Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Definition
⚫ Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with
both stationary and moving bodies under the influence of
forces.
⚫ The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is
called statics, while the branch that deals with bodies in
motion is called dynamics.
⚫ The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science
that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics)
or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
⚫ The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics.

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 Definition
⚫ The study of f1uids in motion, where pressure forces are
not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the
pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in
motion. that branch of science is called fluid dynamics.
⚫ Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several
categories.
⚫ The study of the motion of fluids that are practically
incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and
gases at low speeds) is usually referred to as
hydrodynamics.
⚫ A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.

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4
 What is a Fluid?
⚫ A substance exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid,
and gas. A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred
to as a fluid.
⚫ Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis
of the substance’s ability to resist an applied shear (or
tangential) stress that tends to change its shape.
⚫ A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming,
whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the influence
of shear stress, no matter how small.
⚫ In solids stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids stress
is proportional to strain rate.

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 What is a Fluid?

⚫ When a constant
shear force is
applied, a solid
eventually stops
deforming, at some
fixed strain angle,
whereas a fluid
never stops Figure.
deforming and Deformation of a rubber eraser
approaches a certain placed between two parallel plates
rate of strain. under the influence of a shear force.

1
2
 What is a Fluid?
⚫ In a liquid, molecules can move
relative to each other, but the volume
remains relatively constant because of
the strong cohesive forces between the
molecules.
⚫ As a result, a liquid takes the shape of
the container it is in, and it forms a
free surface in a larger container in a
gravitational field.
⚫ A gas, on the other hand, expands until
it encounters the walls of the container
and fills the entire available space.
⚫ This is because the gas molecules are
widely spaced, and the cohesive forces
between them are very small.
⚫ Unlike liquids, gases cannot form a
7 free surface
 What is a Fluid?

⚫ Differences between liquid and gases

Liquid Gases
Difficult to compress and Easily to compress – changes of
often regarded as volume is large, cannot normally
incompressible be neglected and are related to
temperature
Occupies a fixed volume No fixed volume, it changes
and will take the shape of volume to expand to fill the
the container containing vessels
A free surface is formed if Completely fill the vessel so that
the volume of container is no free surface is formed.
greater than the liquid.

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 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
⚫ Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in many areas
of engineering and science. Examples are:
⚫ Biomechanics
⚫ Blood flow through arteries and veins
⚫ Airflow in the lungs
⚫ Flow of cerebral fluid
⚫ Households
⚫ Piping systems for cold water, natural gas, and sewage
⚫ Piping and ducting network of heating and air-
conditioning systems
⚫ refrigerator, vacuum cleaner, dish washer, washing
machine, water meter, natural gas meter, air conditioner,
radiator, etc.
⚫ Meteorology and Ocean Engineering
9 ⚫ Movements of air currents and water currents
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
⚫ Mechanical Engineering
⚫ Design of pumps, turbines, air-conditioning equipment,
pollution-control equipment, etc.
⚫ Design and analysis of aircraft, boats, submarines,
rockets, jet engines, wind turbines, biomedical devices,
the cooling of electronic components, and the
transportation of water, crude oil, and natural gas.
⚫ Civil Engineering
⚫ Transport of river sediments
⚫ Pollution of air and water
⚫ Design of piping systems
⚫ Flood control systems
⚫ Chemical Engineering
⚫ Design of chemical processing equipment
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 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
⚫ Turbomachines: pump, turbine, fan, blower, propeller, etc.
⚫ Military: Missile, aircraft, ship, underwater vehicle, dispersion
of chemical agents, etc.
⚫ Automobile: IC engine, air conditioning, fuel flow, external
aerodynamics, etc.
⚫ Medicine: Heart assist device, artificial heart valve, Lab-on-a-
Chip device, glucose monitor, controlled drug delivery, etc.
⚫ Electronics: Convective cooling of generated heat.
⚫ Energy: Combuster, burner, boiler, gas, hydro and wind
turbine, etc.
⚫ Oil and Gas: Pipeline, pump, valve, offshore rig, oil spill
cleanup, etc.
⚫ Almost everything in our world is either in contact with a fluid
11 or is itself a fluid.
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
⚫ The number of fluid engineering applications is enormous:
breathing, blood flow, swimming, pumps, fans, turbines,
airplanes, ships, rivers, windmills, pipes, missiles, icebergs,
engines, filters, jets, and sprinklers, to name a few.
⚫ When you think about it, almost everything on this planet
either is a fluid or moves within or near a fluid.

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 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics

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 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics

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 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics

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 Classification of Fluid Flows
⚫ There is a wide variety of fluid flow problems encountered
in practice, and it is usually convenient to classify them on
the basis of some common characteristics to make it
feasible to study them in groups.
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
⚫ When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a
friction force develops between them and the slower layer
tries to slow down the faster layer.
⚫ This internal resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid
property viscosity, which is a measure of internal stickiness
of the fluid.
⚫ Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between the
molecules in liquids and by molecular collisions in gases.
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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow…
⚫ There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid
flows involve viscous effects to some degree.
⚫ Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are
called viscous flows.
⚫ However, in many flows of practical interest, there are
regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where
viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or
pressure forces.
⚫ Neglecting the viscous terms in such inviscid flow regions
greatly simplifies the analysis without much loss in
accuracy.

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 Classification of Fluid Flows

Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow

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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
⚫ A flow is classified as being compressible or
incompressible, depending on the level of variation of
density during flow.
⚫ Incompressibility is an approximation, and a flow is said to
be incompressible if the density remains nearly constant
throughout.
⚫ Therefore, the volume of every portion of fluid remains
unchanged over the course of its motion when the flow (or
the fluid) is incompressible.
⚫ The densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus
the flow of liquids is typically incompressible. Therefore,
liquids are usually referred to as incompressible substances.
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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow…
⚫ A pressure of 210 atm, for example, causes the density of
liquid water at 1 atm to change by just 1 percent.
⚫ Gases, on the other hand, are highly compressible. A
pressure change of just 0.01 atm, for example, causes a
change of 1 percent in the density of atmospheric air.
⚫ Gas flows can often be approximated as incompressible if
the density changes are under about 5 percent.
⚫ The compressibility effects of air can be neglected at
speeds under about 100 m/s.

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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
⚫ Some flows are smooth and orderly
while others are rather chaotic.
⚫ The highly ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth layers of
fluid is called laminar.
⚫ The flow of high-viscosity fluids
such as oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
⚫ The highly disordered fluid motion
that typically occurs at high
velocities and is characterized by
velocity fluctuations is called
turbulent .
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 Classification of Fluid Flows

Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

⚫ The flow of low-viscosity fluids
such as air at high velocities is
typically turbulent.
⚫ A flow that alternates between
being laminar and turbulent is
called transitional.

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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
⚫ A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on
how the fluid motion is initiated.
⚫ In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in
a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan.
⚫ In natural flows, any fluid motion is due to natural means
such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as the
rise of the warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the fall of
cooler (and thus denser) fluid .
⚫ In solar hot-water systems, for example, the
thermosiphoning effect is commonly used to replace pumps
by placing the water tank sufficiently above the solar
collectors.
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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
⚫ The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in
engineering, and thus it is important to have a clear
understanding of their meanings.
⚫ The term steady implies no change at a point with time.
⚫ The opposite of steady is unsteady.
⚫ The term uniform implies no change with location
over a specified region.

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 Properties of Fluids
⚫ Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
⚫ Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T,
volume V, and mass m.
⚫ Other less familiar properties include viscosity, thermal
conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion
coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity and
elevation.
⚫ Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.
⚫ Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass
of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density.
⚫ Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the
size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume V, and
total momentum are some examples of extensive properties.
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 Properties of Fluids
⚫ An easy way to determine
whether a property is
intensive or extensive is to
divide the system into two
equal parts with an imaginary
partition.
⚫ Each part will have the same
value of intensive properties
as the original system, but
half the value of the extensive
properties.

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 Properties of Fluids
Density or Mass Density
⚫ Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of
the mass of a f1uid to its volume. Thus mass per unit
volume of a fluid is called density. It is denoted the symbol
ρ (rho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic
meter, i.e ., kg/m3.
⚫ The density of liquids may be considered as constant while
that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and
temperature.
⚫ Mathematically mass density is written as.
Mass of fluid

Volume of fluid
⚫ The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3.
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 Properties of Fluids
Density or Mass Density
⚫ The density of a substance, in general, depends on
temperature and pressure.
⚫ The density of most gases is proportional to pressure and
inversely proportional to temperature.
⚫ Liquids and solids, on the other hand, are essentially
incompressible substances, and the variation of their
density with pressure is usually negligible.

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 Properties of Fluids
Specific weight or Weight Density
⚫ Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio
between the weight of a fluid to its volume.
⚫ Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight
density and it is denoted by the symbol w.
⚫ Mathematically,

w  Weight of fluid  (Mass of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity

Volume of fluid Volume of fluid
 Mass of fluid x g
Volume of fluid
 x g
w  g

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 Properties of Fluids
Specific Volume
⚫ Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a
fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a
fluid is called specific volume.
⚫ Mathematically, it is expressed as

Volume offluid 1  1
Specific volume  
Mass of fluid Mass of fluid 
Volume
⚫ Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is
expressed as m3/kg.
⚫ It is commonly applied to gases.

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 Properties of Fluids
Specific Gravity.
⚫ Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or
density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard
fluid.
⚫ For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water and for gases, the
standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative
density. It is dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S.
S(for liquids)  Weight density (density) of liquid
Weight density (density) of water
S(for gases)  Weight density (density) of gas
Weight density (density) of air
Thus weight density of a liquid  S x Weight densityof water
 S x 1000x 9.81N/m3
Thus density of a liquid  S x Densityof water

32  S x 1000kg/m3
 Properties of Fluids
Specific Gravity.
⚫ If the specific gravity of a
fluid is known, then the
density of the fluid will be
equal to specific gravity of
fluid multiplied by the
density of water.
⚫ For example the specific
gravity of mercury is 13.6,
hence density of mercury
= 13.6 x 1000 = 13600
kg/m3.

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 Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
⚫ Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers
resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another
adjacent layer of the fluid.
⚫ When two layers of a fluid, a distance 'dy' apart move one over
the other at different velocities say u and u+ du as shown in Fig.
1.1 , the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear
stress acting between the fluid layers:

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 Properties of Fluids
⚫ where μ (called mu) is the constant of proportionality
and is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity or
only viscosity.
du
⚫ dy represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear
deformation or velocity gradient.
⚫ From equation (1.2) we have

  (1.3)
du
dy
⚫ Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress
required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
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 Properties of Fluids
Unit of Viscosity.
⚫ The unit of viscosity is obtained by putting the
dimension of the quantities in equation ( 1.3)

SI unit of viscosity  Newton second  Ns

m2 m2

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 Properties of Fluids
Kinematic Viscosity.
⚫ It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and
density of fluid.lt is denoted by the Greek symbol (ν) called
'nu' . Thus, mathematically,
  Viscosity  
Density 
⚫ The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s.
Newton's Law of Viscosity.
⚫ It states that the shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is
directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant
of proportionality is called the co-efficient viscosity.
Mathematically, it is expressed as given by equation (1 . 2).

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 Properties of Fluids
⚫ Fluids which obey the above relation are known as
Newtonian fluids and the fluids which do not obey the
above relation are called Non-newtonian fluids.
Variation of Viscosity with Temperature
⚫ Temperature affects the viscosity.
⚫ The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of
temperature while the viscosity of gases increases with
increase of temperature. This is due to reason that the
viscous forces in a fluid are due to cohesive forces and
molecular momentum transfer.
⚫ In liquids the cohesive forces predominates the molecular
momentum transfer due to closely packed molecules and
with the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces
decreases with the result of decreasing viscosity.
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 Types of Fluids
1. Ideal Fluid. A fluid, which is incompressible and is
having no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. Ideal
fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which
exist, have some viscosity.
2. Real fluid. A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is knownas
real fluid. All the fluids: in actual practice, are real fluids.
3. Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the shear stressis
directly, proportional to the rate of shear strain (or
velocity gradient), is known as a Newtonian fluid.
4. Non-Newtonian fluid. A real fluid, in which shear stress
is not proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity
gradient), known as a Non-Newtonian fluid.

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 Example 1
If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by
u  2 y  y2
3
in which u is velocity in metre per second at a distance y
metre above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = 0
and y= 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63
poises.

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55
 Example 4
Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for
lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m and an
inclined plane with angle of inclination 30o as shown in Fig. 1.4.
The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the
inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness
of oil film is 1.5 mm.

Fig.1.4

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57
 Example 5
The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with
oil. Each side of the plate is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil
film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 metre per
sec requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed.
Determine : ·
i. the dynamic viscosity of the oil, and
ii. the kinematic viscosity of the oil if the specific gravity of the
oil is 0.95.

Solution. Given:
Each side of a square plate = 60 cm = 0.6 m
Area A= 0.6 x 0.6 = 0.36 m2
Thickness of oil film dy = 12.5 mm = 12.5 x 10-3 m
Velocity of upper plate u = 2.5 m/s
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59
 Thermodynamic Properties
⚫ Fluids consist of liquids or gases. But gases are compressible
fluids and hence thermodynamic properties play an important
role.
⚫ With the change of pressure and temperature, the gases undergo
large variation in density.
⚫ The relationship between pressure (absolute), specific volume
and temperature (absolute) of a gas is given by the equation of
state as

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 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
⚫ Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of
elasticity, K which is defined as the ratio of compressive
stress to volumetric strain.
⚫ Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in the Fig.
⚫ Let V= Volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder
p =Pressure of gas when volume is V
⚫ Let the pressure is increased to p+ dp, the volume of gas
decreases from V to V – dV.
⚫ Then increase in pressure = dp
⚫ Decrease in volume = dV
⚫ Volumetric strain = - dV/V

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 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
⚫ - ve sign means the volume
decreases with increase of pressure.

Bulk modules K  Increase of pressure

Volumetricstrain
dp
   dp V
- dV dV
V
⚫ Compressibility is given by = 1/K

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