Module-2/ Solar Thermal Energy Collectors

Solar thermal energy technologies capture the heat energy directly from the solar radiations, to be used for
heating purposes and to produce electrical energy. Solar thermal energy is quite different from the
photovoltaic (PV) solar panels (capable of direct conversion of solar radiations into electricity). The solar
thermal collector is the equipment used to transform solar radiation into heat. The physical principles behind
this energy production include thermal absorption and conduction. Unlike photovoltaic cells that convert
sunlight directly into electricity, solar thermal systems convert it into heat. They use mirrors or lenses to
concentrate sunlight onto a receiver, which in turn heats a water reservoir. The energy from the concentrated
sunlight heats a high temperature fluid in the receiver. This heat - also known as thermal energy - can be
used to spin a turbine or power an engine to generate electricity.

Solar thermal system:

The collector is the main component of a solar thermal system and would in most cases be installed on the
roof of the property. The collector contains specially coated reinforced glass pipes to capture the radiation
emitted from the sun, which can then be transferred into heat. The pipes themselves will be embedded in an
insulated container to prevent heat energy being lost. The heat transfer fluid in the pipes will include eco-
friendly antifreeze and will circulate through the collector and hot water tank. The whole system is operated
from a solar thermal controller which is automated. When the temperature at the collectors rises to a specific
temperature above the temperature in the storage tank, the controller will automatically switch on the pump
and the transfer fluid heated in the collector will be sent to the hot water tank.
Types of Solar Collectors:

*Solar Thermal Collector: Overview

A solar thermal collector stockpiles solar radiation as heat. The heat can be used for domestic hot water,
space heating, or cooling. There are two types of solar thermal collectors:

– those that use solar radiation to heat a fluid directly, and

– those that concentrate solar radiation to produce high temperatures.

Non-concentrating solar collectors

Solar energy systems that heat water or air in buildings usually have non-concentrating collectors, which
means the area that intercepts solar radiation is the same as the area absorbing solar energy. Flat-plate
collectors are the most common type of non-concentrating collectors for water and space heating in buildings
and are used when temperatures lower than 200°F are sufficient.
Flat-plate solar collectors usually have three main components:

• A flat metal plate that intercepts and absorbs solar energy.

• A transparent cover that allows solar energy to pass through the cover and reduces heat loss from the
absorber
• A layer of insulation on the back of the absorber to reduce heat loss

Solar water-heating collectors have metal tubes attached to the absorber. A heat-transfer fluid is pumped
through the absorber tubes to remove heat from the absorber and transfer the heat to water in a storage tank.
Solar systems for heating swimming pool water usually have flat-plate collectors that do not have covers or
insulation for the absorber, and the pool water circulates from the pool through the collectors and back to the
pool.

Solar air-heating systems use fans to move air through flat-plate collectors and into the interior of buildings.

Concentrating solar collectors

The area intercepting solar radiation on concentrating collectors is greater, sometimes hundreds of times
greater, than the absorber area. A highly reflective collector focuses, or concentrates, solar energy onto an
absorber. The collector usually moves throughout the day so that it maintains a high degree of concentration
on the absorber. Solar thermal power plants use concentrating solar collector systems because they can
produce the high temperature heat needed to generate electricity.

Solar Thermal Collector: Components

The solar thermal collector consists of a solar radiation-absorbing element, a heat transfer fluid (HTF), and
insulated housing.

The solar radiation-absorbing element is usually a dark-colored plate or tube. The HTF is a fluid that transfers
heat from the absorber to the storage tank or heat exchanger.

The solar radiation-absorbing element and the HTF are enclosed in insulated housing. The housing may be
glazed to allow solar radiation to enter, but minimize heat loss.

Solar Thermal Collector: Types

Here are the different types of solar thermal collectors:

1. Flat Plate Solar Collectors

This is the most common type of solar thermal collector. They are used in solar hot water systems. They
consist of a flat absorber plate, usually coated with a black or selective coating, mounted in an insulated
frame.

One or more transparent covers are placed over the absorber plate to reduce heat loss. A heat transfer fluid
(HTF) is circulated through the absorber plate to collect solar heat.

2. Concentrating Solar Collectors

Concentrating solar collectors use mirrors or lenses to concentrate solar radiation on a small absorbing
surface.

They are used in solar power plants to generate electricity.

The concentrated solar radiation heats a fluid or solar receiver, which produces steam to drive a turbine that
generates electricity.
 3. Evacuated Tube Solar Collectors
An evacuated tube solar collector is a type of solar thermal collector that consists of a series of parallel, heat-
conducting tubes.

The tubes are arranged in insulated housing. The space between the outer tube and the inner tube is evacuated
(i.e., the air is removed). Solar radiation enters the tube and strikes the inner tube. The solar radiation is
absorbed by the inner tube and transfers heat to the HTF.

4. Parabolic Solar Collectors

A parabolic solar collector is a type of solar thermal collector that uses mirrors to concentrate solar radiation
onto an absorber.

The solar radiation is taken in by the absorber and transfers heat to the HTF.

Parabolic solar collectors are used in solar power plants to generate electricity.

Solar Collector vs. Solar Panel

Solar collectors are sometimes confused with solar panels. They are commonly used interchangeably in the
energy field.

Solar collector is an umbrella term that includes solar panels and other types of solar collectors. Solar panel
refers to a specific type of solar collector.

The main distinction between solar collectors and solar panels is that a solar collector absorbs solar energy,
and a solar panel converts it into electricity.
Solar Thermal Collector: Uses
Solar thermal energy is a renewable and sustainable resource that can be used to meet a variety of energy
needs.

Solar thermal collectors can be used for a variety of applications, including:

– Domestic Hot Water: Solar thermal energy can be used to heat water for domestic use. This can be done
with a solar water heater.

– Space Heating: Solar thermal collectors can be used to heat air or fluid for space heating. This can be done
with a solar air heater or a solar radiant floor system.

– Cooling: Solar thermal energy can also be used for cooling. This can be done with a solar cooling system.

Solar Thermal Collector: Factors Affecting Performance

There are a number of factors that can affect the performance of solar thermal collectors. These include:

Solar Radiation Intensity: The amount of solar radiation that strikes a solar collector is a major factor that
affects its performance. Solar radiation intensity is measured in solar insolation. The higher the solar
insolation, the more solar radiation is available to be absorbed by the solar collector.

Solar Radiation Angle of Incidence: The angle at which solar radiation strikes a solar collector has an
impact.

Collector Orientation: The most common solar collector orientations are horizontal and south-facing.

Collector Tilt Angle: The most common solar collector tilt angles are 0° (horizontal), 15°, 30°, 45°, and
60°.

Ambient Temperature: The ambient temperature will also have consequences.

Wind Speed: The wind speed at which a solar collector is operating is another factor.

*Active and Passive Solar Water Heating Systems

Active Solar Water Heating Systems:

There are two types of active solar water heating systems:

Direct circulation systems: Pumps circulate household water through the collectors and into the home. They
work well in climates where it rarely freezes.

Indirect circulation systems: Pumps circulate a non-freezing, heat-transfer fluid through the collectors and
a heat exchanger. This heats the water that then flows into the home. They are popular in climates prone to
freezing temperatures.

Passive Solar Water Heating Systems:

Passive solar water heating systems are typically less expensive than active systems, but they're usually not
as efficient. However, passive systems can be more reliable and may last longer. There are two basic types
of passive systems:

Integral collector-storage passive systems: These consist of a storage tank covered with a transparent
material to allow the sun to heat the water. Water from the tank then flows into the plumbing system. These
work best in areas where temperatures rarely fall below freezing. They also work well in households with
significant daytime and evening hot-water needs.

Thermosyphon systems: Water is heated in a collector on the roof and then flows through the plumbing
system when a hot water faucet is opened. The majority of these systems have a 40-gallon capacity.
Illustration of a passive, batch solar water heater. Cold water enters a pipe and can either enter a solar
storage/backup water heater tank or the batch collector, depending on which bypass valve is opened. If the
valve to the batch collector is open, a vertical pipe (which also has a spigot drain valve for cold climates)
carries the water up into the batch collector. The batch collector is a large box holding a tank and covered
with a glaze that faces the sun. Water is heated in this tank, and another pipe takes the heated water from the
batch collector into the solar storage/backup water heater, where it is then carried to the house.

Storage Tanks and Solar Collectors

Most solar water heaters require a well-insulated storage tank. Solar storage tanks have an additional outlet
and inlet connected to and from the collector. In two-tank systems, the solar water heater preheats water
before it enters the conventional water heater. In one-tank systems, the back-up heater is combined with the
solar storage in one tank.

Three types of solar collectors are used for residential applications:

Flat-plate collector: Glazed flat-plate collectors are insulated, weatherproofed boxes that contain a dark
absorber plate under one or more glass or plastic (polymer) covers. Unglazed flat-plate collectors -- typically
used for solar pool heating -- have a dark absorber plate, made of metal or polymer, without a cover or
enclosure.

Integral collector-storage systems: Also known as ICS or batch systems, they feature one or more black
tanks or tubes in an insulated, glazed box. Cold water first passes through the solar collector, which preheats
the water. The water then continues on to the conventional backup water heater, providing a reliable source
of hot water. They should be installed only in mild-freeze climates because the outdoor pipes could freeze in
severe, cold weather.

Evacuated-tube solar collectors: They feature parallel rows of transparent glass tubes. Each tube contains
a glass outer tube and metal absorber tube attached to a fin. The fin's coating absorbs solar energy but inhibits
radiative heat loss. These collectors are used more frequently for U.S. commercial applications.

Solar water heating systems almost always require a backup system for cloudy days and times of increased
demand. Conventional storage water heaters usually provide backup and may already be part of the solar
system package. A backup system may also be part of the solar collector, such as rooftop tanks with
thermosyphon systems. Since an integral-collector storage system already stores hot water in addition to
collecting solar heat, it may be packaged with a tankless or demand-type water heater for backup.

Selecting a Solar Water Heater

• Estimate the cost and energy efficiency of a solar water heating system
• Evaluate your site's solar resource
• Determine the correct system size
• Investigate local codes, covenants, and regulations.

Also understand the various components needed for solar water heating systems, including the following:

• Heat exchangers for solar water heating systems

• Heat-transfer fluids for solar water heating systems

*Solar air heater

A solar air heater is a type of solar thermal system where air is heated in a collector and either transferred
directly to the interior space or to a storage medium, such as a rock bin.
Solar air heaters use solar panels to warm air which is then conveyed into a room. The basic components of
a solar air heater include solar collector panels, a duct system and diffusers. Systems can operate with or
without a fan. Without a fan the air is distributed by the action of a natural ventilation system.

Solar air heaters provide free interior heating to complement conventional climate control systems. It is
important to note that the output from solar heaters is reduced when clouds reduce the amount of sunlight. A
typical solar air heater collector panel would assist in the heating of a small room. Solar air heating is
potentially suitable for any building that requires heating, providing the collector panel can be placed on an
appropriate unshaded south-facing (in the northern hemisphere) roof or wall.

Solar air heaters cost around $2500, plus installation. The payback period is around 10 to 15 years when used
to complement gas heating systems and five to seven years for electricity and wood.

*Solar Dryer

Components of a solar dryer: A solar dryer may be considered as it comprises of three main components
— a drying chamber, a solar collector, and some type of airflow system. In the drying chamber, drying takes
place, and the material is spread on the chamber to get dehydrated, whereas the solar collector converts the
solar radiation spectrum into heat. A solar dryer may also have the following components or accessories.
-Equipment of heat transfer for transporting thermal energy to the air or product

-Device for keeping the circulation of drying air

-Thermal energy storage system (non-compulsory)

-An alternative energy source (non-compulsory)

-Measurement and control equipment (non-compulsory)

-Transparent cover, absorber, trays, ducts, pipes, circuits, solar chimney (optional), and other
appliances.

A solar dryer is another technology to harness the solar energy that is used to dry fruits, vegetables,
and crops for preservation. Solar dryers are of two types: direct and indirect. In direct solar dryers,
the substance that is to be dehydrated is exposed to the sunlight in a vast field. Indirect solar dryers
consist of an insulated box coated inside with a black absorption surface, an air inlet and an air outlet,
and a single- or double-glazed glass. A solar dryer works on the principle of the density differential.
The inlet air hole is at the lower side for the entrance of the cold air and the outlet air is at the upper
side of the opposite wall. The sunlight coming through the glazing keeps the inner environment warm,
which dehydrates the substance. The cold air takes the hot air enriched with moisture content from
the box and, because of the difference in the density, the air is ventilated through the hot air outlet.
*Solar Cooing
Solar cooling is the process of cooling a space (and/or heat-sensitive appliances) through a solar
thermal collector.

This method uses available clean energy from the sun to power an alternative refrigeration system
instead of using traditional nonrenewable sources such as carbon fuels or electricity from
conventional energy sources like coal and natural gas.

How It Works:
A solar thermal collector is a device that absorbs and transfers heat energy from the sun to an
intermediary substance, usually water or air.

The heat-transferring fluid (liquid or air) is then employed in building cooling systems to cool indoor
spaces.

Solar Cooling Components:

• Solar Collector
A solar collector is an instrument that absorbs heat from the sun and then transfers it via
conduction to a heat-transferring fluid (often water or air).

This system can be used within solar cooling systems for HVAC applications where a
compressor is added to the system then employed to cool indoor spaces.

• Refrigeration
A refrigeration cycle refers to a process consisting of a vapor compression refrigeration
system, a condenser, and a compressor.

The term "refrigeration" is sometimes more loosely used as a term synonymous with air
conditioning – which uses a refrigerant as the working fluid – instead of referring to the
complete system.

• Heat Sink
A heat sink is a structure or object that transfers thermal energy from one place to another
without moving the material itself.

Heat sinks are used in electrical components and systems and mechanical components and
systems.

The term "heat sink" may refer to a physical object made from materials such as aluminum
or copper, or a portion of a larger object may serve as a heat sink.

Techniques to Achieve Solar Cooling:

Several techniques can be utilized to achieve efficient solar cooling such as: Absorption Cooling
Cycle, Desiccants Cooling System, and Solar Mechanical Cycles.
 Absorption Cooling Cycle
Absorption cooling is a process in which a refrigerant such as water or ammonia is combined with a
chemical base (NaOH, KOH, LiOH).

The absorption of heat from the space to be cooled causes the chemical solution to become more
alkaline. This results in an exothermic reaction that releases hydrogen gas at the cathode and the
alkali metal salt remaining in the solution at the anode.

The released hydrogen gas is then pumped to the solar collector heated up by solar radiation. This
causes a reaction that converts water to steam, releasing heat energy into the environment.
The endothermic reaction of the chemical base regenerates the refrigerant, which can now be
recirculated to the heat sink.

Desiccants Cooling System

A desiccant cooling system works on a similar principle as an absorption cooling system except that
it uses a different working fluid – desiccants instead of refrigerants.

A desiccant substance is hygroscopic that induces or sustains a state of dryness in its vicinity.

Various desiccants are used at low-temperature levels, including silica gel. A solar collector absorbs
heat from the space to be cooled while simultaneously heating up the desiccant at the same time.

The heated desiccant material is then moved to another chamber where it undergoes a hygroscopic
cycle, absorbing moisture from the air.

The captured water or air moisture is then collected in a tank, where it is later released and collected
elsewhere to be used for purposes such as plant irrigation.

Solar Mechanical Cycles

A solar mechanical cycle uses a thermochemical reaction that yields a working fluid with a low
boiling point, which is used to power a conventional compressor.

A fluid that evaporates at a temperature of around 10°C, such as butane or propane, is heated by solar
radiation. The heat is passed onto the working fluid with an organic Rankine cycle.

The Rankine cycle uses a series of closed-loop tubes, which turn water into a gaseous state and then
back into a liquid.
The cycle powers a traditional compressor through a vapor-compression refrigeration system. The
evaporation of the working fluid results in the indoor space being cooled by removing heat from it.

Benefits of Solar Cooling:

• Large potential markets, such as urban and commercial buildings, use or produce large amounts of
cooling.
• Reduced peak load on existing power systems and reduced environmental impact.
• Alternate use of the cooling system between day and night (hybrid solar cooling) can be used as an
auxiliary or primary system for buildings that require continuous cooling during the day and night.
• Unique design, aesthetics, and functionality possibilities.

Challenges of Solar Cooling:

Several challenges must be addressed for solar cooling to become a more accessible and practical
means of cooling:

• Maximization of the efficiencies of photovoltaics, absorption cooling, and solar-driven compression

cycles.
• Research to improve high-temperature desiccants.
• Development of high-efficiency, high-temperature solar collectors.
• Energy storage for overnight cooling requirements in buildings not equipped with hybrid solar
cooling systems.
 • Research into a new flat plate and evacuated tube solar collector designs, which can reduce costs,
improve efficiencies, and reduce installation space requirements.
• Development of high-temperature flat plate collectors that can utilize low-cost thermal energy storage
materials, such as Rockwool or expanded clay, used in solar heating systems.
• Research into the water used for cooling (i.e., dry cooling) to reduce the need for water consumption
from cooling towers.

*Solar Cells
Solar Cell or Photovoltaic (PV) cell is a device that is made up of semiconductor materials such as silicon,
gallium arsenide and cadmium telluride, etc. that converts sunlight directly into electricity. When solar cells
absorb sunlight, free electrons and holes are created at positive/negative junctions. If the positive and
negative junctions of solar cell are connected to DC electrical equipment, current is delivered to operate the
electrical equipment.

Solar cell types:

Single Crystalline Silicon Polycrystalline Silicon Amorphous Silicon

PV Module PV Module PV Module

1. Crystalline Silicon PV Module: Two types of crystalline silicon (c-Si) are used to produce PV module;
single crystalline silicon or known as monocrystalline silicon and multi-crystalline silicon, also called
polycrystalline silicon. The polycrystalline silicon PV module has lower conversion efficiency than single
crystalline silicon PV module but both of them have high conversion efficiencies that average about 10-
12%.
2. Amorphous Silicon PV Module: Amorphous silicon (a-Si) PV module or thin-film silicon PV module
absorbs light more effectively than crystalline silicon PV module, so it can be made thinner. It suits for
any applications that high efficiency is not required and low cost is important. The typical efficiency of
amorphous silicon PV module is around 6%.
3. Hybrid Silicon PV Module: A combination of single crystalline silicon surrounded by thin layers of
amorphous silicon provides excellent sensitivity to lower light levels or indirect light. The Hybrid silicon
PV module has highest level of conversion efficiency about 17%.

How solar cell works?

When sunlight strikes solar cell surface, the cell creates charge carrier as electrons and holes. The internal
field produced by junction separates some of positive charges (holes) from negative charges (electrons).
Holes are swept into positive or p-layer and electrons are swept into negative or n-layer. When a circuit is
made, free electrons have to pass through the load to recombine with positive holes; current can be produced
from the cells under illumination.

The individual solar cells are connected together to make a module (called 'solar module' or 'PV module') to
increase current and the modules are connected in an array (called 'solar array' or 'PV array'). Depending on
current or voltage requirement, solar arrays are connected in a variety of ways:
• If the solar arrays are connected in parallel, the output current will increase.
• If the solar arrays are connected in series, the output voltage will increase.

Solar PV system:
Solar cells produce direct current (DC), therefore they are only used for DC equipment. If alternating current
(AC) is needed for AC equipment or backup energy is needed, solar photovoltaic systems require other
components in addition to solar modules. These components are specially designed to integrate into solar PV
system, that is to say they are renewable energy products or energy conservation products and one or more
of components may be included depending on type of application. The components of solar photovoltaic
system are
1. Solar Module is the essential component of any solar PV system that converts sunlight directly into
DC electricity.
2. Solar Charge Controller regulates voltage and current from solar arrays, charges the battery, prevents
battery from overcharging and also performs controlled over discharges.
3. Battery stores current electricity that produces from solar arrays for using when sunlight is not visible,
nighttime or other purposes.
4. Inverter is a critical component of any solar PV system that converts DC power output of solar arrays
into AC for AC appliances.
5. Lightning protection prevents electrical equipment from damages caused by lightning or induction
of high voltage surge. It is required for the large size and critical solar PV systems, which include the
efficient grounding.

Solar cell advantages:

• Solar cell or PV cell produces clean with non-polluting energy source of electricity that is
environmental-friendly.
• It uses no fuel other than sunlight, gives off no waste, no burning, and no moving part when it
operates.
• It reduces collection of gases such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen,
etc., which generated from fuel, coal and fossil fuel burning power plants.
• All decrease the impacts of energy on the environment like greenhouse effect, global warming, acid
rain and air pollution, etc.
• It is easy to install and transportable.
• It can be constructed any sizes as required.
• It requires minimal maintenance and has long life span (more than 30 years) and stable efficiency.
Solar cell applications:

Home Indoor and outdoor lighting system, electrical equipment, electric gate
opener, security system, ventilator, water pump, water filter and emergency
light, etc.
Lighting system Bus stop lighting, telephone booth lighting, billboard lighting, parking lot
lighting, indoor and outdoor lighting and street lighting, etc.
Water pumping Consumption, public utility, livestock watering, agriculture, gardening and
farming, mining and irrigation, etc.
Battery charging system Emergency power system, battery charging centre for rural village and
power supply for household use and lighting in remote area, etc.
Agriculture Water pumping, agricultural products fumigator, thrashing machines and
water sprayer, etc.
Cattle Water pumping, oxygen filling system for fish-farming and insect trapped
lighting, etc.
Health center Refrigerator and cool box for keeping medicines and vaccines and medical
equipment, etc.
Communication Air navigational aid, air warning light, lighthouse, beacon navigation aid,
illuminated road sign, railway crossing sign, street lighting and emergency
telephone, etc.
Telecommunication Microwave repeater station, telecommunication equipment, portable
communication equipment (e.g. communication radio for service and
military exercise) and weather monitoring station, etc.
Remote area Hill, island, forest and remote area that the utility grids are not available,
etc.
Space Satellite, international space station and spacecraft, etc.

Questions:
1. Give classification of Solar Collectors. Discuss any one in detail.
2. Describe which factors can affect the performance of solar thermal collectors.
3. What are the main advantages of flat plate solar collector?
4. With the help of a schematic diagram, explain passive solar water heating systems.
5. With the help of a schematic diagram, explain active solar water heating systems.
6. Explain solar air heater with neat diagram.
7. With the help of schematic diagram, explain the working of crop drying system.
8. Discuss solar cooing system in terms of working, solar cooling components, technique, challenges.
9. How solar cell works? Explain solar PV system.
10. State advantages of solar cell and its applications.