Intelligence and Its Measurement

Galton's Study on Intelligence

● Sir Francis Galton studied family trees of eminent people and observed that eminence
tended to run in families.
● He theorized that bright individuals must possess exceptional sensory acuity and
developed tests to measure sensory processes.
● However, this approach was a dead end as sensory ability did not correlate with
success.

Sir Francis Galton studied the family backgrounds of famous people and noticed that success
often seemed to run in families. He believed that intelligent people had better sensory skills, so
he created tests to measure things like vision and hearing. However, he found that these
sensory abilities didn't actually relate to how successful people were, making his approach
ineffective. In simpler terms, just having sharp senses doesn't guarantee success or
intelligence.

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Development of IQ Tests by Alfred Binet

● Alfred Binet, a French psychologist, created tests to identify children with subaverage
intelligence.
● His test focused on general mental ability, including abstract reasoning, problem-solving,
vocabulary, memory, general knowledge, and logic.
● Binet introduced the concept of 'mental age,' where a child's performance was compared
to that of a typical child of a certain age.

Alfred Binet, a French psychologist, developed tests to identify children with below-average
intelligence. His assessments focused on various aspects of general mental ability, such as
abstract reasoning, problem-solving, vocabulary, memory, general knowledge, and logic. Binet
introduced the concept of "mental age," which compares a child's performance on these tests
to that of typical children at a specific age, helping to identify their cognitive abilities more
accurately. This approach laid the groundwork for modern intelligence testing.
Introduction of IQ and Stanford-Binet Test by Terman

● Lewis Terman in the U.S. revised Binet's test, leading to the Stanford-Binet test.
● Terman was the first to introduce the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) formula: IQ = (mental
age/chronological age) * 100.
● The IQ concept was later adapted to compare an individual's performance with
same-age peers.

Lewis Terman, an American psychologist, revised Alfred Binet's intelligence test, creating the
Stanford-Binet test. He was the first to introduce the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) formula: IQ =
(mental age/chronological age) * 100. This formula allowed for the comparison of an individual's
performance with peers of the same age, making it easier to assess intellectual abilities across
different age groups. Terman's work significantly advanced the field of intelligence testing.

Weschler's Contribution to Adult IQ Testing

● David Weschler developed intelligence tests for adults, such as the WAIS-III.
● These tests were less reliant on verbal ability and included both performance and verbal
subscales.
● Weschler replaced the IQ with a scoring scheme based on a normal distribution.

David Wechsler was the first to create intelligence tests specifically for adults, known as the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III). This test is less reliant on verbal skills compared
to earlier tests and includes both performance and verbal subscales. Wechsler replaced the
traditional IQ scoring with a system based on a normal distribution, providing a more nuanced
understanding of intelligence. He also developed tests for children, such as the Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale
of Intelligence (WPPSI-III).

Evaluation of Intelligence Tests

Accuracy of Intelligence Tests

● The accuracy of intelligence tests is determined by their ability to measure what they are
intended to measure.
● Three essential qualities of good psychological tests are standardization, reliability, and
validity.

Key Criteria for Psychological Tests

 ● Standardization: Comparing an individual's performance with the population's
performance.
● Reliability: Ensuring consistency in measurement through test-retest and split-half
reliability.
● Validity: Confirming that the test measures what it claims to measure.

Intelligence tests aim to measure cognitive abilities, but their accuracy can vary. For a
psychological test to be considered effective, it must have three key qualities:

1. Standardization: The test should be administered and scored in a consistent manner

across different populations.
2. Reliability: The results should be stable over time, meaning that if a person takes the
test multiple times, they should receive similar scores.
3. Validity: The test must measure what it claims to measure, accurately reflecting an
individual's intelligence.

Together, these qualities help determine the effectiveness of intelligence tests.

Standardization

Standardization in intelligence testing involves comparing an individual's performance to that of

the general population. Raw scores, which indicate the number of correct answers, are
converted into standardized scores that follow a normal distribution. For IQ scores, the mean is
set at 100, with a standard deviation of 15. This means that about 68% of people score within
one standard deviation (85-115), 95% within two standard deviations (70-130), and over 99%
within three standard deviations (55-145). This distribution helps to understand an individual's
performance relative to others.

Reliability

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement in intelligence testing. Two common types
of reliability are:

1. Test-Retest Reliability: This assesses whether an individual receives the same score
when taking the test multiple times. If scores are consistent over time, the test is deemed
reliable.
2. Split-Half Reliability: This evaluates whether results from one half of the test correlate
with results from the other half. If both halves yield similar outcomes, it suggests the
test's reliability.

These measures ensure that the intelligence test produces stable and dependable results.
Validity

Validity assesses whether a test measures what it claims to measure.

1. Content Validity: This checks if the content of the test accurately represents the
material it intends to evaluate. For example, an intelligence test should cover a range of
cognitive abilities relevant to intelligence.
2. Criterion-Related Validity: This examines whether the test can predict outcomes
related to the trait being measured. It involves correlating test scores with another
established measure of the same trait to see if they align.

Both types of validity are crucial for determining the effectiveness of an intelligence test.

Theories of Intelligence
General Intellectual-Ability Factor

● Charles Spearman proposed the existence of a general intelligence factor (g) that
influences performance on various tests.
● Individuals who orient towards new stimuli and exhibit faster reaction times tend to
perform well across tasks.

Is There a General Intellectual Ability Factor?

Charles Spearman proposed the existence of a general intelligence factor, known as g,

suggesting that performance on various cognitive tests is highly correlated. This means that
individuals who excel in one area of intelligence are likely to perform well in others. For
instance, research indicates that babies who show a preference for new stimuli tend to achieve
better cognitive outcomes later in life. Additionally, faster reaction times across various tasks
suggest that individuals with higher intelligence may have more efficient neural processing
overall.

Multiple Intelligences Theory

● Howard Gardner's theory suggests the presence of multiple intelligences, including

linguistic, mathematical, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
 ● Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory categorizes intelligence into analytic, creative, and
practical skills.

Are There Multiple Intelligences?

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences suggests that intelligence is not a single entity
but rather a collection of different types. He identified various intelligences, including linguistic,
mathematical, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. While this
theory is popular among educators and parents, it has been critiqued for lacking substantial
empirical evidence.

In contrast, Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory proposes three types of intelligence: analytic
(school smarts), creative (the ability to think divergently and make connections), and practical
(street smarts or adaptive skills). Together, these theories offer a broader understanding of
intelligence beyond traditional measures.