Module 5

Network Layer
BY:
Maulika Patel

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 Network Layer
• It is responsible for the host-to-host delivery
of datagrams.

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 Duties of Network Layer
1. Packetizing:
• Encapsulating the payload(data received from upper
layer) in a network-layer packet at the source and
decapsulating the payload from the network-layer
packet at the destination.
• The source host adds a header that contains the source
and destination addresses and some other information
that is required by the network-layer protocol.
• If the packet is fragmented at the source or at routers
along the path, the network layer is responsible for
waiting until all fragments arrive, reassembling them,
and delivering them to the upper-la yer protocol.
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 Duties of Network Layer
2. Routing and Forwarding
• The network layer is responsible for finding the best one
among these possible routes.
• Requires Routing Protocols.
• forwarding can be defined as the action applied by each
router when a packet arrives at one of its interfaces.
• The decision-making table a router normally uses for
applying this action is sometimes called the forwarding
table and sometimes the routing table.

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Forwarding process

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 Other Services
• Error Control(By ICMP)
• Flow Control(By sing Upper Layer Protocols)
• Congestion Control
• Quality of Service
• Security

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 IPv4 ADDRESSES
• The identifier used in the IP layer of the
TCP/IP protocol suite to identify the
connection of each device to the Internet is
called the Internet address or IP address.
• An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that
uniquely and universally defines the
connection of a host or a router to the
Internet

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Note

An IPv4 address is 32 bits long.

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Note

The IPv4 addresses are unique

and universal.

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Note

The address space of IPv4 is

232 or 4,294,967,296.

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Three different notations in IPv4 addressing

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 Example 1

Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary

notation to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent
decimal number and add dots for separation.

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 Example 2

Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal

notation to binary notation.

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary
equivalent.

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 Example 3

Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

Solution
a. There must be no leading zero (045).
b. There can be no more than four numbers.
c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255.
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal
notation is not allowed.
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Hierarchy in Addressing

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 Classful Addressing

• When the Internet started, an IPv4 address

was designed with a fixed-length prefix, but
to accommodate both small and large
networks, three fixed-length prefixes were
designed instead of one (n = 8, n = 16, and n =
24).
• The whole address space was divided into
five classes (class A, B, C, D, and E).

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Note

In classful addressing, the address

space is divided into five classes:
A, B, C, D, and E.

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Finding the classes in binary and dotted-decimal notation

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Occupation of the address space in classful
addressing

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 Example 4

Find the class of each address.

a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111

Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.
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Number of blocks and block size in classful IPv4 addressing

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Note

In classful addressing, a large part of the

available addresses were wasted.

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 Mask
• The mask can help us to find the netid and
the hostid. For example, the mask for a class
A address has eight 1s, which means the first
8 bits of any address in class A define the
netid; the next 24 bits define the hostid.

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Default masks for classful addressing

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 Subnetting
• During the era of classful addressing,
subnetting was introduced.
• If an organization was granted a large block in
class A or B, it could divide the addresses into
several contiguous groups and assign each
group to smaller networks (called subnets) or,
in rare cases, share part of the addresses with
neighbors.
• Subnetting increases the number of 1s in the
mask, as we will see later when we discuss
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classless addressing.
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Note:
• Subnetting for classful addressing is
discussed in LAB which is also in the syllabus.

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 Supernetting
• An organization can combine several class C blocks to create
a larger range of addresses. In other words, several
networks are combined to create a supernetwork or a
supenet.
• An organization can apply for a set of class C blocks instead
of just one.
• For example, an organization that needs 1000 addresses can
be granted four contiguous class C blocks. The organization
can then use these addresses to create one supernetwork.
• Supernetting decreases the number of 1s in the mask. For
example, if an organization is given four class C addresses,
the mask changes from /24 to /22
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Note

Classful addressing, which is almost

obsolete, is replaced with classless
addressing.

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 Classless Addressing
• To overcome address depletion and give
more organizations access to the Internet,
classless addressing was designed and
implemented.
• In this scheme, there are no classes, but the
addresses are still granted in blocks.

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 Address Blocks
• In classless addressing, when an entity, small or
large, needs to be connected to the Internet, it
is granted a block (range) of addresses.
• The size of the block (the number of addresses)
varies based on the nature and size of the
entity.
• For example, a household may be given only
two addresses; a large organization may be
given thousands of addresses.
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 Restrictions
• To simplify the handling of addresses, the
Internet authorities impose three restrictions
on classless address blocks:
1. The addresses in a block must be contiguous,

one after another.

2. The number of addresses in a block must be

a power of 2 (I, 2, 4, 8, ... ).

3. The first address must be evenly divisible by

the number of addresses.

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 Example 5

Figure on next slide shows a block of addresses, in both

binary and dotted-decimal notation, granted to a small
business that needs 16 addresses.

We can see that the restrictions are applied to this block.

The addresses are contiguous. The number of addresses
is a power of 2 (16 = 24), and the first address is divisible
by 16. The first address, when converted to a decimal
number, is 3,440,387,360, which when divided by 16
results in 215,024,210.

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Figure 3 A block of 16 addresses granted to a small
organization

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 Mask
• A better way to define a block of addresses is
to select any address in the block and the
mask.
• As we discussed before, a mask is a 32-bit
number in which the n leftmost bits are 1s
and the 32 - n rightmost bits are 0s.
• However, in classless addressing the mask for
a block can take any value from 0 to 32. It is
very convenient to give just the value of n
preceded by a slash (CIDR notation).
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Note

In IPv4 addressing, a block of

addresses can be defined as
x.y.z.t /n
in which x.y.z.t defines one of the
addresses and the /n defines the mask.

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Note

The first address in the block can be

found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 0s.

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 Example 6

A block of addresses is granted to a small organization.

We know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28.
What is the first address in the block?

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28 rightm ostbits to 0, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000
or
205.16.37.32.
This is actually the block shown in Figure 3.
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Note

The last address in the block can be

found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 1s.

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 Example 7

Find the last address for the block in Example 6.

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111
or
205.16.37.47
This is actually the block shown in Figure 3.
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Note

The number of addresses in the block

can be found by using the formula
232−n.

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 Example 8

Find the number of addresses in Example 6.

Solution
The value of n is 28, which means that number
of addresses is 2 32−28 or 16.

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 Example 9

Another way to find the first address, the last address,

and the number of addresses is to represent the mask as
a 32-bit binary (or 8-digit hexadecimal) number. This is
particularly useful when we are writing a program to find
these pieces of information. In Example 5 the /28 can be
represented as
11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000
(twenty-eight 1s and four 0s).

Find
a. The first address
b. The last address
c. The number of addresses.
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 Example 9 (continued)

Solution
a. The first address can be found by ANDing the given
addresses with the mask. ANDing here is done bit by
bit. The result of ANDing 2 bits is 1 if both bits are 1s;
the result is 0 otherwise.

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 Example 9 (continued)

b. The last address can be found by ORing the given

addresses with the complement of the mask. ORing
here is done bit by bit. The result of ORing 2 bits is 0 if
both bits are 0s; the result is 1 otherwise. The
complement of a number is found by changing each 1
to 0 and each 0 to 1.

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 Example 9 (continued)

c. The number of addresses can be found by

complementing the mask, interpreting it as a decimal
number, and adding 1 to it.

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Figure 4 A network configuration for the block
205.16.37.32/28

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Note

The first address in a block is

normally not assigned to any device;
it is used as the network address that
represents the organization
to the rest of the world.

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 Network Address
• For the moment, let us assume that an internet is
made of m networks and a router with m interfaces.
• When a packet arrives at the router from any
source host, the router needs to know to which
network the packet should be sent: from which
interface the packet should be sent out.
• After the network address has been found, the
router consults its forwarding table to find the
corresponding interface from which the packet
should be sent out

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Network Address

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Note

Each address in the block can be

considered as a two-level
hierarchical structure:
the leftmost n bits (prefix) define
the network;
the rightmost 32 − n bits define
the host.

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 Designing Subnets
• We assume the total number of addresses granted to the
organization is N, the network mask is n, the assigned number
of addresses to each subnetwork is Nsub, and the subnet mask
is nsub
1. The number of addresses in each subnetwork should be a
power of 2.
2. The subnet mask for each subnetwork should be found
using the following formula:
nsub = 32 − log2Nsub
3. The starting address in each subnetwork should be
divisible by the number of addresses in that subnetwork.
4. Always start the assignment from larger blocks
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 Subnetting
• More levels of hierarchy can be created using
subnetting. An organization (or an ISP) that is
granted a range of addresses may divide the
range into several subranges and assign each
subrange to a subnetwork (or subnet).
• Note that nothing stops the organization
from creating more levels.
• A subnetwork can be divided into several
sub-subnetworks.A sub-subnetwork can be
divided into several sub-sub-subnetworks,
and so on. Maulika Patel B.Tech(Computer
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 Designing Subnets
Example 5
• An organization is granted a block of
addresses with the beginning address
14.24.74.0/24.
• The organization needs to have 3 subblocks
of addresses to use in its three subnets:
– one subblock of 10 addresses
– one subblock of 60 addresses, and
– one subblock of 120 addresses.
Design the subblocks.
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 Solution
• There are 232 – 24 = 256 addresses in this
block. The first address is 14.24.74.0/24; the
last address is 14.24.74.255/24. To satisfy the
third requirement, we assign addresses to
subblocks, starting with the largest and
ending with the smallest one.

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• The number of addresses in the largest subblock,
which requires 120 addresses, is not a power of
2. We allocate 128 addresses. The subnet mask
for this subnet can be found as
n1 = 32 − log2128 = 25.
The first address in this block is
14.24.74.0/25; the last address is 14.24.74.127/25.

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• The number of addresses in the second
largest subblock, which requires 60
addresses, is not a power of 2 either. We
allocate 64 addresses.
• The subnet mask for this subnet can be found
as n2 = 32 − log264 = 26. The first address in
this block is 14.24.74.128/26; the last address
is 14.24.74.191/26.

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• The number of addresses in the smallest
subblock, which requires 10 addresses, is not
a power of 2 either. We allocate 16
addresses.
• The subnet mask for this subnet can be found
as n3 = 32 − log216 = 28.
• The first address in this block is
14.24.74.192/28; the last address is
14.24.74.207/28.
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• If we add all addresses in the previous
subblocks, the result is 208 addresses, which
means 48 addresses are left in reserve.
• The first address in this range is 14.24.74.208.
The last address is 14.24.74.255.
• Figure shows the configuration of blocks.
We have shown the first address in each block.

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Maulika Patel B.Tech(Computer
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 Exercise
• An ISP is granted the block 16.12.64.0/20.
The ISP needs to allocate addresses for 8
organizations, each with 256 addresses.
a. Find the number and range of addresses
in the ISP block.
b. Find the range of addresses for each
organization and the range of
unallocated addresses.

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Address Aggregation

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 Special Addresses
• This-host Address
• The only address in the block 0.0.0.0/32 is
called the this-host address. It is used
whenever a host needs to send an IP
datagram but it does not know its own
address to use as the source address.

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 Special Addresses
• Limited-broadcast Address
• The only address in the block
255.255.255.255/32 is called the limited-
broadcast address.
• It is used whenever a router or a host needs to
send a datagram to all devices in a network.
• The routers in the network, however, block the
packet having this address as the destination;
the packet cannot travel outside the network.
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 Special Addresses
• Private Addresses
• Four blocks are assigned as private
addresses: 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12,
192.168.0.0/16.
• Applications of these addresses in NAT

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 Special Addresses
• Loopback Address
• The block 127.0.0.0/8 is called the loopback
address. A packet with one of the addresses in this
block as the destination address never leaves the
host; it will remain in the host.
• Any address in the block is used to test a piece of
software in the machine. For example, we can write
a client and a server program in which one of the
addresses in the block is used as the server address.
We can test the programs using the same host to
see if they work before running them on different
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Network Address Resolution (NAT)

• The distribution of addresses through ISPs

has created a new problem. Assume that an
ISP has granted a small range of addresses to
a small business or a household.
• If the business grows or the household needs
a larger range, the ISP may not be able to
grant the demand because the addresses
before and after the range may have already
been allocated to other networks
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Network Address Resolution (NAT)
• A quick solution to this problem is called
network address translation (NAT).
• NAT enables a user to have a large set of
addresses internally and one address, or a
small set of addresses, externally. The traffic
inside can use the large set; the traffic
outside, the small set.

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Addresses for private networks

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A NAT implementation

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NAT address translation

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Addresses in a NAT

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Five-column translation table

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 Forwarding of IP Packets

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Forwarding Based on Destination Address
• forwarding means to place the packet in its route to its
destination.
• In Forwarding Based on Destination Address, it requires
a host or a router to have a forwarding table.
• When a host has a packet to send or when a router has
received a packet to be forwarded, it looks at this table
to find the next hop to deliver the packet to.
• A classless forwarding table needs to include four
pieces of information: the mask, the network address,
the interface number, and the IP address of the next
router
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Simplified forwarding module in classless
address
Figure 1

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Example : Make a forwarding table for router R1
using the configuration in Figure 1.

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 Solution 1
Forwarding table for router R1

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 Solution 2
Forwarding table for router R1
using prefix bits

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 Exercise 3
• Show the forwarding process if a packet arrives at R1 in
Figure 1 with the destination address 180.70.65.140.
Solution
• The router performs the following steps:
1. The first mask (/26) is applied to the destination address.
The result is 180.70.65.128, which does not match the
corresponding network address.
2. The second mask (/25) is applied to the destination address.
The result is 180.70.65.128,which matches the
corresponding network address. The next-hop address and
the interface number m0 are extracted for forwarding the
packet.
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 Exercises
• Each of the following addresses belongs to a
block. Find the first and the last address in
each block.
a. 14.12.72.8/24
b. b. 200.107.16.17/18
c. c. 70.110.19.17/16

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 Exercises
• Show the n leftmost bits of the following
network-addresses/masks that can be used
in a forwarding table.
a. 170.40.11.0/24
b. 110.40.240.0/22
c. 70.14.0.0./18

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 Exercises
• Assume we have an internet with an 8-bit
address space. The addresses are equally
divided between four networks (N0 to N3).
The internetwork communication is done
through a router with four interfaces (m0 to
m3). Show the internet outline and the
forwarding table (with two columns: prefix in
binary and the interface number) for the only
router that connects the networks. Assign a
network address to each network.
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 Exercises
• An ISP is granted the block 80.70.56.0/21. The ISP
needs to allocate addresses for two organizations
each with 500 addresses, two organizations each
with 250 addresses, and three organizations each
with 50 addresses.
a. Find the number and range of addresses in the ISP

block.
b.Find the range of addresses for each organization
and the range of unallocated addresses.
c. Show the outline of the address distribution and
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the forwarding table.

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 Exercises
• An organization is granted the block
130.56.0.0/16. The administrator wants to
create 1024 subnets.
a. Find the number of addresses in each

subnet.
b. Find the subnet prefix.
c. Find the first and the last address in the first
subnet.
d. Find the first and the last address in the last
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 Forwarding vs. Routing
• Forwarding: the process of moving packets
from input to output
– The forwarding table
– Information in the packet
• Routing: process by which the forwarding
table is built and maintained
– One or more routing protocols
– Procedures(algorithms) to convert routing info to
forwarding table.
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 Routing Algorithms
• Routing algorithms are meant for determining the
routing of packets in a node.
• Best route(least cost path) to send the packets is
determined by the routing algorithm.
• Routing algorithms are classified as-

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 Static Routing Algorithms
• Also known as Non Adaptive routing
algorithm.
• When booting up the network, the routing
information stores to the routers.
• Non Adaptive routing algorithms do not take
the routing decision based on the network
topology or network traffic.

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 Static Routing Algorithms
Two Types:
• Flooding: In case of flooding, every incoming
packet is sent to all the outgoing links except
the one from it has been reached. The
disadvantage of flooding is that node may
contain several copies of a particular packet.
• Random walks: In case of random walks, a
packet sent by the node to one of its
neighbors randomly. An advantage of using
random walks is that it uses the alternative
routes very efficien tly.
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 Dynamic Routing Algorithm
• Dynamic routing algorithm is also known as
an adaptive routing algorithm .
• This algorithm makes the routing decisions
based on the topology and network traffic.
• The main parameters related to this
algorithm are hop count, distance and
estimated transit time.

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 Comparisons
Basis Of Adaptive Routing algorithm Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm
Comparison
Define Adaptive Routing algorithm is an The Non-Adaptive Routing
algorithm that constructs the algorithm is an algorithm that
routing table based on the constructs the static table to
network conditions. determine which node to send the
packet.

Usage Adaptive routing algorithm is The Non-Adaptive Routing

used by dynamic routing. algorithm is used by static routing.

Routing Routing decisions are made Routing decisions are the static
decision based on topology and network tables.
traffic.
Categorization The types of adaptive routing The types of Non Adaptive routing
algorithm, are Centralized, algorithm are flooding and random
isolation and distributed walks.
algorithm.
Complexity Adaptive Routing algorithms are
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are simple.
Engin
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s
 Distance Vector Routing Algorithm

• Distance Vector Routing is a dynamic distributed

routing algorithm.
• It works in the following steps-

• Step-01:
• Each router prepares its routing table. By their local
knowledge. each router knows about-
• All the routers present in the network
• Distance to its neighboring routers
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• Step-02:
– Each router exchanges its distance vector with its
neighboring routers.
– Each router prepares a new routing table using
the distance vectors it has obtained from its
neighbors.
– This step is repeated for (n-2) times if there are n
routers in the network.
– After this, routing tables converge / become
stable
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 Distance Vector Routing Example-
Consider-
• There is a network consisting of 4 routers.
• The weights are mentioned on the edges.
• Weights could be distances or costs or delays.

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• Step-01:
• Each router prepares its routing table using
its local knowledge.
• Routing table prepared by each router is
shown below:

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At Router A

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At Router B

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At Router C

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At Router D

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 Step-02:
• Each router exchanges its distance vector
obtained in Step-01 with its neighbors.
• After exchanging the distance vectors, each
router prepares a new routing table.

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 At Router A

• A receives distance vectors from its neighbors B and D.

• Router A prepares a new routing table as

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• Cost of reaching destination B from router A
= min { 2+0 , 1+7 } = 2 via B.
• Cost of reaching destination C from router A
= min { 2+3 , 1+11 } = 5 via B.
• Cost of reaching destination D from router A
= min { 2+7 , 1+0 } = 1 via D.

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 Explanation For Destination B
• Router A can reach the destination router B via its neighbor
B or neighbor D.
• It chooses the path which gives the minimum cost.
• Cost of reaching router B from router A via neighbor B = Cost
(A→ B)+ Cost (B→ B)= 2 + 0 = 2
• Cost of reaching router B from router A via neighbor D = Cost
(A→ D)+ Cost (D→ B)= 1 + 7 = 8
• Since the cost is minimum via neighbor B, so router A
chooses the path via B.
• It creates an entry (2, B) for destination B in its new routing
table.
• Similarly, we calculate the shortest path distance to each
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destination router at every router.

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• Thus, the new routing table at router A is-

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 At Router B
• Router B receives distance vectors from its neighbors A, C and D.
• Router B prepares a new routing table as

• Cost of reaching destination A from router B = min { 2+0 , 3+∞ , 7+1 } = 2

via A.
• Cost of reaching destination C from router B = min { 2+∞ , 3+0 , 7+11 } =
3 via C.
• Dl Bf.Treoch(m
Cost of reaching destinatMiiotulnPateSECE3011-ComputerroNetworks
uter B = min { 2+1 , 3+11 , 7+0 } = 3
Computer Engineering/IT)
• Thus, the new routing table at router B is-

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 At Router C
• Router C receives distance vectors from its
neighbors B and D.
• Router C prepares a new routing table as

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• Cost of reaching destination A from router C = min { 3+2 , 11+1 } = 5 via
B.
• Cost of reaching destination B from router C = min { 3+0 , 11+7 } = 3 via B.
• Cost of reaching destination D from router C = min { 3+7 , 11+0 } = 10 via
B.
• Thus, the new routing table at router C is-

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 At Router D
• Router D receives distance vectors from its
neighbors A, B and C.
• Router D prepares a new routing table as

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• Cost of reaching destination A from router D = min { 1+0 , 7+2 , 11+∞ } =
1 via A.
• Cost of reaching destination B from router D = min { 1+2 , 7+0 , 11+3 } = 3
via A.
• Cost of reaching destination C from router D = min { 1+∞ , 7+3 , 11+0 } =
10 via B.
• Thus, the new routing table at router D is-

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 Step-03:
• Each router exchanges its distance vector
obtained in Step-02 with its neighboring
routers.
• After exchanging the distance vectors, each
router prepares a new routing table.

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At Router A
Maulika Patel B.Tech(Computer
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At Router B

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 At Router C
• Router C receives distance vectors from its neighbors B and D.
• Router C prepares a new routing table as

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Maulika Patel B.Tech(Computer
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 At Router D
• Router D receives distance vectors from its neighbors A, B and C.
• Router D prepares a new routing table as

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Maulika Patel B.Tech(Computer
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Identifying Unused Links-

• After routing tables converge (becomes stable),

– Some of the links connecting the routers may never be used.
– In the above example, we can identify the unused links as
• We have-
– The value of next hop in the final routing table of router A suggests
that only edges AB and AD are used.
– The value of next hop in the final routing table of router B suggests
that only edges BA and BC are used.
– The value of next hop in the final routing table of router C suggests
that only edge CB is used.
– The value of next hop in the final routing table of router D suggests
that only edge DA is used.
– Thus, edges BD and CD are never used.
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 Important Notes-
• Note-01:
• In Distance Vector Routing,
• Only distance vectors are exchanged.
• “Next hop” values are not exchanged.
• This is because it results in exchanging the
large amount of data which consumes more
bandwidth.

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 Important Notes-
• Note-02:
• While preparing a new routing table-
• A router takes into consideration only the
distance vectors it has obtained from its
neighboring routers.
• It does not take into consideration its old
routing table.

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 Important Notes-
• Note-03:
• The algorithm is called so because-
• It involves exchanging of distance vectors
between the routers.
• Distance vector is nothing but an array of
distances.

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 Important Notes-
• Note-04:
• The algorithm keeps on repeating
periodically and never stops.
• This is to update the shortest path in case any
link goes down or topology changes.

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 Important Notes-
• Note-05:
• Distance Vector Routing suffers from count to
infinity problem.
• Distance Vector Routing uses UDP at
transport layer.

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 Exercises

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 Counting to infinity problem
• A problem with distance-vector routing is that any
decrease in cost (good news) propagates quickly,
but any increase in cost (bad news) will propagate
slowly.
• For a routing protocol to work properly, if a link is
broken (cost becomes infinity), every other router
should be aware of it immediately, but in distance-
vector routing, this takes some time.
• The problem is referred to as count to infinity. It
sometimes takes several updates before the cost for
a broken link is recorded as infinity by all routers
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 Counting to infinity problem:

• B will know that it can get to C at a cost of 1,

and A will know that it can get to C via B at a
cost of 2.

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 Counting to infinity problem:

• If the link between B and C is disconnected, then B will know that

it can no longer get to C via that link and will remove it from it’s
table. Before it can send any updates it’s possible that it will
receive an update from A which will be advertising that it can get
to C at a cost of 2. B can get to A at a cost of 1, so it will update a
route to C via A at a cost of 3. A will then receive updates from B
later and update its cost to 4. They will then go on feeding each
other bad information toward infinity which is called as Count to
Infinity problem.
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 Link-State Routing
• Observation: loop can be prevented if each node
knows the actual network topology
In link-state routing, each node:
•floods the network with the state (up, down) of its
links
•uses Dijkstra’s Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm to
compute a shortest-path tree

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 Link-State Database (LSDB)
• To create a least-cost tree with this method, each
node needs to have a complete map of the
network, which means it needs to know the state of
each link. The collection of states for all links is
called the link-state database (LSDB)

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• Now the question is how each node can create this
LSDB that contains information about the whole
internet. This can be done by a process called
flooding.
• Each node can send some greeting messages to all
its immediate neighbors (those nodes to which it is
connected directly) to collect two pieces of
information for each neighboring node: the identity
of the node and the cost of the link. The
combination of these two pieces of information is
called the LS packet (LSP); the LSP is sent out of
each interface, as shown in Figure.
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LSPs created and sent out by each
node to build LSDB

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• When a node receives an LSP from one of its
interfaces, it compares the LSP with the copy
it may already have. If the newly arrived LSP
is older than the one it has (found by
checking the sequence number),it discards
the LSP.

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 Formation of Least-Cost Trees
• To create a least-cost tree for itself, using the shared LSDB, each
node needs to run the famous Dijkstra Algorithm. This iterative
algorithm uses the following steps:
1. The node chooses itself as the root of the tree, creating a tree with
a single node,and sets the total cost of each node based on the
information in the LSDB.
2. The node selects one node, among all nodes not in the tree, which
is closest to the root, and adds this to the tree. After this node is
added to the tree, the cost of all other nodes not in the tree needs
to be updated because the paths may have been changed.
3. The node repeats step 2 until all nodes are added to the tree

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Least Cost Trees

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Maulika Patel B.Tech(Computer
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 Exercise

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• To be continued in Part 2……

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