CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

Where do cells come from?

- all cells come from preexisting cells (Omnis

cellula e cellula) through the process of cell
division.
- The ability of organisms 'capacity to procreate
- integral part of the cell cycle

Functions of Cell Division

a. Reproduction- amoeba, a single-celled

eukaryote, is dividing into two cells. Each new cell
will be a new organism.
B. growth and development- a sand dollar embryo
shortly after the fertilized egg divided forming two
cells.
C. tissue renewal- dividing bone marrow cells will
give rise to new blood cells

Cell Division in Prokaryotes

Most prokaryotic cells divide by the process of
binary fission..

Bacterial cell: salmonella

enteritidi

Steps of prokaryotic cell divided

by binary fission
Cell cycle

- repeating series of events that include

growth, DNA synthesis, and cell division
- prokaryotes- simple: the cell grows, its
DNA replicates, and the cell divides
- Eukaryotes- the cell cycle is more
complicated, more complex, chromosomes are
replicated , organelles are also duplicated.

Eukaryotic chromosome

Two major Steps in Cell Division in Eukaryotes

- mitosis, a multi-phase process in which the

nucleus of the cell divides
- Cytokinesis, the cytoplasm must divide resulting in
two genetically identical daughter cells.
Cell division

- prokaryotic cell reproduces an entire organism

- multicellular eukaryotes to develop from a
single cell, like the fertilized egg that gave rise to
the two celled embryo
- renewal and repair, replacing cells that die
from normal wear and tear or accidents
- passing identical genetic material to cellular
offspring

HOW LONG DOES THE CELL CYCLE TAKE?

- A typical human cell might take about 24 hours

to divide
- Cells that line the intestine, can complete a cycle
every 9- 10 hours when they're grown in culture
- Different types of cells also split their time
between cell cycle phases in different ways. In
early frog embryos, for, cells spend almost no time
in G1 and G2 and instead rapidly cycle between S
and M phases—resulting in the division of one big
cell, the zygote, into many smaller cells

Three stages in the cell cycle:

1. Interphase- cell grows carries out normal
functions.
2. Mitosis- nucleus contents duplicated and divided
into two equal parts.
3. Cytokinesis- separation of two nuclei and cell
contents into two daughter cells.

A common misconception is that the cell cycle and

mitosis are synonymous. Mitosis is just one part of
the cell cycle. Most cells spend much of their time
in interphase, a period of growth, rest, and DNA
synthesis.

WHAT IS A CELL’S LIFE LIKE?

- eukaryotic
cell- spends most
of its "life" in
interphase of the
cell cycle (lasts
15 hrs. – months).
- DNA exists as
chromatin rather
than
chromosomes
- G1, S and G2
- cell does what it is supposed to do such as DNA
replication

Do cells grow even before they divide?

- cells do indeed grow before division

- Some cells may intentionally split themselves up
into smaller and smaller pieces over successive
rounds of cell division

G1 (Growth/ Gap 1) PHASE

- cell grows rapidly, while performing routine

metabolic processes
- makes proteins needed for DNA replication and
copies some of its organelles in preparation for
cell division.
- cell typically spends most of its life in this phase
- Cell decides if it will start the cell cycle

G0 PHASE

- Resting phase
- Non-dividing cells in multicellular eukaryotic
organisms enter G0 from G1 (ex. Neurons)
- Cells that are completely differentiated
- Cellular senescence- DNA damage or
degradation, ( Occurs when normal diploid cells
lose the ability to divide, normally after about 50
cell divisions)

Synthesis Phase (S)

- cell’s DNA is copied in the process of DNA

replication
- Nucleus becomes larger with twice the amount of
DNA
- duplicates centrosome- helps separate DNA
during M phase cell remains in a diploid state

Growth / Gap Phase 2 (G2)

- shortened growth period in which many

organelles and additional proteins are reproduced
or manufactured
- the cell makes final preparations to divide
- Parts necessary for mitosis and cell division are
made during G2, including microtubules used in the
mitotic spindle.

M phase

- Very short and Observable phase in the

microscope
- Nuclear division-one nucleus divides and becomes
two nuclei
- Cytoplasmic division- cytoplasm divides in half,
producing two daughter cells, each containing a
complete set of genetic material

What if we have no control of the Cell Cycle?

- cells might go from one phase to the next before

they were ready
- Regulatory proteins- controls the cell cycle -
control the cycle by signaling the cell to either
start or delay the next phase of the cycle
- ensure that the cell completes the previous phase
before moving on
- control the cell cycle at key checkpoints

Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdk)

- kinases, enzymes that phosphorylate (attach
phosphate groups to) specific target proteins.
- lone Cdk is inactive, but the binding of a cyclin
activates it . (it activates the Cdk as a kinase,
directs the Cdk to a specific set of target proteins)
- G1/S cyclins send Cdks to S phase targets (e.g.,
promoting DNA replication), while M cyclins send
Cdks to M phase targets (e.g., making the nuclear
membrane break down).

CHECKPOINTS

- ensure that the cell is ready to proceed before it

moves on to the next phase of the cycle
- G1 checkpoint- makes the key decision of whether
the cell should divide.
- S checkpoint- determines if the DNA has been
replicated properly.
- mitotic spindle checkpoint -occurs at the point in
metaphase where all the chromosomes should have
aligned at the mitotic plate.

CELL CYCLE

- Cells grow and divide.

- As one cell enters Mitosis, two cells exit which
are exact replicas or clones of the original
“parent” cell.
- Cells that no longer need to divide exit the cell
cycle in G1(ex. neurons, muscle cells, fat cells do
this).
Purpose: to replenish dead or dying cells, to allow
an organism to grow and develop

Interphase

- A cell spends the majority of its lifetime in

interphase.
- Cell grows and carries out normal cell
processes
- DNA replicates
- Prepares for cell division
- DNA strand of a chromosome is copied and this
copied strand is attached to the original strand at
a spot called the centromere called a bivalent
chromosome.
- bivalent chromosome consists of two sister
chromatids
- Monovalent chromosome - chromosome exists as
just one chromatid,

Prophase: Chromosomes condense and form visible

bodies. Nuclear envelope breaks down.
Metaphase: • Chromosomes line up in the middle of
the cell. • Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres.
Anaphase: • Centromeres split. • Sister chromatids
separate and are pulled to opposite sides of the
cell.
Telophase: • Nuclear envelope reappears.
Cytokinesis • The cytoplasm and all its contents
divide
Chromosomes

- As the nucleus prepares to

divide, replicated DNA in
interphase joins to form sister
chromatids, joined by a
centromere .
- a thread-like object made of
a material called chromatin.
- Chromatin is made of DNA
and special structural proteins called histones.
- beads on a string

Do all species have the same chromosomes?

The basic construction of chromosomes (made of

chromatin) and structure is the same in all
animals. The difference is that each species has its
own set number of chromosomes.

Mitosis

- one cell (the mother) divides to produce two new

cells (the daughters) that are genetically identical
to itself
- DNA of the cell's nucleus is split into two equal
sets of chromosomes.
- replaces old, worn-out cells with new ones
- form of reproduction, adding new individuals to
the population.
- Purpose: make more diploid cells by copying each
chromosome, and then separating the copies to
different sides of the cell each new cell gets its
own copy of each chromosome.
- shortest stage of the cell cycle where the
nuclear contents divide, and two daughter nuclei
are formed.

It occurs in 4 stages:

1. Prophase (Early Prophase and Pro metaphase)

2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase

Late Interphase

- Chromatin is in its loosely coiled form so that

DNA can be copied into RNA for proteins to be made
in preparation for cell division.
- At the end of interphase, the cell continues to
grow and make proteins in preparation for mitosis
and cytokinesis.
EARLY

PROPHASE

- chromosomes
start to
condense
- mitotic spindle
begins to form
(organize the
chromosomes
and move them around while mitosis grows between
the centrosomes as they move apart.)
- nucleolus disappears.

LATE PROPHASE

- Mitotic spindle begins to

capture and organize the
chromosomes.
- The chromosomes finish
condensing
- The nuclear envelope breaks
down, releasing the
chromosomes.
- The mitotic spindle grows more, and some of the
microtubules start to “capture” chromosomes.
- kinetochore, a patch of protein found on the
centromere of each sister chromatid
- Centromeres are the regions of DNA where the
sister chromatids are most tightly connected
- Microtubules that bind a chromosome are called
kinetochore microtubules.
- Microtubules that don’t bind to kinetochores can
grab on to microtubules from the opposite pole,
stabilizing the spindle. More microtubules extend
from each centrosome towards the edge of the
cell, forming a structure called the aster.

MITOSIS PROPHASE

- Chromosomes start to coil and become visible.

-Pairs of centrioles start to separate.
- The nuclear membrane disappears.
- Spindle fibers start to form between the
centriole pairs.
- Chromosomes move more evenly throughout the
nucleus.

METAPHASE
-the spindle has captured all the chromosomes and
lined them up at the middle of the cell, ready to
divide.
-All the chromosomes align at the metaphase
plate
- two kinetochores of each chromosome should be
attached to microtubules from opposite spindle
poles.
- Centriole pairs move to opposite ends of the cell.
- Spindle fibers are still attached to the centriole
pairs.
- Chromosomes line up along the midline of the
cell and are attached to the spindle fibers.

SPINDLE CHECKPOINT
-the cell will check to make sure that all the
chromosomes are at the metaphase plate with their
kinetochores correctly attached to microtubules
- helps ensure that the sister chromatids will split
evenly between the two daughter cells when they
separate in the next step.
ANAPHASE
- The sister
chromatids separate
from each other and
are pulled towards
opposite ends of the
cell.
- The protein “glue” that holds the sister
chromatids together is broken down, allowing them
to separate.
- The chromosomes of each pair are pulled
towards opposite ends of the cell.
- Microtubules not attached to chromosomes
elongate and push apart, separating the poles and
making the cell longer.

TELOPHASE
- Nuclear membranes form
around the two new sets of
chromosomes.
- The spindle fiber disappears.
Chromosomes start to uncoil
(chromatin) and become less
visible.
- Cell starts to make a groove (furrow) in the
middle to eventually split into two identical cells.

CYTOKINESIS
- The division of material outside of the nucleus.
Occurs after telophase.
- Divides the organelles and other substances in
the cytoplasm into roughly two equal halves.
- Animal cells furrow while plant cells form a
cell plate # chromosomes in daughter cell = the #
chromosomes in parent cell.
- Daughter cells are genetically identical to
parent.

ANIMAL CYTOKINESIS
- contractile ring contracts inward and pinches
the cell in two, a process called contractile
cytokinesis.
- The indentation produced as the ring contracts
inward is called the cleavage furrow.
- Cells can be pinched in two because they’re
relatively soft and squishy.
PLANT CELL CYTOKINESIS
- much stiffer than animal cells; they’re
surrounded by a rigid cell wall and have high
internal pressure.
- divide in two by building a new structure down
the middle of the cell- cell plate, is made up of
plasma membrane and cell wall components
delivered in vesicles, and it partitions the cell in
two.

Time Cell Spent in each Phase of the Cell Cycle

- Interphase- 20 hours (78%)
- G1- 10 hours
- S- 5-6 hours S- 3-4 hours
- Mitosis- 2 hours
- Prophase- 14%
- Metaphase- 4%
- Anaphase- 0.8%
- Telophase- 3%

Checkpoints in the cell cycle will prevent cell

division if: I
- f the cell is short of nutrients
- If the DNA within the nucleus has not been
replicated
- If the DNA is damaged

CANCER AND CELL CYCLE

- disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no
longer regulated
- cell’s DNA becomes damaged and cells generally
divide much faster than normal cells.
- form a mass of abnormal cells called a tumor

MEIOSIS
- the production of gametes—sex cells, or sperm
and eggs
- goal is to make daughter cells with exactly half
as many chromosomes as the starting cell.
- a division process that takes us from a diploid
cell—one with two sets of chromosomes—to haploid
cells—ones with a single set of chromosomes
- provides genetic variation in organisms

PHASES OF MEIOSIS
- needs to separate sister chromatids (the two
halves of a duplicated chromosome), as in mitosis.
But it must also separate homologous
chromosomes, the similar but nonidentical
chromosome pairs an organism receives from its
two parents
- cell division occurs twice
A. Meiosis I- Homologue pairs separate during
a first round of cell division
B. Meiosis II- Sister chromatids separate
during a second round,
- four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase.

BEFORE ENTERING MEIOSIS 1

- Interphase
- G1- cell grows
- S Phase –copies all the cells chromosomes
- G2 –prepares cells for division

PROPHASE 1
- the chromosomes begin to
condense, but they also pair up.
- each chromosome carefully
aligns with its homologue
partner so that the two match
up at corresponding positions
along their full length.
CROSSING OVER
- Process in which
homologous chromosomes
trade parts
- synaptonemal complex -
protein structure that holds
the homologues together.
CHIASMATA
- Cross over as seen on the
microscope
- cross-shaped structures where homologues are
linked together
- keep the homologues connected to each other
after the synaptonemal complex breaks down
- It's common for multiple crossovers (up to 25!)
to take place for each homologue pair

METAPHASE 1
- the spindle begins to capture
chromosomes and move them
towards the center of the cell
(metaphase plate).
- Each chromosome attaches to
microtubules from just one pole
of the spindle, and the two
homologues of a pair bind to microtubules from
opposite poles.
- homologue pairs—not individual chromosomes—
line up at the metaphase plate for separation.

ANAPHASE 1
- homologues are pulled
apart and move apart to
opposite ends of the cell. The
sister chromatids of each
chromosome, however, remain
attached to one another and
don't come apart.

TELOPHASE 1
- chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell
- In some organisms, the nuclear membrane
reforms and the chromosomes decondense,
although in others, this step is skipped—since cells
will soon go through another round of division,
meiosis
- this is where cytokinesis usually occurs at the
same time as telophase I, forming two haploid
daughter cells.
MEIOSIS ||
- Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II without
copying their DNA
- shorter and simpler process than meiosis I
- “mitosis for haploid cells."
- cells are haploid—have just one chromosome
from each homologue pair—but their chromosomes
still consist of two sister chromatids
- the sister chromatids separate, making haploid
cells with non-duplicated chromosomes.

PROPHASE ||
- chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope
breaks down, if needed. The centrosomes move
apart, the spindle forms between them, and the
spindle microtubules begin to capture chromosomes
- two sister chromatids of each chromosome are
captured by microtubules from opposite spindle
poles.