Basics of Computer and its Operations

Introduction :
A computer is an electronic device that can receive, store, process, and output
data. It is a machine that can perform a variety of tasks and operations, ranging
from simple calculations to complex simulations and artificial intelligence.
Computers consist of hardware components such as the central processing unit
(CPU), memory, storage devices, input/output devices, and peripherals, as well as
software components such as the operating system and applications.
The history of computers can be traced back to the 19th century when mechanical
devices such as the Analytical Engine and tabulating machines were developed.
However, modern computers as we know them today were developed in the mid-
20th century with the invention of the transistor and the development of integrated
circuits.
Today, computers are widely used in various industries such as education, finance,
healthcare, and entertainment, and they have revolutionized the way we live, work,
and communicate. They have also given rise to a new era of technology such as
the internet, cloud computing, and mobile devices, which have further transformed
our daily lives.
Computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It
processes the input according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user
and gives the desired output quickly. A Computer can perform the following set of
functions:
 Accept data
 Store data
 Process data as desired
 Retrieve the stored data as and when required
 Print the result in desired format.
Data and Information: Data: It is the term used for raw facts and figures fed into
the computer and along with the set of instructions which enables the computer to
convert this raw data into the refined and useful information. Information: Data
represented in useful and meaningful form is information.
Data and information are related concepts, but they have different meanings. Data
refers to raw facts and figures that are unorganized and have no meaning on their
own. Information, on the other hand, is data that has been processed, organized,
and given context to make it meaningful and useful.
Data can take many forms, such as numbers, words, images, or sounds. For
example, a list of sales figures for a company is data. However, this data by itself
does not provide any useful information. It needs to be processed and analyzed to
be turned into information that can be used for decision-making.
Information is data that has been processed and organized in a meaningful way to
convey a message or answer a question. For example, using the sales figures from
the earlier example, an analyst could create a graph or chart that shows the sales
trends over time, providing meaningful information about the company’s
performance.
In summary, data is the raw, unorganized facts and figures, while information is
data that has been processed and given context to be meaningful and useful for
decision-making.

Computer - Components
Computer systems consist of three components: Central Processing Unit, Input devices and
Output devices. Input devices provide data to the processor (processing unit), which
processes it and generates useful information that’s displayed to the user through output
devices. Output devices are used to show the processed data to the user on computer
screen or in print form. Below figure depicts the major components of computer systems −

Fig: Components of computer systems

Central Processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is also known as "the brain of computer". It controls
operation of all components of a computer.
 Fig: Central Processing Unit

A CPU itself has three components which are as follows −

 Control Unit (CU)

 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
 Memory or Storage Unit

Control Unit

As its name implies, a control unit acts as the "brain" of the CPU. It executes instructions
and manages the flow of data inside the CPU to perform the tasks specified by a computer
program. It plays a pivotal role in the fetch-decode-execute cycle, which is a fundamental
process by which a CPU runs program instructions.

Functions of Control Unit

 Instruction Fetch − To run and execute a program; a CU fetches instructions from
RAM (Random Access Memory).
 Instruction Decoding − It decodes the fetched instructions to determine the
operation to be performed.
 Instruction Execution − A CU executes the instructions by sending control signals
to the appropriate functional units within the CPU, such as the ALU for arithmetic and
logical operations
 Control Flow Management − The Control Unit is responsible for overseeing the
control flow of the programme. It accomplishes this by updating the programme
counter, which enables the CPU to go to the subsequent instruction in the sequence
based on conditional statements or jumps.
 Exception Handling − The system effectively manages exceptions and
interruptions, including hardware failures, system calls, and external events, by
 appropriately diverting the control flow of the central processing unit (CPU) to the
planned procedure for managing such exceptions.
 Pipeline Control (in pipelined CPUs) − The modern CPU’s are available with
pipeline designs; a CU controls the steps of the pipeline and makes sure that
instructions are processed quickly and safely.
 Synchronization − In the context of multi-core processors, a CU plays a crucial role
in facilitating the coordination of instruction execution across several cores, hence
guaranteeing the appropriate synchronisation and maintenance of data consistency.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is a component that has been extensively optimised and
engineered to do multiple tasks concurrently. It is commonly built to execute operations
speedily. It works in conjunction with other CPU components, such as registers, memory,
and control units, to execute complex instructions.

Functions of an ALU
 Arithmetic Operations − The ALU can perform basic arithmetic operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
 Logic Operations − The ALU can also perform logical operations like AND, OR, NOT,
XOR, and bit-shifting operations.
 Comparison − The ALU can compare two binary values and determine whether they
are equal, greater than, or less than each other. This function is most widely used in
programming and sorting algorithms.

Memory Unit

A memory or storage unit is a hardware component which is used to store the data and
instructions and retrieve it whenever is required. Majorly computer memory has categorised
as temporary (RAM) and permanent memory (secondary memory). RAM is used for short-
term, fast data access and essential for active program execution. On the other hand,
storage or secondary memory provides permanent data storage. Hence, memory and
storage units both are critical components of a computer system.

Functions of memory

Memory (RAM - Random Access Memory)

 RAM is also known as primary or temporary memory; it is a type of volatile memory
used for temporarily storing data.
 The contents inside the RAM are erased when computer's power get off or restarted.
  RAM is actively used for program or instructions execution.
 Once we start the computer; systems necessary files, programs and the operating
system files are loaded into the RAM for smoothly running of computer.
 The more RAM a computer has, the better it can handle multitasking and the faster it
can run applications since data can be accessed more quickly.

Storage (Hard Drives, SSDs, Flash Drives, etc.)

 Storage devices are used to store the data permanently, even when the computer is
powered off.
 They are non-volatile in nature; the data remains intact even when the power is get
off or system restarts.
 The most popular and commonly used storage devices are Hard Disk (HDs), Solid-
State Drives (SSDs), USB flash drives, and optical disks (e.g., DVDs), pen drives.

 The data storage capacity varies of these devices are in gigabytes (GB) to terabytes
(TB) and more, depending on the type and size of the storage device.
Input devices
The devices which are used to give input to the computer system is known as input devices.

Keyboard

Keyboard is a most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like a traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions. There are different types
of keyboards; each one has designed for specific purposes.

 QWERTY Keyboards − QWERTY is a most usable keyboard. It's named after the
first six letters in the top row of the keyboard.

QWERTY keyboards are commonly found in personal computers and are considered as
standard on typewriters. These devices are specifically designed for general typing tasks.

 Mechanical Keyboards − Each key on mechanical keyboards has a mechanical

switch. Different types of switches offer varying levels of tactile feedback and
actuation force.

Typists and gamers who demand accurate and enjoyable typing love these switches
because they give tactile and aural feedback.
  Membrane Keyboards − Laptops and cheap desktop keyboards have membrane
keyboards. When pushed, a key contacts a rubber or silicone membrane below the
keys to register a keystroke.

 Ergonomic Keyboards − Typing for long periods of time can cause muscle strain
and discomfort; ergonomic keyboards are specifically designed to alleviate these
issues.

These include split keyboards and contoured keyboards, which are curved to fit the natural
hand posture.

 Gaming Keyboards − Gaming keyboards are optimized for gaming performance.

They usually have changeable illumination, programmable keys, and anti-ghosting
technology to prevent missed keypresses during fast gameplay. Some gaming keyboards
include mechanical switches for quicker responsiveness.

 Wireless Keyboards − Wireless keyboards use Bluetooth or RF to connect to

computers and other devices without cords.

Laptops, tablets, and smart TVs utilise them for convenience and mobility.

 Virtual Keyboards − Software-based virtual keyboards are utilised on smartphones

and tablets. Tap or swipe virtual keys to enter text or directions.

 Foldable Keyboards − Foldable keyboards are portable and convenient.

Travellers and people who require a small keyboard may fold or wrap them up for storage
and transport.

The keys on the keyboard

Below table describes different keys on the keyboard and their are as follows −
S.N
Keys & Description
o.

1 Typing Keys − These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9)
which generally give the same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad − It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement.

2
Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration
used by most adding machines and calculators.

Function Keys − The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which is
3
arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique
meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

Control keys − These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four
4
directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page
Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

5 Special Purpose Keys − Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys
such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse

Mouse is a most popular input device. It is also known as a pointing device. It is a very
famous cursor-control device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base,
which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when
the mouse buttons are pressed. Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right
button and a wheel is present between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the
position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

The most common types of mouse are as follows −

 Optical Mouse − Movement is detected by LED lights and sensors in optical mouse.
They work on many surfaces and are the most common mouse.
  Trackball Mouse − Trackball mice have a stationary ball on top that users may roll
with their fingers or thumbs.

Movement controls the screen cursor. Trackball mice are utilised when space or accuracy
are restricted.

 Wireless Mouse − Bluetooth or USB receivers link wireless mice to computers and
devices. They're cable-free, so they move more freely.

Wireless mouse can be recharged or utilise disposable batteries.

 Wired Mouse − They work without batteries or a wireless connection, making them
a good solution for those who don't want to worry about signal interference. These
are connected to computers using physical cables.
  Gaming Mouse − Gaming mouse have configurable buttons, adjustable DPI, and
ergonomic ergonomics for long-term usage. Gaming is optimised for rapid, accurate
movements.

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower
spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or
draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed
in a small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed,
its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding
signal to the CPU.

Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can
be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track
ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the
computer for further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that
can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored
in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the
camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.
Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the
cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR are that it is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable
code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and
dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It
may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is
then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.
It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.

Explore our latest online courses and learn new skills at your own pace. Enroll and
become a certified expert to boost your career.

Output Devices
Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer

Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels,
the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a
whole character, such as the letter 'e' in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be
divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard
character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data
horizontally and 25 lines vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size
 High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight
and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them
on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games,
monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy
into light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD
(Liquid-Crystal Device).

Graphic Plotter

Computer graphics and engineering applications employ graphic plotters to create high-
quality, accurate, and detailed drawings or plots on paper or other media. It draws
continuous lines accurately and is suited for vector drawings, unlike a standard printer. Key
features of graphic plotters are as −

 Vector Graphics − Vector graphics allow graphic plotters to create lines and shapes
precisely using continuous points instead of dots like raster printers.
 Pen or Pen-Like Tool − A pen or similar instrument draws on paper for graphic
plotters. The pen may move X and Y on a moveable arm to draw complicated shapes.
 Applications − Graphic plotters are employed in engineering, architecture,
cartography, and textile design. They were popular for technical drawings and
diagrams before digital.

A vector graphics plotter outputs accurate and detailed drawings. They are still used in
sectors and applications that need accuracy and high-quality output, even if digital printing
has made them less widespread.

Printers

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers −

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers

Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on
the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

  Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types −

 Character printers
 Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are
popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in
the form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9)
which come out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for
word-processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice
quality.

Advantages
 More reliable than DMP
 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP
 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP

Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a
paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on
the track. Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96
characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can
print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
 Noisy

Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
 Faster than impact printers
 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to
form the characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages
 Very high speed
 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high
quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable
Disadvantages
 Expensive as the cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer

Characteristics of Computer
System
The characteristics of the computer system are as follows −
Speed
A computer can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. The time taken by
computers for their operations is microseconds and nanoseconds. Hence, a computer works
with high speed during the execution of Mathematical & logical computations.

Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data
inconsistency or inaccuracy. High accuracy indicates that a computer is performing its tasks
correctly and producing reliable results. 100% accuracy depends on algorithm, data quality,
hardware connectivity, and inherent uncertainties in the tasks being performed.
Explore our latest online courses and learn new skills at your own pace. Enroll and
become a certified expert to boost your career.

Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and
accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Hence, it can perform
repetitive task without getting tired.

Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with
same accuracy and efficiency. Hence, a versatile computer can be used for different
purposes. A versatile computer can support Software Compatibility, Operating System
Support, Programming and Development, Multi-Tasking, Internet Connectivity, Media
Handling, Hardware Compatibility, Customization, and can manage different types of
applications and workloads.

Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same
set of input any number of times, we will get the same result. Reliability is important to
ensure safety, data integrity, and continuous operation. Reliability of a computer can be
measured using Mean Time between Failures (MTBF), Mean Time to Failure (MTTF), Mean
Time to Repair (MTTR), Availability (proportion of time a system is operational and
accessible), and Failure Rate, Fault Tolerance(continuity of functioning even in the presence
of hardware or software faults).

Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual
intervention. The main aim of automation is to improve efficiency, accuracy, and consistency
in different processes by reducing manual intervention in the system. Automation can lead
to increased productivity, reduced errors, and cost savings.

Storage and Retrieval

Memory is a storage device which stores data. The beauty of a computer is to execute the
data in primary memory (RAM) whenever required. At the other side, data can permanently
store to the secondary memory (Hard Disk) to the long time and a user can access it
whenever they required; it does not delete the data until a user delete it.
Data Management and data analytics
In digital world, data can be in various forms, such as text, numbers, images, audio, and
video. A computer may process and manipulate this data efficiently and provides insightful
results from text, numbers, images, audio, and video data. The analytical results are used in
decision making and useful to frame the strategies for the organisations.

Connectivity
The connectivity of computers enables data communication, resource sharing, and remote
access to information and services.

Multitasking
Modern computer systems support multitasking, which means parallel execution of tasks.
During multitasking process, processor rapidly switches between tasks, and giving the
illusion of simultaneous execution. Multicore processors enable simultaneous execution of
multiple tasks.

Security and Privacy

Modern computers are kept the data security, privacy of data to protect against
unauthorized access, data breaches, and cyberattacks. For example -Biometric
authentication, encryption, and secure boot protect the computer and user data.

Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

GPUs manages graphical tasks like gaming, multimedia, and computational related things
like AI and machine learning.

Generations of Computer

There exist 5 computer generations till date. In the following list, approximate dates against each
generation have been mentioned, which are normally accepted. These five generations of
computers are based on their processing hardware.

Generations Period Technology Used

First Generation 1946-1959 Vacuum tube-based

Second Generation 1959-1965 Transistor-based

Third Generation 1965-1971 Integrated Circuit based

Fourth Generation 1971-1980 VLSI microprocessor-based

Fifth Generation 1980-onwards ULSI microprocessor-based

The development of computers has gone through different generations, each generation
marked by significant advancements in terms of technology and architecture. These
generations are classified as follows:

 First generation
 Second generation
 Third generation
 Fourth generation
 Fifth generation

First Generation
 The timeline for the first generation computers was 1940 to 1956.
 The first generation computers were developed using vacuum tube or thermionic
valve machine.
 Punched cards and paper tape were used as input/output.
 Magnetic drums and magnetic tapes were used as a memory device to save the data.

 These computers were consuming lot of electricity because of vacuum tubes and
other electronic devices and generate lot of heat.
 These were bigger in size and more expensive.
 These computers were worked on binary-coded concept (i.e., language of 0-1).
 Examples − ENIAC, EDVAC, etc.
Read more about First Generation

Second Generation
 The timeline for the second generation computers was 1956 to 1963.
 Transistors were used to develop.
  In comparison to the first generation, second generation computers were small in
size.
 Punched cards and magnetic tape were used for input /output.
 Electricity consumption was low and produces less heat.
 Magnetic core memory was used.
 Fast computing and were used in business, scientific research, and government
applications.
 Examples − UNIVAC, IBM 1401, IBM 7090.
Read more about Second Generation

Explore our latest online courses and learn new skills at your own pace. Enroll and
become a certified expert to boost your career.

Third Generation
 The timeline for the third generation computers was 1963 to 1971.
 Integrated Circuit (IC) was used to develop.
 In comparison to the second generation, third generation computers were small in
size.
 Magnetic tape, keyboard, monitor, printer devices were used as input and output.
  Computation power was higher as compare to second generation computers.
 The third generation computer consumed less power and also generated less heat.
 The maintenance cost of the computers in the third generation was also low as these
were consuming less power and generated less heat.
 These were most widely used in commercial purposes.
 Examples − UNIVAC, IBM 360, IBM 370.
Read more about Third Generation

Fourth Generation
 The timeline for the fourth generation computers was 1972 to 2010.
 Microprocessor technology was used to develop.
 These were surprising in terms of size and computing power.

 Portable computers.
  Very less power consuming and affordable.
 Semiconductor memory such as RAM, ROM were used which makes computation
faster.
 Keyboard, pointing devices, optical scanning, monitor, printer devices were used for
input and output.
 It became available for the common people as well.
 Examples − IBM PC, STAR 1000, Apple.
Read more about Fourth Generation

Fifth Generation
 The timeline for the fifth generation computers is form 2010 to till date.
 These computers are based on artificial intelligence, Ultra Large-Scale Integration
(ULSI), Quantum computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel processing technology.

 Very fast and multiple tasks could be performed simultaneously.

 These are smaller in size as compare to fourth generation computers.
 Consumes very low power.
 Keyboard, monitor, mouse, touchscreen, scanner, printer are used as an input output
devices.
 Examples − Laptops, tablets, smartphones are most popular examples of fifth
generation computers.

Classification of Computers: Computers can be classified based on the

technology being used and the way they are designed to perform the various tasks.
Computers can be categorized into Digital, Analog and Hybrid based on their
design and working:
1. Digital Computers : These are the modern computers which are capable of
processing information in discrete form. In digital technology data which can be
 in the form of letters, symbols or numbers is represented in binary form i.e. 0s
and 1s. The digital computers are used in industrial, business and scientific
applications. They are quite suitable for large volume data processing.
2. Analog Computers : These computers are used to process data generated
by ongoing physical processes. A thermometer is an example of an analog
computer since it measures the change in mercury level continuously. Analog
computers are well suited to simulating systems. A simulator helps to conduct
experiments repeatedly in real time environment. Some of the common
examples are simulations in aircrafts, nuclear power plants, hydraulic and
electronic networks.
3. Hybrid Computers : These use both analog and digital technology. It has
the speed of analog computer and the accuracy of a digital computer. It may
accept digital or analog signals but an extensive conversion of data from digital
to analog and analog to digital has to be done. Hybrid Computers are used as a
cost effective means for complex simulations.
4. Supercomputers: These are the most powerful and expensive computers
that are used for complex scientific calculations, simulations, and research.
They are used in fields such as weather forecasting, cryptography, and nuclear
research.
5. Mainframe Computers: These are large and powerful computers that are
used by large organizations such as banks, airlines, and government agencies
to process massive amounts of data and handle multiple users simultaneously.
6. Mini Computers: These are smaller and less powerful than mainframe
computers, but they are still capable of handling multiple users and processing
large amounts of data. They are commonly used by small to medium-sized
businesses for accounting, inventory management, and other data-intensive
tasks.
7. Personal Computers: These are small and affordable computers that are
designed for individual users. They are commonly used for personal
productivity, entertainment, and communication.
8. Workstations: These are high-performance computers that are used by
professionals such as architects, engineers, and designers to run complex
software applications for tasks such as 3D modeling, animation, and scientific
visualization.
9. Embedded Systems: These are specialized computers that are built into
other devices such as cars, appliances, and medical equipment to control their
operations and perform specific functions.
10. Mobile Devices: These are small and portable computers that are designed
for on-the-go use, such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops
Classification of Digital Computers
1. Micro Computers :These are also known as Personal Computers. These
type of digital computer uses a microprocessor (a CPU on a single chip) and
include both desktops and laptops. These computers can work on small volume
of data, are very versatile and can handle variety of applications. These
computers are being used as work stations, CAD, multimedia and advertising
 applications. Example: portable computers such as PDAs (Personal Digital
Assistants) and tablets
2. Mini Computers :These computers can support multiple users working
simultaneously on the same machine. These are mainly used in an organization
where computers installed in various departments are interconnected. These
computers are useful for small business organizations.
3. Main Frames : These computers are large and very powerful computers
with very high memory capacity. These can process huge databases such as
census at extremely fast rate. They are suitable for big organizations, banks,
industries etc. and can support hundreds of users simultaneously on the
network.
4. Super Computers : These are fastest and very expensive computers. They
can execute billions of instructions per second. These are multiprocessor,
parallel systems suitable for specialized complex scientific applications involving
huge amounts of mathematical applications such as weather forecasting.
5. Mainframe Computers: These are large and powerful computers that are
used by large organizations such as banks, airlines, and government agencies
to process massive amounts of data and handle multiple users simultaneously.
6. Minicomputers: These are smaller and less powerful than mainframe
computers, but they are still capable of handling multiple users and processing
large amounts of data. They are commonly used by small to medium-sized
businesses for accounting, inventory management, and other data-intensive
tasks.
7. Microcomputers: These are the most common type of digital computers,
also known as personal computers or PCs. They are designed for individual
users and are used for personal productivity, entertainment, and
communication.
8. Workstations: These are high-performance computers that are used by
professionals such as architects, engineers, and designers to run complex
software applications for tasks such as 3D modeling, animation, and scientific
visualization.
9. Supercomputers: These are the most powerful and expensive computers
that are used for complex scientific calculations, simulations, and research.
They are used in fields such as weather forecasting, cryptography, and nuclear
research.
10. Embedded Systems: These are specialized computers that are built into
other devices such as cars, appliances, and medical equipment to control their
operations and perform specific functions.
11. Mobile Devices: These are small and portable computers that are designed
for on-the-go use, such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops.
Peripheral Devices
These devices are used for performing the specific functions and are connected to
the computer externally. These peripheral devices enable the computer to operate
according to the user requirements by feeding data in and out of the computer.
Peripheral devices are as follows:
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Light Pen
 Optical/magnetic Scanner
 Touch Screen
 Microphone for voice as input
 Track Ball
 Monitor (Visual Display Unit)
 Printers
 Plotter
 Speaker
Difference between RAM and Hard-disk
RAM Hard Disk

RAM is an electronic device Hard-disk is an electromechanical device

Electro-mechanical device has speed slower

Electronic device are faster in speed
than Electronic device.

CPU is an electronic device,so it’s speed Hard disk is an electro-mechanical

can match with RAM.Therefore,CPU and device.Therefore,it’s speed cannot be match
RAM have connections and that by CPU and hence there is no connection
connections is known as buses between hard-disk and CPU.

Hard-disk is a type of non-volatile storage

RAM is much faster than a hard-disk. RAM
that is much slower than RAM. It is used for
is a type of volatile memory that can be
long-term storage of data that needs to be
accessed quickly by the CPU. This allows
preserved even when the computer is turned
for fast data processing and multitasking.
off.

Hard-disk is non-volatile, meaning that its

RAM is volatile, meaning that its contents contents are preserved even when the
are lost when the computer is turned off. computer is turned off. This makes hard-disk
an ideal choice for long-term storage of data.
CPU process the data, and to process that data we need fast speed memory which
is known as RAM.

Advantages of Computers
 Speed − Computers can execute programmes quickly. Thousands of instructions can
execute in milliseconds or seconds.
  Accuracy − Computers can perform very complex computations accurately in a very
short period of time. If a user inputs the correct input to the computer, it gives
accurate results that can be used in decision-making.
 Storage − Computers can store large amounts of data permanently. The data is
saved in files, which can be accessed at any time; these files are saved for a long
time period until a user deletes them.
 Power of Remembering − A computer stores data permanently. It forgets or loses
certain information only when asked to do so.
 Versatility − A computer is a versatile device. It can run different programmes
simultaneously.
 Diligently − A computer can do the assigned task diligently. A computer can work
for hours without getting tired. Hence, it can do thousands of complex computations
with the same accuracy.
 Automation − A computer is an automated device. It works without human
intervention.
 No I.Q. − A computer does not have its own I.Q.; it carries out the predetermined
tasks and does not take its own decisions.
 No Feelings − A computer does not have emotions. It works as per the given
instructions by users.

Disadvantages of Computers
 Health Issues − Working long hours on computers leads to health issues. Student's
playing games and accessing related applications for long periods of time cause
serious health problems.
 Spread of Pornography − The growing trend of the internet has spread
pornography. In today's time, pornography is a big threat to society and the youth.
 Virus and hacking attacks − Viruses are unwanted programmes that enter
computers through networks or the internet. These programmes may steal
information or damage computers. Sometimes these lock the application
programmes of the computer to affect its working.
 No IQ − Computers cannot make their own decisions. Its functioning depends on
human interventions.
 Negative effect on the environment − The increasing use of computers and
automated devices has posed a major threat to the environment.
 Crashed Networks − Hackers may destroy the network, which affects the overall
working of the existing system. In today’s time, most of the data is on servers, so
destroying the network may be a serious threat to communication.
 Online cybercrimes − the practise of using a computer to facilitate unlawful
activities including fraud, the trafficking of child pornography and other items of
intellectual property, identity theft, and privacy violations The relevance of
cybercrime, particularly over the Internet, has increased as the computer is most
widely used in business, entertainment, and government.
 Data and information violation − A breach of confidentiality occurs when
information is given to a third party without the data owner's authorization. The
owner of the data has the right to file for legal action to recover the potential losses.

 Computer - Applications
the application of computers in various fields.
Business

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.

Computer is used in business organizations for −

 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.

Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities −

  Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits
and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for
customers to deal with banks.

Explore our latest online courses and learn new skills at your own pace. Enroll and
become a certified expert to boost your career.

Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers.
Insurance companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers
for their concerns.

Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing −

 Procedure to continue with policies

 Starting date of the policies
 Next due installment of a policy
 Maturity date
 Interests due
 Survival benefits
 Bonus
Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer
Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer
to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is
carried out on this basis.

Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following −

 Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics,

write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more
products.
 Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit
direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are
being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in
scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are
also done by computerized machines.

Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

 Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of
illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by
computer.
 Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
 Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry
dates, harmful side effects, etc.
 Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.

One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and
modification of images. Some of the fields are −
  Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships,
buildings, budgets, air planes, etc.
 Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
 Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing
buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

Military

Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also
employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been
used are −

 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons

Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received
and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas
in this category are −
  E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing

Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this
category are −

 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

 Computer - Software Types

Software is a collection of programs, data, and instructions that enable a computer system
and its hardware’s to do the tasks. A program is a set of instructions or programming
statements.

Hence, software built using multiple statements. It is an important part of modern

computing and is classified into different categories based on its capability and purpose. For
example, word-processing software enables the user to create, edit and save documents. A
web browser enables the user to view and share web pages and multimedia files.

Software Types
Some common types of software are as −

 System Software
 Application Software
 Utility Software
 Open Source Software
 Types of Software
1. System Software : These are those software,without which our PC,laptop
won’t run, i.e it is must for a device to be operating. For Example:
Linux,Unix,Windows,etc.
Application Software : These are those software,without which our
PC,laptop can run, i.e these software are not necessary for a device to be
operating. For Example: Facebook,What’s App,Games

Fig: Software and its types

System Software
Software that enables a computer to run and activates required hardware or other parts of a
computer to run is called system software. System software acts as interface between
hardware and user applications. An interface is needed because hardware devices or
machines and humans speak in different languages.

Machines understand only binary language i.e. 0 (absence of electric signal) and 1 (presence
of electric signal) while humans speak in English, French, German, Tamil, Hindi and many
other languages. English is the pre-dominant language of interacting with computers.

Software is required to convert all human instructions into machine understandable

instructions. And this is exactly what system software does.
Based on its function, system software is of four types −

 Operating System
 Language Processor
 Device Drivers

Operating System

Generally, system software is responsible for functioning of all hardware parts and their
interoperability to carry out tasks successfully is called operating system (OS).OS is the first
software to be loaded into computer memory when the computer is switched on and this is
called booting.

OS manages a computer's basic functions like storing data in memory, retrieving files from
storage devices, scheduling tasks based on priority, etc.

Language Processor

As discussed earlier, an important function of system software is to convert all user

instructions into machine understandable language. When we talk of human machine
interactions, languages are of three types −

 Machine-level language − This language is nothing but a string of 0s and 1s that

the machines can understand. It is completely machine dependent.
 Assembly-level language − This language introduces a layer of abstraction by
defining mnemonics. Mnemonics are English like words or symbols used to denote a
long string of 0s and 1s. For example, the word "READ" can be defined to mean that
computer has to retrieve data from the memory. The complete instruction will also
tell the memory address. Assembly level language is machine dependent.
 High level language − This language uses English like statements and is
completely independent of machines. Programs written using high level languages
are easy to create, read and understand.

Program written in high level programming languages like Java, C++, etc. is called source
code. Set of instructions in machine readable form is called object code or machine code.
System software that converts source code to object code is called language processor.
There are three types of language interpreters −

 Assembler − Converts assembly level program into machine level program.

  Interpreter − Converts high level programs into machine level program line by line.
 Compiler − Converts high level programs into machine level programs at one go
rather than line by line.

Device Drivers

System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific device on computer is
called device driver. Each device like printer, scanner, microphone, speaker, etc. that needs
to be attached externally to the system has a specific driver associated with it. When you
attach a new device, you need to install its driver so that the OS knows how it needs to be
managed.

Application Software
Application software, sometimes known as "apps" or "applications," is a type of software
that is created for certain tasks or functions such as productivity, entertainment,
communication, or other reasons. Hence, software that performs a single task and nothing
else is called application software. Application software is very specialized in their
function and approach to solving a problem. So spread sheet software can only do
operations with numbers and nothing else. Application software, as opposed to system
software (such as operating systems and device drivers), is designed to fulfil the needs and
preferences of end users. The following are some examples of common types of application
software −

Productivity Software
 Word Processing − This application software allows users to create, edit, and
format documents. Some popular word processing applications are Microsoft Word,
Google Docs, and Apple Pages.

 Spreadsheet Application − This application software is used to create and

analyzing spreadsheets. Some popular Spreadsheet applications are Microsoft Excel,
Google Sheets, and LibreOffice Calc.
 Presentation Software − This application software is used to make slideshows and
presentations. Some popular presentation applications are Microsoft PowerPoint,
Google Slides, and Apple Keynote.

 Project Management Software − This application software is used to make teams

plan, organize, and track projects. Examples - Trello, Asana, and Jira.

 Calendar and Scheduling Apps − This application software is used for time
management and scheduling appointments, like Google Calendar, Microsoft Outlook,
and Apple Calendar.
Graphics and Multimedia Software
 Image Editing − This application is used to edit and manipulate images. Examples
are Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, and Canva.
 Video Editing − This application is used to create and editing of video. Examples
are Adobe Premiere Pro, Final Cut Pro, and DaVinci Resolve.
 Audio Editing − This application is used for recording and editing audio. Examples
are Audacity and Adobe Audition.
 3D Modelling and Animation − This application is used for creating 3D graphics
and animations. Examples are Blender and Autodesk Maya.

Communication Software
 Email Clients − This application is used to send, receive, and manage email.
Examples are Microsoft Outlook, Mozilla Thunderbird, and Apple Mail.
 Instant Messaging Apps − This application enables users for real-time text and
multimedia communication. Examples are WhatsApp, Slack, and Telegram.
 Video Conferencing Software − This application is used to conduct virtual
meetings and conferences. Examples are Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Cisco Webex.
 Social Media Apps − These applications provide platforms for social networking.
Examples are Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.

Web Browsers

These application programs are used to access and navigate websites on the internet.
Popular web browsers are Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, and Safari.

Gaming Software

These applications are designed for entertainment and gaming. Examples are Steam,
PlayStation, Xbox, and mobile app stores.

Utility Software

Provides various utilities to perform specific tasks, such as −

 File Compression and Extraction − Examples are WinZip, 7-Zip, and WinRAR.
 Backup and Recovery − Examples are Acronis True Image and Time Machine.
 Disk Cleanup and Optimization − Examples are CCleaner and Disk Cleanup
(Windows).

Education and E-Learning Software

These applications are designed to learning management systems (LMS); automate

educational system, online education, and digital libraries.

Health and Fitness Apps

These applications are designed to keep track of health metrics, Yogas and Asans, dietary
guidance etc.
Financial Software

These applications are specifically designed to manage personal finances, accounting, and
taxation. Examples are QuickBooks, TurboTax, and Mint.

Travel and Navigation Apps

These applications are designed to assist travellers with trip planning, maps, and GPS
navigation etc. Examples are Google Maps, TripAdvisor, and Waze.

In continuation of changing demands and preferences of users in different fields, application

software continues to improve and diversify. Users can install and utilise these applications
to do certain tasks and enhance their digital experiences on their computers, smartphones,
tablets, and other digital devices.

Utility Software

Application software also known as utility programs or system utilities that assists system
software in doing their work is called utility software. Utility software is intended to help
users to manage and maintain their computer systems, as well as optimise performance and
execute different system-related activities. These programmes are often used to assure the
efficient operation of hardware and software components, and improve a computer system's
overall functionality and stability. Thus utility software is actually a cross between system
software and application software.

Some common types of utility are as −

 Antivirus and Antimalware Software − These utilities keep safe the computer
against malicious software, spyware, and viruses, as well as other types of security
threats. Examples are Norton Antivirus, McAfee, and Malwarebytes.
 Disk Cleanup and Optimization − These utilities help to remove temporary or
unwanted files. For example - CCleaner (Crap Cleaner) removes temporary files,
cache data, and unused files to free up disk space. Defragmentation applications
reorganise fragmented files on a hard drive in order to increase read/write access.
 Disk Partitioning and Management − Disc Management (Windows) and GParted
(Linux) are utilities that enable users to create, resize, and manage partitions on their
hard drives.
 Backup and Recovery − Backup utilities automatically create copies of vital data to
prevent loss. Example: Windows Backup and Time Machine (Mac). Data recovery
software recovers erased files and folders. Popular options include Recuva and
TestDisk.
 System Monitoring and Diagnostic Tools − Task Manager (Windows) and Activity
Monitor (Mac) offer real-time system resource monitoring to find and fix performance
issues. Windows Memory Diagnostic and Apple Diagnostics (Mac) diagnose hardware
issues.
 Driver Updaters − For hardware compatibility and performance, these programmes
update out-dated or incompatible device drivers. Examples are Driver Booster and
Driver Easy.
 Password Managers − Users generate, store, and manage complex, secure
passwords with password management software. Examples are LastPass, Dashlane,
and 1Password.
  Firewall Utilities − A firewall protects a computer or network by managing
incoming and outgoing network traffic. Examples are Windows Firewall and third-
party firewall solutions like ZoneAlarm.
 Data Encryption Software − These utilities encrypt sensitive data to protect it
from unauthorized access. Examples are BitLocker (Windows) and FileVault (Mac).
 Uninstaller Programs − These utilities assist users in thoroughly removing
undesirable apps as well as the files and registry entries linked with those
applications. Examples are Revo Uninstaller and IObit Uninstaller.

Open Source Software

Software whose source code is freely distributed with a license to study, change and
further distributed to anyone for any purpose is called open source software. Open source
software is generally a team effort where dedicated programmers improve upon the source
code and share the changes within the community. Open source software provides these
advantages to the users due to its thriving communities −
 Security
 Affordability
 Transparent
 Interoperable on multiple platforms
 Flexible due to customizations
 Localization is possible

Freeware

A software that is available free of cost for use and distribution but cannot be modified as its
source code is not available is called freeware. Examples of freeware are Google Chrome,
Adobe Acrobat PDF Reader, Skype, etc.

Shareware

Software that is initially free and can be distributed to others as well, but needs to be paid
for after a stipulated period of time is called shareware. Its source code is also not available
and hence cannot be modified.

Proprietary Software

Software that can be used only by obtaining license from its developer after paying for it is
called proprietary software. An individual or a company can own such proprietary software.

Its source code is often closely guarded secret and it can have major restrictions like −

 No further distribution
 Number of users that can use it
 Type of computer it can be installed on, example multitasking or single user, etc.

For example, Microsoft Windows is a proprietary operating software that comes in many
editions for different types of clients like single-user, multi-user, professional, etc.

2. .
 Difference between Hacker and Cracker
1. Hacker : They will just warn you something about malicious activity going
around in your computer.It will not steal your information.
2. Cracker : They will try to steal your Information without informing you.
Basic computer operation :
1. Booting up: This is the process of starting up the computer by loading the
operating system (OS) into memory. The computer runs a series of checks to
ensure all hardware is working correctly before loading the OS.
2. Logging in: After booting up, you will need to log in to access your user
account. This requires entering your username and password.
3. Running programs: Once you have logged in, you can run programs on
your computer. Programs can include web browsers, office applications, media
players, and more.
4. Accessing data: You can access data stored on your computer or other
connected devices, such as external hard drives or cloud storage services. This
can include files, documents, photos, and other media.
5. Connecting to the internet: You can connect to the internet to access
websites, download files, and communicate with others online. This typically
involves using a web browser to access websites and other online services.
6. Communicating with other devices: You can communicate with other
devices connected to your computer, such as printers, scanners, or other
peripherals. This allows you to print documents, scan images, and perform
other tasks.
7. Saving and backing up data: It’s important to save and back up your data
regularly to avoid data loss. You can save data to your local hard drive, external
hard drives, or cloud storage services.
8. Shutting down: When you’re finished using your computer, you should shut
it down properly. This involves closing all programs and files, saving any
changes, and shutting down the OS.
9. Troubleshooting: If you experience issues with your computer, you may
need to troubleshoot the problem. This can involve diagnosing hardware or
software issues, performing updates, or reinstalling drivers.
10. Security: It’s important to keep your computer secure by using antivirus
software, firewalls, and other security measures. This helps protect your data
and prevent unauthorized access to your system.
Issues of basic computers and computer operations :
some common issues that can arise with basic computers and computer
operations:
1. Slow performance: Computers can become slow and unresponsive due to a
variety of factors, such as lack of storage space, outdated hardware, or
malware.
2. Malware and viruses: Malware and viruses can infect computers and cause
a range of problems, including data loss, system crashes, and identity theft.
3. Hardware failures: Computer hardware components can fail over time,
leading to issues like system crashes, data loss, and display problems.
4. Software glitches: Software applications can sometimes malfunction or
crash, leading to issues like data loss or unresponsive programs.
5. Driver problems: Drivers are software components that enable hardware
devices to communicate with the operating system. If drivers become outdated
or corrupted, it can lead to issues like hardware failures or system crashes.
6. Compatibility issues: Sometimes software applications or hardware
components may not be compatible with each other, leading to issues like
system crashes or display problems.
7. Internet connectivity issues: Problems with internet connectivity can lead to
issues like slow loading web pages, interrupted downloads, and difficulty
accessing online services.
8. User error: Users can sometimes make mistakes or accidentally delete files
or programs, leading to issues like data loss or unresponsive programs.
Reference :
Some references for learning about basic computers and computer operations:
1. “Computer Basics” by GCFGlobal: This is a comprehensive guide to learning
about computers, including hardware components, software, and basic
operations.
2. “Computer Science Basics” by Khan Academy: This course covers the
fundamentals of computer science, including how computers work,
programming basics, and algorithms.
3. “Introduction to Computers” by Udemy: This course covers the basics of
computer hardware, software, and operations, including topics like file
management, computer security, and troubleshooting.
4. “Computer Operations” by Techopedia: This article provides an overview of
computer operations, including booting up, running programs, and saving and
backing up data.
5. “How Computers Work” by HowStuffWorks: This website provides a detailed
explanation of how computers work, including the role of hardware components,
operating systems, and software applications.
6. “The Basics of Computer Operations” by The Tech Academy: This guide
provides an overview of basic computer operations, including starting up,
running programs, and shutting down.
7. “Introduction to Computing” by Georgia Tech: This course provides an
introduction to computing, including basic computer operations, programming,
and algorithms.
What is an Operating System?
Operating System lies in the category of system software. It basically manages all
the resources of the computer. An operating system acts as an interface between
the software and different parts of the computer or the computer hardware. The
operating system is designed in such a way that it can manage the overall
resources and operations of the computer.
Operating System is a fully integrated set of specialized programs that handle all
the operations of the computer. It controls and monitors the execution of all other
programs that reside in the computer, which also includes application programs
and other system software of the computer. Examples of Operating Systems are
Windows, Linux, Mac OS, etc.
An Operating System (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer
hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The
operating system is the most important type of system software in a computer
system.
What is an Operating System Used for?
The operating system helps in improving the computer software as well as
hardware. Without OS, it became very difficult for any application to be user-
friendly. The Operating System provides a user with an interface that makes any
application attractive and user-friendly. The operating System comes with a large
number of device drivers that make OS services reachable to the hardware
environment. Each and every application present in the system requires the
Operating System. The operating system works as a communication channel
between system hardware and system software. The operating system helps an
application with the hardware part without knowing about the actual hardware
configuration. It is one of the most important parts of the system and hence it is
present in every device, whether large or small device.

Operating System

For more, refer to Need of Operating Systems .

Functions of the Operating System
 Resource Management: The operating system manages and allocates
memory, CPU time, and other hardware resources among the various programs
and processes running on the computer.
 Process Management: The operating system is responsible for starting,
stopping, and managing processes and programs. It also controls the
scheduling of processes and allocates resources to them.
 Memory Management: The operating system manages the computer’s
primary memory and provides mechanisms for optimizing memory usage.
 Security: The operating system provides a secure environment for the user,
applications, and data by implementing security policies and mechanisms such
as access controls and encryption.
 Job Accounting: It keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs
or users.
 File Management: The operating system is responsible for organizing and
managing the file system, including the creation, deletion, and manipulation of
files and directories.
 Device Management: The operating system manages input/output devices
such as printers, keyboards, mice, and displays. It provides the necessary
drivers and interfaces to enable communication between the devices and the
computer.
 Networking: The operating system provides networking capabilities such as
establishing and managing network connections, handling network protocols,
and sharing resources such as printers and files over a network.
 User Interface: The operating system provides a user interface that enables
users to interact with the computer system. This can be a Graphical User
Interface (GUI), a Command-Line Interface (CLI) , or a combination of both.
 Backup and Recovery: The operating system provides mechanisms for
backing up data and recovering it in case of system failures, errors, or disasters.
 Virtualization: The operating system provides virtualization capabilities that
allow multiple operating systems or applications to run on a single physical
machine. This can enable efficient use of resources and flexibility in managing
workloads.
 Performance Monitoring: The operating system provides tools for
monitoring and optimizing system performance, including identifying
bottlenecks, optimizing resource usage, and analyzing system logs and metrics.
 Time-Sharing: The operating system enables multiple users to share a
computer system and its resources simultaneously by providing time-sharing
mechanisms that allocate resources fairly and efficiently.
 System Calls: The operating system provides a set of system calls that
enable applications to interact with the operating system and access its
resources. System calls provide a standardized interface between applications
and the operating system, enabling portability and compatibility across different
hardware and software platforms.
 Error-detecting Aids: These contain methods that include the production of
dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error-detecting
methods.
For more, refer to Functions of Operating System .
Objectives of Operating Systems
Let us now see some of the objectives of the operating system, which are
mentioned below.
 Convenient to use: One of the objectives is to make the computer system
more convenient to use in an efficient manner.
 User Friendly: To make the computer system more interactive with a more
convenient interface for the users.
 Easy Access: To provide easy access to users for using resources by
acting as an intermediary between the hardware and its users.
 Management of Resources: For managing the resources of a computer in
a better and faster way.
 Controls and Monitoring: By keeping track of who is using which resource,
granting resource requests, and mediating conflicting requests from different
programs and users.
 Fair Sharing of Resources: Providing efficient and fair sharing of resources
between the users and programs.
Types of Operating Systems
 Batch Operating System: A Batch Operating System is a type of operating
system that does not interact with the computer directly. There is an operator
who takes similar jobs having the same requirements and groups them into
batches.
 Time-sharing Operating System: Time-sharing Operating System is a type
of operating system that allows many users to share computer resources
(maximum utilization of the resources).
 Distributed Operating System: Distributed Operating System is a type of
operating system that manages a group of different computers and makes
appear to be a single computer. These operating systems are designed to
operate on a network of computers. They allow multiple users to access shared
resources and communicate with each other over the network. Examples
include Microsoft Windows Server and various distributions of Linux designed
for servers.
 Network Operating System: Network Operating System is a type of
operating system that runs on a server and provides the capability to manage
data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions.
 Real-time Operating System: Real-time Operating System is a type of
operating system that serves a real-time system and the time interval required
to process and respond to inputs is very small. These operating systems are
designed to respond to events in real time. They are used in applications that
require quick and deterministic responses, such as embedded systems,
industrial control systems, and robotics.
 Multiprocessing Operating System: Multiprocessor Operating
Systems are used in operating systems to boost the performance of multiple
CPUs within a single computer system. Multiple CPUs are linked together so
that a job can be divided and executed more quickly.
 Single-User Operating Systems: Single-User Operating Systems are
designed to support a single user at a time. Examples include Microsoft
Windows for personal computers and Apple macOS.
 Multi-User Operating Systems: Multi-User Operating Systems are
designed to support multiple users simultaneously. Examples include Linux and
Unix.
 Embedded Operating Systems: Embedded Operating Systems are
designed to run on devices with limited resources, such as smartphones,
wearable devices, and household appliances. Examples include Google’s
Android and Apple’s iOS.
 Cluster Operating Systems: Cluster Operating Systems are designed to
run on a group of computers, or a cluster, to work together as a single system.
They are used for high-performance computing and for applications that require
high availability and reliability. Examples include Rocks Cluster Distribution and
OpenMPI.
For more, refer to Types of Operating Systems .
How to Check the Operating System?
There are so many factors to be considered while choosing the best Operating
System for our use. These factors are mentioned below.
 Price Factor: Price is one of the factors to choose the correct Operating
System as there are some OS that is free, like Linux, but there is some more
OS that is paid like Windows and macOS.
 Accessibility Factor: Some Operating Systems are easy to use like macOS
and iOS, but some OS are a little bit complex to understand like Linux. So, you
must choose the Operating System in which you are more accessible.
 Compatibility factor: Some Operating Systems support very less
applications whereas some Operating Systems supports more application. You
must choose the OS, which supports the applications which are required by you.
 Security Factor: The security Factor is also a factor in choosing the correct
OS, as macOS provide some additional security while Windows has little fewer
security features.
Examples of Operating Systems
 Windows (GUI-based, PC)
 GNU/Linux (Personal, Workstations, ISP, File, and print server, Three-tier
client/Server)
 macOS (Macintosh), used for Apple’s personal computers and workstations
(MacBook, iMac).
 Android (Google’s Operating System for
smartphones/tablets/smartwatches)
 iOS (Apple’s OS for iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch)
FAQs on Operating System
1. The Operating System is which type of software?
(A) System software
(B) Application software
(C) Both a and b
(D) None of the above
Solution:
The correct option is A, i.e., System software
2. Which of the following is not an example of an Operating System?
(A) Windows
(B) Linux
(C) Mac OS
(D) MS-Word
Solution:
The correct option is D, i.e., MS-Word
Windows, Linux, Mac OS, all 3 are examples of operating system whereas MS-
Word is an example of application software.
3. Which characteristic property prevents unauthorized access to programs and
data?
(A) Security
(B) Data Management
(C) Device management
(D) Control of system performance
Solution:
The correct option is A, i.e, Security
Security prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of
passwords or some kind of protection technique.
4. Which characteristic property allocates and de-allocates the resources and also
decides who gets the resource?
(A) Security
(B) File Management
(C) Device management
(D) Control of System performance
Solution:
The correct option is B, i.e., File management
File Management allocates and de-allocates the resources and also decides who
gets the resource.
5. _____________ is designed in such a way that it can manage the overall
resources and operations of the computer.
(A) Operating System
(B) File Management
(C) Device management
(D) None of the above
Solution:
The correct option is A, i.e, Operating System
The operating system is designed in such a way that it can manage overall
resources and operations of the computer.