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Surface Hardening

Surface Treatments
Optimization of surface properties. It includes:
• Fatigue Strength
• Wear Resistance
• Corrosion Resistance
Surface hardening creates compressive stress on the steel surface and tensile stresses in the core caused by
the Martensitic transformation, and thus increases the endurance limit of a component
Surface Hardening Processes
• Gas carburizing, Carbonitriding, Nitriding, and Induction surface
heating.
• Localized surface- hardening techniques - Flame and Laser hardening
• Plasma carburizing and nitriding surface treatments
• Plasma spray coatings - For the oxidation protection of nickel-base super
alloys for gas turbines
• Ion implantation and Physical Vapor Deposition techniques - For the
surface modification of metals for improved hardness and wear

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Carburizing of Steels
o Carbon is introduced into the surface of a low-carbon (0.1 to 0.2% wt%) steel, and is
increased to about 0.8 to 1.0 wt% C. The parts are heated to above the upper
transformation temperature (850 to 950°C range), where the steel is FCC-austenitic.
In the FCC-austenitic condition due to appreciable interstitial solid solubility the
carbon goes in solution with the austenite.
o After carburizing, the work piece is quenched to produce a
martensitic structure in the case
o Thus, produces a steel with a hardened surface (case) and a core with
low strength, high ductility, and toughness typical of a low-carbon
steel
o Carburizing is widely used in industry for gears, bearings, and shafts where surface resistance to wear and contact and
bending fatigue is required. Carburizing is also used for heavy-duty gears where good fracture toughness is needed in
addition to wear and fatigue resistance
o The selection of steels for carburizing depends on – carbon and alloy content, grain growth characteristics,
machinability, and cost
• The most common alloying elements for carburizing steels are nickel (0.5-3.5%), chromium (0.4-1.4%), and
molybdenum (0.1-0.3%). These alloys increase hardenability, provide less distortion and improved fatigue
resistance.
• Steels containing (0.1-0.3%) sulfur are often used for improved machinability
• Carburized steels are normally aluminum-killed (deoxidized) to prevent austenitic grain coarsening during the long
high-temperature carburizing treatments

Carburizing Grades of Steels

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Carburizing of Steels

Gas Carburizing Process

o The gases used are – hydrocarbons, methane, ethane, and propane. They are diluted with an endothermic
carrier gas which consists mainly of nitrogen (N2) and carbon monoxide (CO) along with smaller amounts of
carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen (H2), and water (H2O). Of these gases, N2 is inert and acts only as a diluent.
The carrier gas serves to control the amount of carbon supplied to the steel surface and prevents the
formation of soot residue.
o The reactions involved in carburizing are:

o These reactions decrease the concentrations of CO2 and H2O and increase the amounts of CO and H2. Then
the CO breaks down to deposit and allow the carbon to diffuse into the steel surface by the following overall
reversible reactions:

o The carbon-potential control is attained by maintaining a steady flow of the carrier gas and varying the
flow of the hydrocarbon enrichment gas.

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Gas Carburizing Process

Carbon Concentration Gradients in Carburizing Steels
o Carbon is transferred by the slow diffusion process from the
carburizing atmosphere surrounding the steel work piece and it sets
up the carbon concentration gradient below the surface. It is mainly
affected by
• Temperature, time of carburizing, type of carburizing cycle,
carbon concentration at the surface of the sample, and original
composition of the steel.
o The diffusion of a gaseous species (element) into the flat surface of a
solid bulk is worked out by equations:

And

CS, CO, Cx are Surface, initial and at x distance carbon concentration resp.
Carbon gradient in test bar of AISI
1022 steel; carburized at 9200C in
20% CO – 40% H2 gas with 1.6%
Methane (CH4) added.

Gas Carburizing Process

Quenching of Carburizing Parts
o Provides hard case with a martensitic structure
o Quenching is done directly from the carburizing temperature of
845°C - 925°C.
Tempering of Carburizing Parts Alloy 4620 steel, gas carburized 4
Hrs at 9550C and oil quenched.
o If application of the parts are not critical Structure is martensite and 25%
retained austenite.
with respect to cracking and chipping, they
are directly used in service without
tempering
o Many hardened carburized parts are given a
low-temperature temper treatment, usually
in the 150 to 190°C

Effect of Tempering on hardness for carburized cases of (a) 1018 steel

& (b) 8620 steel; carburized at 9250C, 4.5 Hrs, Oil quenched.

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Carbo-nitriding Process
o Carbonitriding is a modified form of carburizing. The ammonia (NH3)
is added to the carburizing gas so that nitrogen diffuses in the steel
case along with carbon.
o Carbonitriding is carried out at a lower temperature and for a
shorter time than gas carburizing, and so a thinner (shallow) case –
0.075 to 0.75 mm thick is usually produced which is hard, wear-
resistant.
o Nitrogen increases the hardenability of steel, and so a carbonitrided
Alloy 8617 steel bar;
case has higher hardenability than a carburized case on the same carbonitrided 4 Hrs at 8450C in
steel. 8% ammonia, 8% Propane and
o Also, since nitrogen is an austenite stabilizer, high nitrogen levels reminder endothermic gas;
quench hardened; held at -750C
can result in retained austenite, particularly in alloy steels. and tempered for 1Hrs at
o Maximum hardness and less distortion can be attained by 1500C. The structure is
scattered carbide in a matrix of
carbonitriding since less drastic oil quenching than for carburizing tempered martensite.
can be used.

NITRIDING
o A case-hardening process whereby nitrogen is introduced into the surface of a solid
ferrous alloy by holding the metal at a temperature between 495 and 565 °C in contact
with a nitrogenous gas, usually ammonia.
o Quenching is not required for the production of a hard case. This reduces distortion
problems.
Principal reasons for nitriding are:
▪ The process does not require a phase transformation from ferrite to austenite, nor
does it require a further change from austenite to martensite. In other words, the
steel remains in the ferrite phase
▪ There are no molecular size changes and, more importantly, no dimensional changes
▪ To obtain high surface hardness
▪ To increase wear resistance and antigalling properties
▪ To improve fatigue life
▪ To improve corrosion resistance (except for stainless steels)
▪ To obtain a surface that is resistant to the softening effect of heat at temperatures up
to the nitriding temperature

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Nitriding
Nitridable Steels
o Alloying elements aluminum, chromium, vanadium, tungsten,
and molybdenum are nitride formers and are stable at nitriding
temperatures.
o Molybdenum, in addition also reduces the risk of
embrittlement at nitriding temperatures.

Structure of the nitrided surface layer

o The compound zone or white layer. Two phases generally are present in the
compound zone: the epsilon (ε) phase - Fe2-3N, and the gamma prime (γ′)
phase - Fe4N.
o The diffusion zone is the area below the compound layer. This region is
made up of stable nitrides. The fatigue and load-bearing strengths are
determined from this region.
o Core of the steel unaffected by Nitriding treatment and below the diffusion
zone

Nitriding
o Gas Nitriding: The source of nitrogen is ammonia (NH3) gas. The gas decomposes to its component parts
– nitrogen and hydrogen during heating. During the cooling period of the heat treatment process, the gas
recompose to its original form. This reversible reaction takes place at the surface of the steel.

o The atomic nitrogen and hydrogen components are unstable and will unite with other atoms to form
molecules. Nitriding atmospheres are in non-equilibrium while at the process temperature and a high
degree of nitrogen activity occurs from the ammonia. The ammonia that does not dissociate is known as
“un-dissociated” ammonia. The un-dissociated ammonia is used to measure the nitriding activity taking
place within the process container. The degree of decomposition can be expressed as

o The decomposition rate of ammonia gas is usually kept between 10% and 35%, depending on the steel
being treated and the gas exchange rate.

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Induction Heating Hardening

o The principle is to rapidly heat the surface of a steel work piece into the austenitic condition and then
quickly quench the piece so that its surface is transformed into a hard martensitic case. Since no change in
composition is involved in the work piece, the steel must be selected for case and core properties.
o Surface induction hardening steels usually contain 0.4 to 0.75% carbon
o The process is accomplished by placing the part in a magnetic field generated by high-frequency
alternating current passing through a water-cooled copper induction coil. The rapidly alternating magnetic
field produced within the coil induces current flow within the steel surface. The induced current “I” within
the steel then produces heat according to the relationship heat = i2R, where R is the electrical resistance of
the steel.

Magnetic fields and Induced currents

produced by various types of induction coils

Induction Heating Hardening Coils

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Induction Heating Hardening

o The depth of current penetration and hence depth of heating the metal surface depends mainly on the
frequency of the alternating current. The higher the frequency, the lower the penetration.
o When shallow heating or a thin case is desired, high-frequency current is used. Intermediate and low
frequencies are used for applications requiring deeper case depths and even through hardening.
Depth of heat penetration, d:
Where, ρ is resistivity of work, μ is permeability of
magnetic flux and f is frequency of power supply, Hz
When using only high-frequency
(HF) induction power (a), the tips o The principal advantages of surface hardening
of the gear teeth are heated first, with induction heating are – increased wear
reacting to the electro-magnetic resistance and improved fatigue strength.
fields as individual work pieces. o Induction heating requires close control of time
When using only medium-
frequency (MF) power (b), and temperature of heating and in general is
heating is possible only at the used when large numbers of symmetrically
tooth roots. Energy cannot be shaped parts are to be surface-hardened.
induced into the tips of the teeth o Examples of applications using induction heating
because the tooth thickness and
small depth of penetration won’t surface hardening are crankshafts, camshafts,
allow the MF current to flow in axle shafts, gears, cams, and valve seats.
this area.

Induction Heating Hardening

Induction Hardening of Crankshaft
o The Stationary Hardening Process for Crankshafts (SHarP-C Technology)
has been considered as a revolutionary induction heat treating system.
▪ Eliminates the need to rotate or move either the inductor or the
crankshaft during heating and quenching cycles while at the same
time eliminating high current contacts when using encircling clamp-
type coils (no flexible cables to wear out as well).
▪ Induction coils are much more robust and rigid, being CNC
machined from solid copper without any brazed parts. This
eliminates inductor distortion and hardness pattern drift.
▪ No wearing of the locators/guides involved
▪ Accurate CNC coil shaping and utilization of “quick change” pallet
approach guarantee that coils are automatically aligned with
respect to the crankshaft after coil replacement. No time
consuming process adjustments are required to “tweak” each coil
after replacement
▪ Crankshaft pins and mains have superior microstructural properties.
Noticeable reduction of grain growth, decarburization and oxidation
of the pin/main surface.

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Flame Hardening
o The principle is to quickly heat work piece surface to the austenitic temperature range by the direct
impingement of a high temperature flame (Oxyacetylene or Oxyhydrogen torch) and then rapidly quench
the work piece to produce a martensitic structure on the surface layer.
o Flame hardening can be applied by a variety of methods
➢ Spot or Stationary
➢ Progressive
➢ Spinning, or a combination of progressive and spinning.

o The quenching action after heating is accomplished by a combination of heat extraction by the cold metal
beneath the case and by an external quenching medium.
o Steels for flame hardening: usually contain 0.4 to 0.75% carbon.
o Since the core structure is not affected by the surface treatment, the core properties must be developed by
proper heat treatment before the surface treatment. In general, a hard surface layer of martensite is
produced and a softer inner core that has a ferrite-pearlite structure.
o Applications
▪ Parts that are too large to use conventional furnace heating impractical such as large gears, dies, and
rolls
▪ Small sections or areas of a part that require surface hardening such as the ends of valve stems and
push rods and the wearing surfaces of cams and levers.

Vacuum Heat Treatment

o The heat-treatment of tool- and hot-working steels in horizontal vacuum
furnaces is today’s state-of-the-art technology with many advantages like:
▪ No decarburization
▪ No oxidation of components – bright surfaces
▪ High temperature uniformity – low distortion
▪ Defined temperature guidance by load thermocouples – reproducible
results
▪ Documentation of load regarding the time- / temperature cycle and
actual values of the load
▪ Full automation of heat treatment process
o It is widely used by tool manufacturers as well as in the automotive, aircraft and medicine industry.
Heating Up
o Heating up in the vacuum chamber furnace is effected by convection and radiation. In the lower
temperature range the fast convective heating is made for a high temperature uniformity in the load. In the
upper temperature ranges the heat transfer is dominated by radiation.
o Heating up with holding steps effects a temperature compensation within each component. So the
temperature differences in the edges and core of the component are reduced and a more uniform heating up
of the entire load is possible. According to the form of the component, build up of the load and the
advantages of a multi-zone heating is used.

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Vacuum Heat Treatment

Holding Time
o One advantage of vacuum heat treatment is the exact control of the actual temperature in the hot zone by
heating thermocouples and load thermocouples within the component. The processes run fully
automatically and the documentation of heat treatment by curves of the programmer make reproducible
results possible.
Cooling Down
The cooling process of the heat treatment must fulfil the following requirements:
▪ hardenability of steel
▪ quenching as fast as necessary and as slowly as possible
▪ uniform cooling of the load
▪ keeping the temperature difference in the component as low as possible.
o The realisation of these requirements leads to the main target: fully martensitic structure, control on
hardness with lowest distortion.
o Quenching pressure, quenching gas, cooling gas circulation speed, etc. are parameters which make it
possible to select the cooling speed in steps and to achieve absolutely reproducible cycles and results.
o Programmable Multidirectional Cooling down system – *2R* and *2x2R* possible with Vacuum HT.
o The change of direction during cooling is effected according to a preselected time. Also the stipulation of
the cooling directional reversal can be controlled by temperature difference control.
o Faster and more economic cooling possible.

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