sort the data in descending order and
the keyword ASC to sort in ascending order.

Syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name ASC|DESC
ASC: to sort the data in ascending order.
DESC: to sort the data in descending order.

Example:
SELECT * FROM Student ORDER BY ROLL_NO DESC;

1.7 Creating a table from a table

Syntax:

A copy of an existing table can also be created using CREATE TABLE.

The new table gets the same column definitions. All columns or specific
columns can be selected.

If you create a new table using an existing table, the new table will be filled
with the existing values from the old table.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE new_table_name (column1, column2,...) AS

SELECT column1, column2,...
FROM existing_table_name;

Example:

CREATE TABLE TestTable (name,contact) AS

SELECT customername, contactname
FROM customers;

To create a target table without the records from the source table, the select statement must
have a WHERE clause. The WHERE clause must specify a condition that cannot be
satisfied.

Syntax

CREATE TABLE new_table_name (column1, column2,...) AS

SELECT column1, column2,...
FROM existing_table_name WHERE ..... ;
Example:

CREATE TABLE new_table_name (column1, column2,...) AS

SELECT column1, column2,...
FROM existing_table_name WHERE 1=2;

1.8 Inserting data into a table from another table

The INSERT INTO SELECT statement copies data from one table and inserts it
into another table.

The INSERT INTO SELECT statement requires that the data types in source
and target tables match.

Syntax:

Copy all columns from one table to another table:

INSERT INTO table2 SELECT * FROM table1;

Example: INSERT INTO student SELECT * FROM sharada;

Inserting of a data set into a table from another table

INSERT INTO table2 SELECT column1, column2, column3, ...
FROM table1 WHERE condition;

Example:

INSERT INTO Customers SELECT SupplierName, City, Country FROM Suppliers

WHERE Country='Germany';

1.9 Delete Operation

The DELETE Statement in SQL is used to delete existing records from a
table. We can delete a single record or all the records from the table.

 Removal of all the rows

Syntax: DELETE FROM table_name;

Example: DELETE FROM customer;

 Removal of specific rows

Syntax: DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Example: DELETE FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName='Deepu';

SQL Query to DELETE Certain Rows Based on data held by Other Tables
Since it is not possible to list more than one table in the FROM clause while performing a
delete, the EXISTS clause can be used .

Example: Remove the address detail of the customer names Ivan

DELETE FROM ADDR_DTLS WHERE EXISTS(SELECT FNAME FROM CUST_MSTR WHERE

CUST_MSTR.CUST_NO=ADDR_DTLS.CODE_NO AND CUST_MSTR.FNAME=’Ivan’);

1.10 Update the content of a table

The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table.

 Updating all the rows of a table

Syntax: UPDATE table_nameSET column1 = value1, column2 = value2;
Example: UPDATE Customers SET ContactName = 'SHARADA',
City= 'DEVINAGARA'
 Updating selected rows of a table
Syntax: UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2,
... WHERE condition;
Example: UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName = 'Sharada', City= 'Talapady'
WHERE CustomerID = 1;

1.11 Modifying the structure of table

ALTER can be used to update the table’s structure in the database

Adding new columns

SYNTAX :
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD (column_name datatype(size));
Example –
ALTER TABLE Student ADD (marks_obtained Number (3));
Alter table - drop column(To delete a column)
Syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;
Example: ALTER TABLE Customers DROP COLUMN Email;

Modifying the existing column

To change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name Modify (column_name new_datatype(new_size));

ALTER TABLE Student Modify (name varchar(20));

Restriction on the ALTER TABLE

 We cannot change the name of the table

 We cannot change the name of the column
 We cannot decrease the size of the column if data exists

1.12 Renaming tables

The RENAME statement is used to change the table name.

Syntax: RENAME old_table _name To new_table_name ;

Example : RENAME College To Sharada ;

1.13 Destroying Tables

The DROP TABLE statement is used to drop an existing table in a database

DROP TABLE table_name;

DROP TABLE Sharada;

1.14 Displaying table structure

To display information about the column defined in a table use the following syntax:

DESCRIBE table_name;

Example: DESCRIBE Sharada;

CHPATER 2 : DATA CONSTRAINTS

SQL constraints are used to specify rules for data in a table. Constraints can be
specified when the table is created with the CREATE TABLE statement, or after
the table is created with the ALTER TABLE statement.

Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This
ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data in the table. If there is any
violation between the constraint and the data action, the action is aborted.
Constraints can be column level or table level. Column level constraints apply
to a column, and table level constraints apply to the whole table.
2.1 Types of Data Constraints
There are two types, one is I/O constraints. It determines the speed at which
data can be inserted or extracted from a table. The other type of constraints
is called a business rule constraints.

2.1.1 I/O constraints

 SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a table. A table
can have only ONE primary key; and in the table, this primary key can
consist of single or multiple columns (fields).
Features of Primary Key
1. No duplicate values are allowed, i.e. Column assigned as primary key
should have UNIQUE values only.
2. NO NULL values are present in column with Primary key. Hence there is
Mandatory value in column having Primary key.
3. Only one primary key per table exist although Primary key may have
multiple columns.
4. Defined in Create table / Alter table statement.
5. It is not compulsory, nut is recommended.
6. It cannot be LONG or LONG RAW datatype
7. It helps in relating tables with another
8. One table can combine upto 16 columns in composite primary key

SQL PRIMARY KEY at Column Level :

If Primary key contains just one column, it should be defined at column
level.
Syntax: column_name datatype(size) PRIMARY KEY
Example : CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int PRIMARY KEY,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int
);

SQL PRIMARY KEY at Table Level :

Whenever the primary key contains multiple columns it has to be specified at
Table level.
Syntax: PRIMARY KEY(column_name,column_name)
Example:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
 Age int,
PRIMARY KEY (ID, LastName)
);

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint

 SQL FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to link two tables together and it
is also termed as a referencing key. 
 SQL FOREIGN KEY constraint is a field or collections of fields in one
table that refers to the PRIMARY KEY constraint in another table.
 The table that contains PRIMARY KEY is termed as Master table or
referenced table, and a table containing the FOREIGN KEY is termed as
the Detail table. 
 FOREIGN KEY constraint prevents invalid data being inserted into
the FOREIGN KEY column because it has to be one of the values
contained in the table it points to.

Features of FOREIGN KEY

 The parent used as a reference must be unique or primary key.

 Child may have duplicates as well as nulls.
 Parent records can be erased in the event that there is no child.
 Master table can’t be updated in the event that a child exists.
 It is necessary to reference the primary key in the primary table.
 A foreign key column, as well as a constraint column must have the same data
types.
 Records are not able to be added to a the child table if records in the master
table doesn’t exist.
 The master table’s records can’t be deleted even if corresponding records in the
child table exits.

FOREIGN KEY at column level

Syntax: column_name datatype(size) REFERENCES table_name [(column_name)]
Example: Create table people (no int references person(id),
Fname varchar2(20));
Here Person table should have primary key with type int. If there is single
columnar Primary key in table, column name in syntax can be omitted.
SQL Foreign key at table level :
Syntax: FOREING KEY(column_name) REFERENCES table_name
(column_name)]
Example:
create table people(no varchar2(10),
fname varchar2(20),
foreign key(no) references person(id));

FOREIGN KEY Constraints defined with ON DELETE CASCADE

We can’t delete parent table if its corresponding row exists in child table. Foreign keys
with cascade delete means that if a parent table entry is deleted, the corresponding
entries in the child table will be automatically deleted. This is called cascade deletion in
Oracle.
For example:

CREATE TABLE supplier

( supplier_id numeric(10) >not null,
supplier_name varchar2(50) not null,
contact_name varchar2(50),
PRIMARY KEY (supplier_id)
);

CREATE TABLE products

( product_id numeric(10) not null,
supplier_id numeric(10) not null,
FOREIGN KEY (supplier_id)
REFERENCES supplier(supplier_id)
ON DELETE CASCADE
);

Now we can delete supplier table .

If you don’t specify this option, then you’ll get an error when you attempt to delete rows
in the parent table(i.e supplier) , saying that “child rows exist”.

FOREIGN KEY Constraints defined with ON DELETE SET NULL

A foreign key with " on delete set null " means that if a record in the parent table is deleted,
then the corresponding records in the child table will have the foreign key fields set to NULL.
The records in the child table will not be deleted in SQL Server.

CREATE TABLE products

( product_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
 product_name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
category VARCHAR(25)
);

CREATE TABLE inventory

( inventory_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
product_id INT,
quantity INT,
FOREIGN KEY (product_id)
REFERENCES products (product_id)
ON DELETE SET NULL
);

Assigning user defined names to constraints


In all databases whenever we are creating constraints database servers internally automatically
creates unique identification number, for identifying constraint uniquely.
 Oracle also generates an unique identification number in the format of SYS_Cn for identifying
constraint uniquely. This is called predefined constraint name.
 In place of this we can also create our own name by using constraint key word.This is called user
defined constraint name.

Syntax : constraint constraint_name constrainttype

Example: create table usertest(sno number (10) constraint pk primary key);

SQL UNIQUE Constraint

 A unique key is a set of one or more than one fields/columns of a table that
uniquely identify a record in a database table.
 You can say that it is little like primary key but it can accept only one null
value and it cannot have duplicate values.
 The unique key and primary key both provide a guarantee for uniqueness for
a column or a set of columns.
 There is an automatically defined unique key constraint within a primary key
constraint.
 Unique key cannot be LONG or LONG RAW data type
 Unique key can combine upto 16 columns in a composite unique key
Unique key at column level

Syntax : <column_name><datatype>(size) UNIQUE

Example:
CREATE TABLE students
(
S_Id int UNIQUE,
LastName varchar (255) ,
FirstName varchar (255),
City varchar (255)
)

Unique key at table level

Syntax: UNIQUE (column_name1,column_name2…)

Example:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
UNIQUE (ID)
);

2.2 Business Rule Constraints

A constraint business rule is used to manage multiple constraints on tables and columns in a
database for the DBMS that support this feature.
During generation, the variable RULES is evaluated in order to generate a single constraint
in the SQL script. This constraint is a concatenation of all check parameters defined in the
Check tab of a table property sheet, and all validation business rules applied to the current
table.
Business rule validation checks are performed when any table write operation is carried out.
Any insert or update statement causes the relevant Check constraints to be evaluated. The
rules must be satisfied while inserting data into table

Column level constraints

If data constraints are defined as an attribute of a column definition when creating or altering a table
structure, they are column level constraints.
Table level constraints
If data constraints are defined after defining all the tables column attributes when creating or
altering a table structure, it is a table level constraints
NULL Value concept

field with a NULL value is a field with no value.

If a field in a table is optional, it is possible to insert a new record or update

a record without adding a value to this field. Then, the field will be saved
with a NULL value.

Principles of NULL values:

 Setting a NULL value is appropriate when the actual value is unknown, or

when a value would not be meaningful.
 A NULL value is not equivalent to a value of ZERO if the data type is a
number and is not equivalent to spaces if the data type is character.
 A NULL value can be inserted into columns of any data type.
 A NULL value will evaluate NULL in any expression.
 Suppose if any column has a NULL value, then UNIQUE, FOREIGN key,
CHECK constraints will ignore by SQL.

Difference between an empty string and a null value

Now an empty string is treated as a null value in Oracle. Let's demonstrate.

We've created a table called suppliers with the following table definition:

create table suppliers

( supplier_id number,
supplier_name varchar2(100)
);

Next, we'll insert two records into this table.

insert into suppliers (supplier_id, supplier_name )

values ( 10565, null );

insert into suppliers (supplier_id, supplier_name )

values ( 10567, '' );

The first statement inserts a record with a supplier_name that is null, while the second
statement inserts a record with an empty string as a supplier_name.
Now, let's retrieve all rows with a supplier_name that is an empty string value as follows:

select * from suppliers

where supplier_name = '';

When you run this statement, you'd expect to retrieve the row that you inserted above. But
instead, this statement will not retrieve any records at all.
Now, try retrieving all records where the supplier_name contains a null value:

select * from suppliers

where supplier_name is null;

When you run this statement, you will retrieve both rows. This is because Oracle has now
changed its rules so that empty strings behave as null values.
With respect to using null values in SQL statements in Oracle, it is also important to note that
the null value is unique in that you can not use the usual operands (=, <, >, etc) on a null
value. Instead, you must use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL conditions.

SQL NOT NULL Constraint

By default, a column can hold NULL values. The NOT NULL constraint enforces a
column to NOT accept NULL values. This enforces a field to always contain a
value, which means that you cannot insert a new record, or update a record
without adding a value to this field.

SQL NOT NULL on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL ensures that the "ID", "LastName", and "FirstName"
columns will NOT accept NULL values when the "Persons" table is created:

Example

CREATE TABLE Persons (

ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
Age int
);
Check constraint

The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a
column.

If you define a CHECK constraint on a column it will allow only certain values
for this column.

If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain
columns based on values in other columns in the row.

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE TableName(ColumnName1 Datatype(size), ColumnName2 Datatype(size
), ColumnName3 Datatype(size) Constraint ConstraintName CHECK(ColumnName CON
DITION Value),…, ColumnNameN Datatype(size));
Example :

The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the "Age" column when the
"Persons" table is created. The CHECK constraint ensures that the age of a
person must be 18, or older:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
CHECK (Age>=18)
);

To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on

multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT CHK_Person CHECK (Age>=18 AND City='Sandnes')
);

CREATE TABLE pets(

ID INT NOT NULL,
 Name VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
Age INT,
GENDER VARCHAR(9),
PRIMARY KEY(ID),
check(GENDER in ('Male', 'Female'))
);

Here gender column accepts only ‘male’ and ‘female’ input. If you tries to enter other than these

input , then it will give error.

SQL DEFAULT Constraint

The DEFAULT constraint is used to set a default value for a column.

The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is
specified.

The following SQL sets a DEFAULT value for the "India" column when the
"Persons" table is created:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'India'
);

Chapter 3: Computation done on table data

Arithmetic Operators

In Structured Query Language, the arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical
operations on the numerical values stored in the database tables.

We can use these operators with the SELECT statement in SQL. We can also use the
WHERE clause in the SELECT statement for performing operations on particular rows.
These types of operators are used between two numerical operands for performing
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division operations.

The arithmetic operators in SQL are categorized into the following five types:

1. SQL Addition Operator (+)

2. SQL Subtraction Operator (-)
3. SQL Multiplication Operator (*)
4. SQL Division Operator (/)
5. SQL Modulus Operator (%)

Syntax:
SELECT <Expression>[arithmetic operator]<expression>...
FROM [table_name]
WHERE [expression];

1. Addition Operator (+)

The operator ‘+’ is used to perform addition operation on two operands.
Example SELECT Emp_Salary + Emp_Bonus AS Emp_Total_Salary FROM Employee;

Output:

SQL Subtraction Operator (-)

The SQL Subtraction Operator performs the subtraction on the numerical columns in
the table.
If we want to subtract the values of one numerical column from the values of another
numerical column, then we have to specify both columns as the first and second
operand. We can also subtract the integer value from the values of the integer
column.

Example:
SELECT Emp_Salary - Emp_Panelty AS Emp_Total_Salary FROM Employee;

SQL Multiplication Operator (*)

The SQL Multiplication Operator performs the multiplication on the numerical
columns in the table.

If you want to multiply the values of two numerical columns, then you have to specify
both columns as the first and second operand. You can also multiply the integer
value with the values of an integer column.

1. SELECT Car_Amount * Car_Price AS Car_Total_Price FROM Cars;

SQL Division Operator (/)

The SQL Division operator divides the numerical values of one column by the
numerical values of another column.

SELECT Car_Price / Car_Amount AS One_Car_Price FROM Cars;

SQL Modulus Operator (%)

The SQL Modulus Operator provides the remainder when the numerical values of
one column are divided by the numerical values of another column.

Example: SELECT Student_English % Student_Maths AS Remainder FROM Student;

SQL LOGICAL OPERATORS

The Logical Operator is nothing but which returns the result in one form, i.e., either it
will display the query is true, or the query is false. The results displayed to combine
or merge more than one true or false data.

The Logical Operators in SQL are as follows:

 1. SQL AND OPERATOR
2. SQL OR OPERATOR
3. SQL NOT OPERATOR
4. SQL BETWEEN OPERATOR
5. SQL IN OPERATOR
6. SQL LIKE OPERATOR

1. SQL AND Operator

The SQL AND operator is used with the where clause in the SQL Query. AND
operator in SQL returns only those records which satisfy both the conditions in the
SQL query.

Example: Write a query to retrieve only those records of employees from the
employees table where the designation is 'Project Manager' and the City to which the
employee belongs to is Mumbai.

Query: SELECT * FROM employees WHERE City = "Mumbai" AND Designation = "P
roject Manager";

2. SQL OR Operator

The SQL OR operator is used with the where clause in an SQL Query. AND operator
in SQL returns only those records that satisfy any of the conditions in the SQL query.

Example:

Write a query to retrieve only those records of employees from the employees table
where the employee's designation is 'System Engineer' or the city to which the
employee belongs is Mumbai.

Query: SELECT * FROM employees WHERE Designation = "System Engineer" OR Cit

y = "Mumbai";

3. SQL NOT Operator

NOT operator in SQL shows those records from the table where the criteria is not
met. NOT operator is used with where clause in a SELECT query.

Let's understand the below example, which explains how to execute NOT operator in
SQL query.
Example:

Write a query to retrieve only those records of employees from the employees table
where the employee's designation is not Project Manager.

Query: SELECT * FROM employees WHERE NOT Designation = "Project Manager";

Range searching

1. SQL BETWEEN Operator

This operator displays the records which fall between the given ranges in the SQL
query. The results of the BETWEEN operator include begin and end values of the
given range.

Example:

Write a query to retrieve only those records of an employee from the employees
table where employee salary lies between 50000 to 90000.

Query: SELECT * FROM employees WHERE Salary BETWEEN 50000 AND 90000;

Pattern matching

1. SQL LIKE Operator

LIKE Operator in SQL displays only those data from the table which matches the
pattern specified in the query. Percentage (%) and underscore (_) are the two
wildcard operators used with LIKE Operator to perform pattern matching tasks.

 Let's understand the below example, which explains how to execute the LIKE
operator in an SQL query.

Example: Write a query to retrieve only those records of employees from the
employees table whose name starts with the letter S.

Query: SELECT * FROM employees WHERE Salary LIKE "S%";

 The underscore character ( _ ) represents a single character to match a

pattern from a word or string. More than one ( _ ) underscore characters
can be used to match a pattern of multiple characters.

Query: SELECT * FROM employees WHERE id LIKE "S_";

Here output display id such as S1, S2, SQ, Sr…. etc

2. SQL IN Operator

When we want to check for one or more than one value in a single SQL query, we
use IN operator with the WHERE clause in a SELECT query.

Let's understand the below example, which explains how to execute IN operator in an
SQL query.

Example:

Write a query to retrieve only those records of employees from the employees table
where the city to which the employee belongs to is either Mumbai, Bangalore, or
Pune.

Query:

SELECT * FROM employees WHERE City IN ("Mumbai", "Bangalore", "Pune");

Oracle Table Dual

Oracle DUAL table which is a special table used for evaluating expressions or calling
functions.

In Oracle, the SELECT statement must have a table name in FROM clause. Otherwise
the SELECT fails.

When an arithmetic exercise is to be performed such as 2*2 or 4/2 and so on, there is
no table being referenced, only numeric literals are being used.

To facilitate such calculation via a SELECT , Oracle provides a dummy table called
DUAL.

Structure of DUAL table is

SQL> desc dual;

Name Null? Type

DUMMY VARCHAR2(1)

Content of DUAL

SQL> select * from dual ;

D

Example : SELECT 2*2 FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT

2*2
----------
4
Example:

SQL> select sysdate from dual;

SYSDATE

22-NOV-22

Oracle Functions:
 Aggregate function

AVG function

The AVG function is used to calculate the average value of the numeric type. AVG
function returns the average of all non-Null values.

Syntax

AVG( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

1. SELECT AVG(COST)”Average” FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

MIN Function
MIN function is used to find the minimum value of a certain column. This function
determines the smallest value of all selected values of a column.

Syntax

MIN( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

1. SELECT MIN(RATE) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

MAX Function
MAX function is used to find the maximum value of a certain column. This function
determines the largest value of all selected values of a column.

MAX( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

1. SELECT MAX(RATE) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

COUNT FUNCTION
o COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a database table. It can work
on both numeric and non-numeric data types.
 o COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns the count of all the rows in a
specified table. COUNT(*) considers duplicate and Null.

Syntax: COUNT(*)
or
COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

1. SELECT COUNT(*) “Total Number of Rows” FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

2. SELECT COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST WHERE RATE>=20;
3. SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT COMPANY) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

SUM Function

Sum function is used to calculate the sum of all selected columns. It works on
numeric fields only.

Syntax

SUM()
or
SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example: SUM()

1. SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Grouping the data from the table

GROUPBY clause

The SQL GROUP BY clause can be used in a SELECT statement to collect data
across multiple records and group the results by one or more columns.

Syntax
The syntax for the GROUP BY clause in SQL is:

SELECT columnName1, columnName2, ... colummnName_n,

 aggregate_function (aggregate_expression)
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions]
GROUP BY columnName1, columnName2, ... colummnName_n;

Example - Using GROUP BY with the SUM Function

Let's look at how to use the GROUP BY clause with the SUM function in SQL.
In this example, we have a table called employees with the following data:

employee_number last_name first_name salary dept_id

1001 Smith John 62000 500

1002 Anderson Jane 57500 500

1003 Everest Brad 71000 501

1004 Horvath Jack 42000 501

Enter the following SQL statement:

SELECT dept_id, SUM(salary) AS total_salaries

FROM employees
GROUP BY dept_id;

There will be 2 records selected. These are the results that you should see:

dept_id total_salaries

500 119500

501 113000
In this example, we've used the SUM function to add up all of the salaries for
each dept_id and we've aliased the results of the SUM function as total_salaries.
Because the dept_id is not encapsulated in the SUM function, it must be listed in the
GROUP BY clause.
SQL: HAVING Clause
The SQL HAVING clause is used in combination with the GROUP BY clause to
restrict the groups of returned rows to only those whose the condition is TRUE.

Syntax
The syntax for the HAVING clause in SQL is:

SELECT columnName1, columnName2, ... colummnName_n,

aggregate_function (aggregate_expression)
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions]
GROUP BY columnName1, columnName2, ... colummnName_n,
HAVING condition;

Example - Using SUM function

Let's look at a SQL HAVING clause example that uses the SQL SUM function.
You could also use the SQL SUM function to return the name of the department and
the total sales (in the associated department). The SQL HAVING clause will filter the
results so that only departments with sales greater than $1000 will be returned.

SELECT department, SUM(sales) AS "Total sales"

FROM order_details
GROUP BY department
HAVING SUM(sales) > 1000;

Example - Using COUNT function

Let's look at how we could use the HAVING clause with the SQL COUNT function.
You could use the SQL COUNT function to return the name of the department and
the number of employees (in the associated department) that make over $25,000 /
year. The SQL HAVING clause will filter the results so that only departments with
more than 10 employees will be returned.

SELECT department, COUNT(*) AS "Number of employees"

FROM employees
WHERE salary > 25000
GROUP BY department
HAVING COUNT(*) > 10;

SUBQUERIES
A subquery is a form of an SQL statement that appears inside another SQL statement. It also
termed as nested query. The statement containing a subquery is called a parent statement. The
parent statement uses the rows(i.e the result set) returned by subquery.
SQL: JOINS
SQL JOINS are used to retrieve data from multiple tables. A SQL JOIN is performed
whenever two or more tables are listed in a SQL statement.
There are 4 different types of SQL joins:

 SQL INNER JOIN (sometimes called simple join)

 SQL LEFT OUTER JOIN (sometimes called LEFT JOIN)
 SQL RIGHT OUTER JOIN (sometimes called RIGHT JOIN)
 SQL FULL OUTER JOIN (sometimes called FULL JOIN)
 CROSS JOIN

SQL INNER JOIN (simple join)

Chances are, you've already written a SQL statement that uses an SQL INNER
JOIN. It is the most common type of SQL join. SQL INNER JOINS return all rows
from multiple tables where the join condition is met.

Syntax

The syntax for the INNER JOIN in SQL is:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;
 Visual Illustration

In this visual diagram, the SQL INNER JOIN returns the shaded area:

The SQL INNER JOIN would return the records where table1 and table2 intersect.

Example

Let's look at an example of how to use the INNER JOIN in a query.

In this example, we have a table called customers with the following data:

customer_id last_name first_name favorite_website

4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com

5000 Smith Jane digminecraft.com

6000 Ferguson Samantha bigactivities.com

7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com

8000 Anderson Paige NULL

9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com

And a table called orders with the following data:

order_id customer_id order_date

1 7000 2016/04/18

2 5000 2016/04/18
order_id customer_id order_date

3 8000 2016/04/19

4 4000 2016/04/20

5 NULL 2016/05/01

Enter the following SQL statement:

SELECT customers.customer_id, orders.order_id, orders.order_date

FROM customers
INNER JOIN orders
ON customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id
ORDER BY customers.customer_id;

There will be 4 records selected. These are the results that you should see:

customer_id order_id order_date

4000 4 2016/04/20

5000 2 2016/04/18

7000 1 2016/04/18

8000 3 2016/04/19

 This example would return all rows from the customers and orders tables
where there is a matching customer_id value in both
the customers and orders tables.
 The rows where customer_id is equal to 6000 and 9000 in
the customers table would be omitted, since they do not exist in both tables.
The row where the order_id is 5 from the orders table would be omitted, since
the customer_id of NULL does not exist in the customers table.
 Old Syntax

As a final note, it is worth mentioning that the INNER JOIN example above could
be rewritten using the older implicit syntax as follows (but we still recommend
using the INNER JOIN keyword syntax):

SELECT customers.customer_id, orders.order_id, orders.order_date

FROM customers, orders
WHERE customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id
ORDER BY customers.customer_id;

Outer joins
SQL LEFT OUTER JOIN
Another type of join is called a LEFT OUTER JOIN. This type of join returns all rows
from the LEFT-hand table specified in the ON condition and only those rows from
the other table where the joined fields are equal (join condition is met).

Syntax

The syntax for the LEFT OUTER JOIN in SQL is:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
LEFT [OUTER] JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

In some databases, the OUTER keyword is omitted and written simply as LEFT
JOIN.

Visual Illustration

In this visual diagram, the SQL LEFT OUTER JOIN returns the shaded area:
The SQL LEFT OUTER JOIN would return the all records from table1 and only those
records from table2 that intersect with table1.

Example

Now let's look at an example that shows how to use the LEFT OUTER JOIN in a
SELECT statement.
Using the same customers table as the previous example:

customer_id last_name first_name favorite_website

4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com

5000 Smith Jane digminecraft.com

6000 Ferguson Samantha bigactivities.com

7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com

8000 Anderson Paige NULL

9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com

And the orders table with the following data:

order_id customer_id order_date

1 7000 2016/04/18

2 5000 2016/04/18
 order_id customer_id order_date

3 8000 2016/04/19

4 4000 2016/04/20

5 NULL 2016/05/01

Enter the following SQL statement:

SELECT customers.customer_id, orders.order_id, orders.order_date

FROM customers
LEFT JOIN orders
ON customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id
ORDER BY customers.customer_id;

There will be 6 records selected. These are the results that you should see:

customer_id order_id order_date

4000 4 2016/04/20

5000 2 2016/04/18

6000 NULL NULL

7000 1 2016/04/18

8000 3 2016/04/19

9000 NULL NULL

This LEFT OUTER JOIN example would return all rows from the customers table
and only those rows from the orders table where the joined fields are equal.
If a customer_id value in the customers table does not exist in the orders table, all
fields in the orders table will display as NULL in the result set. As you can see, the
rows where customer_id is 6000 and 9000 would be included with a LEFT OUTER
JOIN but the order_id and order_date fields display NULL.

SQL RIGHT OUTER JOIN

Another type of join is called a SQL RIGHT OUTER JOIN. This type of join returns all
rows from the RIGHT-hand table specified in the ON condition and only those rows
from the other table where the joined fields are equal (join condition is met).

Syntax

The syntax for the RIGHT OUTER JOIN in SQL is:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
RIGHT [OUTER] JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

In some databases, the OUTER keyword is omitted and written simply as RIGHT
JOIN.

Visual Illustration

In this visual diagram, the SQL RIGHT OUTER JOIN returns the shaded area:

The SQL RIGHT OUTER JOIN would return the all records from table2 and only
those records from table1 that intersect with table2.

Example

Now let's look at an example that shows how to use the RIGHT OUTER JOIN in a
SELECT statement.
Using the same customers table as the previous example:
customer_id last_name first_name favorite_website

4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com

5000 Smith Jane digminecraft.com

6000 Ferguson Samantha bigactivities.com

7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com

8000 Anderson Paige NULL

9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com

And the orders table with the following data:

order_id customer_id order_date

1 7000 2016/04/18

2 5000 2016/04/18

3 8000 2016/04/19

4 4000 2016/04/20

5 NULL 2016/05/01

Enter the following SQL statement:

SELECT customers.customer_id, orders.order_id, orders.order_date

FROM customers
RIGHT JOIN orders
ON customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id
ORDER BY customers.customer_id;

There will be 5 records selected. These are the results that you should see:
customer_id order_id order_date

NULL 5 2016/05/01

4000 4 2016/04/20

5000 2 2016/04/18

7000 1 2016/04/18

8000 3 2016/04/19

This RIGHT OUTER JOIN example would return all rows from the orders table and
only those rows from the customers table where the joined fields are equal.
If a customer_id value in the orders table does not exist in the customers table, all
fields in the customers table will display as NULL in the result set. As you can see,
the row where order_id is 5 would be included with a RIGHT OUTER JOIN but
the customer_id field displays NULL.

SQL FULL OUTER JOIN

Another type of join is called a SQL FULL OUTER JOIN. This type of join returns
all rows from the LEFT-hand table and RIGHT-hand table with NULL values in
place where the join condition is not met.

Syntax

The syntax for the SQL FULL OUTER JOIN is:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
FULL [OUTER] JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

In some databases, the OUTER keyword is omitted and written simply as FULL
JOIN.

Visual Illustration

In this visual diagram, the SQL FULL OUTER JOIN returns the shaded area:
The SQL FULL OUTER JOIN would return the all records from
both table1 and table2.

Example

Let's look at an example that shows how to use the FULL OUTER JOIN in a
SELECT statement.
Using the same customers table as the previous example:

customer_id last_name first_name favorite_website

4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com

5000 Smith Jane digminecraft.com

6000 Ferguson Samantha bigactivities.com

7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com

8000 Anderson Paige NULL

9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com

 And the orders table with the following data:

order_id customer_id order_date

1 7000 2016/04/18

2 5000 2016/04/18

3 8000 2016/04/19
order_id customer_id order_date

4 4000 2016/04/20

5 NULL 2016/05/01

Enter the following SQL statement:

SELECT customers.customer_id, orders.order_id, orders.order_date

FROM customers
FULL OUTER JOIN orders
ON customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id
ORDER BY customers.customer_id;

There will be 7 records selected. These are the results that you should see:

customer_id order_id order_date

NULL 5 2016/05/01

4000 4 2016/04/20

5000 2 2016/04/18

6000 NULL NULL

7000 1 2016/04/18

8000 3 2016/04/19

9000 NULL NULL

 This FULL OUTER JOIN example would return all rows from the orders table
and all rows from the customers table. Whenever the joined condition is not
met, a NULL value would be extended to those fields in the result set. This
means that if a customer_id value in the customers table does not exist in
the orders table, all fields in the orders table will display as NULL in the result
set. Also, if a customer_id value in the orders table does not exist in
the customers table, all fields in the customers table will display as NULL in
the result set.
  As you can see, the rows where the customer_id is 6000 and 9000 would be
included but the order_id and order_date fields for those records contains a
NULL value. The row where the order_id is 5 would be also included but
the customer_id field for that record has a NULL value.

SQL CROSS JOIN

The SQL CROSS JOIN produces a result set which is the number of rows in
the first table multiplied by the number of rows in the second table if no
WHERE clause is used along with CROSS JOIN.This kind of result is called
as Cartesian Product.

Syntax:

SELECT *
FROM table1
CROSS JOIN table2;

Example
SELECT foods.item_name,foods.item_unit,
company.company_name,company.company_city
FROM foods CROSS JOIN company;

SQL - UNIONS CLAUSE

The SQL UNION clause/operator is used to combine the results of two or more
SELECT statements without returning any duplicate rows.
To use this UNION clause, each SELECT statement must have

 The same number of columns selected

 The same number of column expressions
 The same data type and
 Have them in the same order

Syntax
The basic syntax of a UNION clause is as follows −
SELECT column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

UNION

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]
Example :
mysql> select subject from master union select subject from detail;

Output:

INTERSECT Clause
The SQL INTERSECT clause/operator is used to combine two SELECT statements, but
returns rows only from the first SELECT statement that are identical to a row in the second
SELECT statement. This means INTERSECT returns only common rows returned by the two
SELECT statements.

syntax
SELECT column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

INTERSECT

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

Example: select subject from master intersect select subject from detail;

MINUS Clause
The SQL MINUS operator is used to return all rows in the first SELECT statement
that are not returned by the second SELECT statement. Each SELECT statement
will define a dataset. The MINUS operator will retrieve all records from the first
dataset and then remove from the results all records from the second dataset.

Minus Query

Syntax:
SELECT column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

MINUS

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

Example:

select subject from master minus select subject from detail;

Output