TRANSPORTATION

ENGINEERING I
CTE21A
Department of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology

UNIT 2: Geometric design

LECTURER: Mr B Mokobori
LECTURE VENUE RULES:
  INTRODUCTION
UNIT OUTLINE:  VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
 INTRODUCTION

 The geometric design of roads is the branch of highway

engineering concerned with the positioning of the physical elements of the
roadway according to standards and constraints. The basic objectives in
geometric design are to optimize efficiency and safety while minimizing
cost and environmental damage.

 Geometric roadway design can be broken into three main parts: alignment,
profile, and cross-section. Combined, they provide a three-dimensional
layout for a roadway

souce:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#:~:text=The%20geometric%20design%20of%20roads,minimizing%20cost%20and%20environmental%20damage.
 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

 Vertical alignment for linear transportation facilities such as

highways and railways consists of grades and vertical curves.

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LJ8G2e&psig=AOvVaw2p3T_isJMYMDjNZ29gvhbD&ust=1700900670177000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBIQjhxqFwoTCIjBr9Sa3IIDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE
 CONT
Objective:
 Determine elevation to ensure
 Proper drainage
 Acceptable level of safety
Primary challenge
Sag Vertical Curve
 Transition between two grades
 Vertical curves G1
G2

G2
G1

Crest Vertical Curve

 CONT

Grades
 The convention adopted universally is that a gradient that is
rising in the direction of increasing stake value is positive and a
descending gradient negative.

Critical length of grade

 typically taken as being the distance over which a
speed reduction of 15 km/h occurs
 Cont

The term “critical length of grade” is used to indicate the maximum

length of a specified ascending gradient upon which a loaded truck can
operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed (commonly 10 mph
[15 km/h]).
 Cont
Maximum gradients
 Cont
Topography:
flat, rolling or
mountainous.

Road
Cost: being the classification:
whole-life cost has minimum
of the road effect

Factors
affecting
maximum
gradient Traffic
operations:
where high
Environmental volumes would
considerations suggest a
reduction in
maximum
gradient
Adjacent land
use
 Cont
Minimum gradient
The minimum gradient can, in theory, be level, i.e. zero per
cent. This could only be applied to rural roads where storm water
would be removed from the road surface by the camber (arc) and
allowed to spill over the edge of the
shoulder.
 Cont

It is recommended that, even without kerbing, gradients should

not be less than 0,5%. If the grade is longer than 500 m,
increasing the camber to 2,5 or 3,0% should be considered.

source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Ftenor.com%2Fview%2Fbumpy-ride-rough-car-black-and-white-gif-15802522&psig=AOvVaw288u6yzssDHOCOre-
0RBra&ust=1700901594754000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBIQjhxqFwoTCKiUqY2e3IIDFQAAAAAdAAAAABBZ
 Cont
Vertical Curve
 Parabolic function
 Constant rate of change of slope
 Implies equal curve tangents (not usually)

y is the roadway
elevation x stations
from the beginning of
the curve
 Cont
• Vertical curves are normally parabolas centered about the point
of intersection (P.I.) of the vertical tangents they join. Vertical
curves are thus of the form

where y = elevation of a point on the curve

yo = elevation of the beginning of the vertical curve (BVC)
g1 = grade just prior to the curve
x = horizontal distance from the BVC to the point on the curve
r = rate of change of grade
g2 = grade just after to the curve
L = length of the curve
 Important things to remember! Cont

 Vertical curves are classified as sags where g2 > g1 and crests

otherwise.

 Note that r will be positive for sags and negative for crests.
 If grades are in percent, horizontal distance must be in stations
 If grades are dimensionless ratios, horizontal distances must be in
meters.

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21699959&psig=AOvVaw21ujIDKb_TfgGaMnrGFQWl&ust=1700902162012000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBIQjhxqFwoTCMC9rZyg3IIDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAj
 Cont

Other Properties
• K-Value (defines vertical curvature):
“It is the distance required for 1% change in gradient (m)”

L
K =
A
Where: A is the algebraic difference in gradient between the
approaching and departing grades (%)
 Cont
Crest Vertical Curves
SSD

PVI
Line of Sight

PVC PVT G2
G1 h2
h1
L

For SSD < L For SSD > L

2
SSD 2 SSD 200(h10.5 + h20.5 ) 2
K= 0.5 0.5 2 K= −
200(h1 + h2 ) A A2
• Where: Cont

K = vertical curvature (%)

SSD = stopping sight distance (m)

h1 = Driver eye height (m)---Can be assumed as 120 cm

h2 = Object height (m)--- Can be assumed as 60 cm

A = grade difference (%)

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_quh3IIDFQAAAAAdAAAAABBy
CONT..
 Cont
Sag Vertical Curves

SSD

G1 β: angle of light beam upward from plane of vehicle G2

PVC PVT

h3 PVI
h4=0

During the hours of daylight or on well-lit streets at night, sag curves do

not present any problems with regard to sight distance. Under these
circumstances, the value of K is determined by considerations of
comfort, specifically the degree of vertical acceleration involved in the
change in gradient. The maximum comfortable vertical acceleration is
often taken as 0,3 m/s2.
 CONT..
Assumptions for design
• h3 = headlight height = 0.6m
• β = 1 degree
Simplified Equations
For SSD < L For SSD > L

K=
(SSD )
2
K= −
0.5
2 SSD 200(h + h )
1
0.5 2
2
120 + 3.5(SSD ) A A 2
 Cont
The criterion of comfort
V2
K=
395
The criterion of comfort provides K-values roughly half of
those dictated by considerations of stopping sight
distance. Note: V = design speed (km/hr)

**K-values appropriate to headlight distance should be used in

rural areas and also where street lighting is not provided. Where
street lighting is provided, the lower K-values associated with the
comfort criterion may be adopted
CONT..
CONT
CONT
CONT
CONT
 CONT
WORKED EXERCISES

 SINGLE CURVE
The following information applies to a vertical curve on a peri-urban road:
 CONT

1. Calculate the curve length.

 m% = (IP8h – IP7h)/(IP8ch – IP7ch) *100 = + 3.050%

 k% = (IP9h – IP8h) / (IP9ch – IP8ch) *100 = - 4.389%
 A% = (m% - k%) = + 7.439% …..so it is a CREST curve!
 K = (2 x 43.6 m) = 87.2 m
 Thus L = (K x A) = 648.650 m = 660 meters.

NOTE:
Curve length must always be a multiple of 20 meters. If the calculated value
is not, you have to round it up to the next multiple. If the part before the
decimal is on a multiple, just ignore the decimals!
When calculating the curvature on a sag curve, using a negative A, use the
absolute value of A, because no distance or length may be negative
 CONT

2. Calculate the chainage and height of the Beginning of curve (BC)

Chainage: BCch = (IP8ch – L/2) = + 4597 m

Height: m% = (IP8h – BCh)/L/2 *100
Thus, BCh = [IP8h – (m)(L/2)/100] = 779.937 m
CHECK: m% gradient is positive, so BCh should be
LOWER than IP8h. (Is it?)
 CONT

3. Calculate the centreline heights for the first three chains on the curve:

• Because m% gradient is positive, we can expect the curve

heights to increase, at least initially.

w = (-A)(20)2 / 100.L = - 0.045

v = [(m . 20)/100 + w/2] = + 0.587

. Chainage (m) Height (m)

BC: +4597 779.937
+4617 …… + v + 0w = 780.524
+4637 …… + v + 1w = 781.066
+4657 …… + v + 2w = 781.563
 CONT

4. Calculate the chainage and height of the turning point on the curve:

 Always first check if the curve has a turning point. A curve

will have a turning point if the m% and k% signs (+ or -)
are different.
m% = + 3.050% and k% = - 4.389%, so there is a turning
point.
So, x = (m.K) = (3.050)(87.2) = 265.921 m
TPch = (BCch + x) = (4597 + 265.921) = + 4862,921 m
Because m% is positive, TPh should be HIGHER than BCh.
Then y = (-A)(x2)/200.L + (m.x)/100 = 4.124 m
So, TPh = (BCh + y) = 788,031 m
 CONT

5. A point ‘P’ is situated at chainage +5350 m. Calculate the height of point ‘P’.

Considering ECch is at (IP8ch + L/2) = +5257 m,

point ‘P’ lies on the EC-tangent,
beyond the curve. So set up the gradient equation
on the tangent, between IP8 and ‘P’.
Then k% = (Ph – IP8h)/(Pch – IP8ch) *100 So Ph =
(k%)(Pch – IP8ch)/100 + IP8h = 771.434 m Because
k% is negative, Ph should be LOWER than IP8h. (Is
it…?)
 CONT

5. Point ‘R’ lies at chainage +5100 m. Calculate R-height

By inspection, R is situated on the curve, just
before the turning point. This means the Rh should
be HIGHER than BCh, but LOWER than TP8h.
So, x = (Rch – BCch) = 503 m And y = (-
A)(x2)/200.L + (m . x)/100 = 1,081 m Then Rh =
(BCh + y) = 781,018 m

Comment on the validity of the gradients Minimum

gradient = 0,35% (for drainage), and Maximum
gradient = 16% (for peri-urban roads) .Thus, m%
and k% are both valid!
of Vertical Alignment

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g69SwdtI-81Sx&ust=1686210397138000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CBIQjhxqFwoTCJDP7K_VsP8CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAk
 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

 Horizontal alignment for linear transportation facilities such as

highways and railways consists of horizontal tangents, circular
curves, and possibly transition curves. In the case of highways,
transition curves are not always used.
Horizontal Alignments with and Without CONT
Transition Curves.
 CONT
HORIZONTAL TANGENTS
• Two fundamentally different approaches can be adopted in
the process of route determination:

• In a curvilinear approach, the curves are located first and

thereafter connected up by tangents. This approach can be
adopted with advantage in mountainous or rugged terrain. A
typical consequence of this approach is that curves tend to be
long and tangents short.
 CONT

 Because of the local topography, the approach to route

determination most frequently adopted in South Africa is for the

tangents to be located first and the curves fitted to these

tangents thereafter.

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journey&psig=AOvVaw1uCIQGPLEEMloXQgZSefU4&ust=1700903523397000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBIQjhxqFwoTCLCc06Wl3IIDFQAAAAAdAAAAABA2
 CONT

 Horizontal tangents are described in terms’ of their lengths and

their directions. Directions may be either expressed as bearings
or as azimuths and are always defined in the direction of
increasing station.

 Azimuths are expressed as angles turned clockwise from due

north; bearings are expressed as angles turned either clockwise
or counterclockwise from either north or south.
 CONT

Bearing
 Economic considerations dictate that, where other constraints
on route location are absent, roads should be as directional as

possible. In consequence, tangents may be located on bearings

that have an adverse impact on driver comfort and safety.

1- Dazzle CONT

The designer should be aware of this problem and, if

possible, avoid selecting bearings that reduce visibility. If
the dazzle problem cannot be avoided, warning signage
may be considered

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LKm3IIDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAj
2- Wind CONT

On freight routes or routes with a high incidence of

holiday traffic, the designer should seek to avoid bearing
at right angle of the prevailing wind direction or try to
overcome it.

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ride&psig=AOvVaw0WdcI_L6B2EuUhkULqIUww&ust=1700903993544000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBIQjhxqFwoTCKiO74Wn3IIDFQAAAAAdAAAAABA-
 CONT

CIRCULAR CURVES
• Horizontal curves are normally circular. They are described by
radius, central angle (which is EQUAL to the deflection angle
between the tangents), length, semi-tangent distance, middle
ordinate, external distance, and chord.
 CONT
Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
E: external distance
M: chord-to-curve length
L: Curve length
T: after tangent length
R: radius of the curve
Δ: external angle
D: curvature
 ∆ CONT
T = R tan
2
π 100∆
L= R∆ =
180 D
 180 
100 
 π  18,000
D= =
R π R

 1 
E = R − 1
 cos ∆ 2 
 ∆
M = R1 − cos 
 2
 CONT

Crashes and Curves

 The safety of any curve is dictated not only by the external
factors, e.g. speed, but also by factors internal to it, namely
radius, superelevation, transitions and curve widening. Of these
factors, the most significant is radius as research shows
consistently that crash frequency increases as the curve radius
decreases.
 CONT

Superelevation
• The purpose of superelevation or banking of curves is to
counteract the centripetal acceleration produced as a vehicle
rounds a curve. The term itself comes from railroad practice,
where the top of the rail is the profile grade.
CONT
 CONT
Fc: centrifugal force
Ff: frictional force
W: weight of vehicle = Mg
V: speed (km/hr)
Rv: radius of curve (m)
fs = f : lateral side friction factor; friction coefficient
e: superelevation
  WV 2  WV 2 CONT
W sin α + f s W cos α + sin α  = cos α
 gRv  gRv
Divide both sides by Wcos(α) and rearrange the eq.
V2
tan α + f s = (1 − f s tan α )
gRv
V2
e + fs = (1 − f s e )
gRv
Assume (fs e) is
V2
small and can be
Rv =
neglected
g ( f s + e)
This equation is used to determine the
minimum radius of curvature that can be
traversed at any given speed.
 CONT

 Side Friction Factor, f

 The maximum side friction factor is the point at which
the tires begin to skid.
 Design values of (f) are chosen somewhat below this
maximum value so there is a margin of safety.

f = 0.21 – 0.001 V
 CONT
 Selection of e and f
 Practical limits on superelevation (e):
 * Climate * Constructability
 * Adjacent land use * e = 4, 6, 8, 10%
 Side friction factor (f) variations:
 * Vehicle speed * Pavement texture
 * Tire condition • The maximum side friction factor is the
point at which the tires begin to skid
• Design values of fs are chosen somewhat
below this maximum value so there is a
margin of safety
 CONT
Minimum Radius Table (South Africa)
 CONT

Design Domain For Maximum Superelevation

 CONT

 Suprelevation Runoff and Tangent Runout

 Superelevation transition (RUNOFF OR RUNOUT) is

the general term denoting the change in cross slope

from a normal crown section to the full superelevated

section or vice versa.

 CONT

 To meet the requirements of comfort and safety, the

superelevation transition should be effected over a length

adequate for the usual travel speeds. In general, the location of

the transition in respect to the end of a simple (circular) curve

should be such that two-thirds of the transition is outside the

curve and one-third within the limits of the curve. This results in

two-thirds of the full superelevation at the beginning of the curve.

 CONT

Fully super-elevated cross section

Cross section with the adverse

crown removed
Normal cross section

Tangent runout = the length of highway needed to change the

normal cross section to the cross section with the adverse crown
removed.

Superelevation runoff = the length of highway needed to change

the cross section with the adverse crown removed to the cross
section fully superelevated.
 CONT
 Attaining Superelevation
 By revolving about centre line (common)
 CONT
 By revolving about inside edge (good for drainage)
 CONT
Creating Superelevation Using Autocad

Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q3Ueo1NSFok
 CONT
TRANSITION CURVES
• Any vehicle entering a circular curve does so by following a spiral
path. For most curves, this transition can be accommodated
within the limits of normal lane width.

Source:
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=1700904829869000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBIQjhxqFwoTCKiH05Sq3IIDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE
 Horizontal alignment deals with the left hand – and right hand curves
along a road. CONT
CONT
CONT
CONT
CONT
CONT
 CONT

REFERENCES
The Handbook of Highway Engineering. T.F. Fwa. Taylor and
Francis publications, 2003
Tsohos, G. H. and Georgios H. Title: Highway environmental
engineering. Publisher: New York: Spon Press, 2001.
SOURCE: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Ftenor.com%2Fsearch%2Fmoving-question-marks-gifs&psig=AOvVaw24z2R_uMX5TfB3quqC-
lym&ust=1686043595810000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CBIQjhxqFwoTCNj-8P7nq_8CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAc