Course Outline • Week 1 • Classroom Orientation, Rules on cleanliness, conservation of energy and behavior, and Course Outline • Week 2-3 • Data and Digital Communications • Week 4-5 • Data and Signals • Week 6 • Prelim • Week 7 • Transmission Modes • Week 8-9 • Data Connections • Week 10-11 • Protocol of Switching • Week 12 • Midterm exam • Week 13-15 • Error Detection and Correction • Week 16-17 • Security and Cryptography • Week 18 • Final exam The Significance of Human Communication
Communication is the process of exchanging information.
People communicate to convey their thoughts, ideas, and feelings to others.
Two of the main barriers to human communication are language and distance.
Long-distance communication was first accomplished by sending simple signals such as drumbeats, horn blasts, and smoke signals and later by waving signal flags (semaphores). Human communication took a dramatic leap forward in the late nineteenth century when electricity was discovered and its many applications were Telegraph Telephone explored.
The telegraph was invented in 1844 and
the telephone in 1876.
Radio was discovered in 1887 and
demonstrated in 1895
Radio Milestones in the History of Electronics Communications 1. Elements of Digital Communication
Introduction:
Digital communication systems are becoming increasingly attractive
because of the ff: • ever –growing demand for data communication and • offers data processings options and flexibilities not available with analog transmission. Why Digital?
Why are communication systems, military and commercial alike “going
digital”? • Ease with which digital signals, compared with analog signals are regenerated. Two basic mechanisms
1. Transmission lines and circuits have some nonideal freq. transfer
function, there is a distorting effect on the ideal pulse 2. Unwanted electrical noise or other interference further distorts the pulse waveform.
Both of these mechanisms cause the pulse shape to degrade.
During the time that the transmitted pulse can still be reliably identified and degraded to an ambiguous state, the pulse is amplified by a digital amplifier that recovers its original ideal shape. Regenerative repeaters
Pulse is thus “reborn” or regenerated.
Circuits that perform this function at regular intervals along a transmission system are regenerative repeaters. Produces a high level Produces a o/p if sample value > VT Increases the sample value amplitude
Minimize the effect
of channel noise Generates a &ISI clocking signal Why is Digital Communication important?
• The potential of Digital Communication was highlighted during the
pandemic time. Businesses without a Digital Communication strategy failed to survive during that time. Video conferences became the channel of communication, emails became the new normal way of conveying messages. • Digital Communication is also important for various other reasons as well which are given below: • Better engagement of workers • Comfortable and convenient experience • Universally acceptable • Transparency within the organization • Saves time, energy and money Examples of Digital Communication 1. Social media platforms: Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn connect people globally, enabling them to share updates, engage in discussions, and build networks. 2. Video conferencing: Tools like Google Meet, Zoom, and Microsoft Teams have transformed remote communication by allowing face-to-face interactions and virtual meetings. 3. Online customer support: Many companies provide customer support through live chat and chatbots on their websites, offering prompt assistance. 4. Email: It remains a widely used example of Digital Communication method, providing a formal and reliable means of exchanging messages and files. 5. Remote collaboration: Tools such as project management software and virtual whiteboards facilitate seamless collaboration among remote teams. Difference between Analog and Digital Circuits 1. Representation of Signals:
• Analog Circuits: Analog circuits process
continuous signals that vary smoothly over time. These signals are represented by voltages or currents that can take on any value within a defined range. In analog circuits, information is represented as a continuous waveform.
• Digital Circuits: Digital circuits, on the other
hand, process discrete signals. Information in digital circuits is represented using binary code, typically as 0s and 1s. Digital signals have specific discrete voltage levels, such as high and low, on and off, or true and false. 2. Signal Precision:
• Analog Circuits: Analog circuits are capable of
representing and processing a wide range of values with high precision. They are well- suited for applications where exact numerical values or continuous data need to be preserved, such as audio and video signals.
• Digital Circuits: Digital circuits offer precise,
noise-resistant representations, and are ideal for applications where the exactness of data is critical. Digital signals are less susceptible to noise and distortion, making them suitable for data storage and transmission. 3. Noise Immunity:
• Analog Circuits: Analog signals are
susceptible to noise and interference. Small variations in voltage or current can introduce errors in the data. Filtering and signal conditioning are often necessary in analog circuits to mitigate noise.
• Digital Circuits: Digital signals have built-
in noise immunity. As long as the voltage levels are correctly interpreted as high or low, the data remains accurate. Digital circuits are highly resistant to noise, which is one of their key advantages. 4. Signal Processing:
• Analog Circuits: Analog circuits are well-
suited for tasks involving continuous signal processing, such as amplification, filtering, modulation, and analog-to-digital conversion (ADC).
• Digital Circuits: Digital circuits excel at
discrete signal processing, including tasks like arithmetic operations, logic functions, data storage, and digital-to-analog conversion (DAC). 5. Power Consumption:
• Analog Circuits: Analog circuits can be more
power-efficient for certain applications, especially those requiring continuous signal processing.
• Digital Circuits: Digital circuits may consume
more power when actively processing signals due to their discrete nature and the need for clocking, but they can also be highly power- efficient during idle states. 6. Flexibility and Reprogrammability: 7. Compatibility:
• Analog Circuits: Analog circuits are • Analog Circuits: Analog circuits are typically hardwired and not easily compatible with natural signals, such reprogrammable. Changes in as audio, video, and sensor data. functionality often require physical modifications. • Digital Circuits: Digital circuits are compatible with data and information • Digital Circuits: Digital circuits can be processing tasks, making them easily reprogrammed or reconfigured suitable for applications like using software. This flexibility is a computers, microcontrollers, and significant advantage for digital digital communication. systems. Transmitter The first step in sending a message is to convert it into electronic form suitable for transmission.
• Voice messages into an electronic audio signal - microphone
• Scene taken in the film, from light information into a video signal in TV – camera • The message typed on a keyboard into binary codes that can be stored in memory or transmitted serially - computer systems
Transducers convert physical characteristics (temperature, pressure, light intensity, and so on) into electrical signals. Transducers convert physical characteristics (temperature, pressure, light intensity, and so on) into electrical signals.
The transmitter itself is a collection of electronic components and circuits
designed to convert the electrical signal to a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium. • Oscillators – electronic device that works on the principles of oscillation (fluctuation) i.e. clocks • Amplifiers • Tuned circuits and filters • Modulators- superimpose a low freq. onto a high freq. for the purpose of wireless transmission. • Frequency mixers and synthesizers – generate and combine signal into different frequencies i.e. operated by keyboard The original intelligence signal usually modulates a higher-frequency carrier sine wave generated by the transmitter, and the combination is raised in amplitude by power amplifiers, resulting in a signal that is compatible with the selected transmission medium. Communication Channel The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal is sent from one place to another.
Many different types of media are used in communication systems, including wire conductors, fiber-optic cable, and free space.
Electrical Conductors. In its simplest form, the medium may simply be a pair of wires that carry a voice signal from a microphone to a headset. It may be a coaxial cable such as that used to carry cable TV signals. Or it may be a twisted-pair cable used in a local-area network (LAN).
Headset Coaxial Twisted-
cable cable pair cable Communication Channel Optical Media. The communication medium may also be a fiber-optic cable or “light pipe” that carries the message on a light wave. These are widely used today to carry long-distance calls and all Internet communications.
The information is converted to digital form that can be used to turn a laser diode off and on at high speeds.
Alternatively, audio or video analog signals can be used to vary the amplitude of the light. Communication Channel Free Space. When free space is the medium, the resulting system is known as radio. Also known as wireless, radio is the broad general term applied to any form of wireless communication from one point to another.
Radio makes use of the electromagnetic spectrum. Intelligence signals are converted to electric and magnetic fields that propagate nearly instantaneously through space over long distances. Communication by visible or infrared light also occurs in free space. Other forms of Although the most widely used media are conducting cables and free space (radio), other types of media are used in special communication systems.
For example, in sonar, water is used as the medium.
The earth itself can be used as a communication medium,
because it conducts electricity and can also carry low- frequency sound waves.
Alternating-current (ac) power lines, the electrical
conductors that carry the power to operate virtually all our electrical and electronic devices, can also be used as communication channels.
sonar The Receivers A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the transmitted message from the channel and converts it back to a form understandable by humans.
Receivers contain amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector that recovers the original intelligence signal from the modulated carrier.
The output is the original signal, which is then read out or displayed. It may be a voice signal sent to a speaker, a video signal that is fed to an LCD screen for display, or binary data that is received by a computer and then printed out or displayed on a video. Transcievers Most electronic communication is two-way, and so both parties must have both a transmitter and a receiver.
As a result, most communication equipment incorporates circuits that both send and receive. These units are commonly referred to as transceivers.
All the transmitter and receiver circuits are packaged within a single housing and usually share some common circuits such as the power supply i.e. handheld radios, cellular telephones, and computer modems are examples of transceivers. Attenuation Signal attenuation, or degradation, is inevitable no matter what the medium of transmission. Attenuation is proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver.
Media are also frequency-selective, in that a given medium will act as a low-pass filter to a transmitted signal, distorting digital pulses in addition to greatly reducing signal amplitude over long distances. Thus considerable signal amplification, in both the transmitter and the receiver, is required for successful transmission.
Any medium also slows signal propagation to a speed slower than the speed of light. Noise Noise is mentioned here because it is the bane of all electronic communications. Its effect is experienced in the receiver part of any communications system. We cover noise at that more appropriate time in Chapter 9.
While some noise can be filtered out, the general way to minimize noise is to use components that contribute less noise and to lower their temperatures.
The measure of noise is usually expressed in terms of the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (SNR), which is the signal power divided by the noise power and can be stated numerically or in terms of decibels (dB). Obviously, a very high SNR is preferred for best performance. Types of Electronic Communication Electronic communications are classified according to whether they are:
1. one-way (simplex) or two-way (full duplex or half duplex) transmissions and
2. analog or digital
Simplex The simplest way in which electronic communication is conducted is one-way communications, normally referred to as simplex communication.
The most common forms of simplex communication
are radio and TV broadcasting.
Another example of one-way communication is
transmission to a remotely controlled vehicle like a toy car or an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV or drone). Full Duplex The bulk of electronic communication is two-way, or duplex communication. Typical duplex applications are shown in Fig. a. For example, people communicating with one another over the telephone can talk and listen simultaneously.
Half Duplex The form of two-way communication in which only one party transmits at a time is known as half duplex communication as shown in Fig. b. The communication is two-way, but the direction alternates: the communicating parties take turns transmitting and receiving.
Most radio transmissions, such as those used in the military, fire, police, aircraft, marine, and other services, are half duplex communication. Citizens band (CB), Family Radio, and amateur radio communication are also half duplex
