Chapter Two

Computer Systems
Hardware
A computer is an electronic device that executes the instructions in a program.

A computer has four functions (Information Processing Cycle):

a. accepts data
Input The Information Processing Cycle
b. processes data
Processing
c. produces output
Output
d. stores results
Storage

Computer System Components

A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data and
information. There are five main hardware components in a computer system:
• Central processing unit (CPU)
– Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
– Control unit
• Input devices
• Output devices
• Primary storage devices
• Secondary storage devices
 Central processing unit (CPU)
o The main logic unit of a computer
o Controls the processing of instructions.
o Consists of three components (all of which are electronic circuitries):
 Arithmetic logic unit, or ALU – performs mathematical calculations & logical
comparisons.
 Control unit – accesses program instructions, decodes them, and coordinates
instruction execution in the CPU.

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  Registers – are high-speed storage circuitry that hold the instruction and data
while the processor is executing the instruction.
Program instructions are executed in the CPU.

A machine cycle, also called a processor cycle or a instruction cycle, is the basic operation
performed continuously and at a rate of millions per second by the central processing unit (CPU).

 Includes the activities involved in executing an instruction.

o Consists of two parts:
 Instruction phase
• Step 1: Fetch instruction
• Step 2: Decode instruction
 Execution phase
• Step 3: Execute the instruction
• Step 4: Store the results
 The instruction phase is followed by the execution phase.
o Instruction Phase

 During the instruction phase, the control unit retrieves the instruction to be
executed from main memory.
 The instruction is then decoded so the CPU understands the work to be done.
 Necessary data is then retrieved from memory and stored in a register.
 During the execution phase the arithmetic logic unit performs the instruction and
the results are stored in registers.

Execution of an Instruction

Execution of an instruction
 In the instruction phase, the computer’s control unit fetches the instruction to be executed
from memory (1).
 Then the instruction is decoded so the central processor can understand what is to be done
(2).
 In the execution phase, the ALU does what it is instructed to do, making either on arithmetic
computation or a logical comparison (3).
 Then the results are stored in the registers or in memory (4). The instruction and execution
phases together make up one machine cycle.

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 The Machine Cycle
Fetch - get an instruction from Main Memory
Decode - translate it into computer commands
Execute - actually process the command
Store - write the result to Main Memory

 Primary storage, also called main memory, although not a part of the CPU, is closely related
to the CPU.
o Holds program instructions and data before and after execution by the CPU.
o All instructions and data pass through main memory locations.

Memory Characteristics and Functions

Memory, also called primary storage, is located physically close to the CPU to decrease access
time, that is, the time it takes the CPU to retrieve data from memory. Memory temporarily holds
instructions and data before and after processing by the CPU. Although the overall trend has been
increased memory access time, memory has not advanced as quickly as processors. Memory
access time is often measured in milliseconds, or one thousandths of a second.

Like the CPU, memory is made of silicon chips containing circuits holding data represented by on
or off electrical states, or bits. Eight bits together form a byte. Memory is usually measured in
megabytes or gigabytes.

A kilobyte is roughly 1,000 bytes. Specialized memories, such as cache memories, are typically
measured in kilobytes. Often both primary memory and secondary storage capacities today
contain megabytes, or millions of bytes, of space.
Increasingly desktop computers come with gigabytes or billions of bytes of storage capacity on
their hard disks or secondary storage. Although today terabytes of storage are found only in large
computers such as mainframe computers, it shouldn’t be long before we are accessing terabytes of
storage on our desktop computers.

Types of Memory

There are several forms of memory. Instructions or data are temporarily stored in RAM, which
stands for Random Access Memory. RAM chips loose their contents if power is disrupted. ROM
chips, or read-only memory, on the other hand, is nonvolatile, so the contents aren’t lost if the
power is disrupted. ROM provides permanent storage for unchanging data & instructions, such as
data from the computer maker.
Basic Types of Memory Chips

• Random access memory (RAM)

– Temporary
– Volatile
• ROM (read-only memory)
– Usually nonvolatile

By: Shimelis. K Introdution to computer 3

Cache memory

Cache memory is a fast storage buffer in the central processing unit of a computer.
Cache memory is high speed memory that a processor can access more quickly than RAM.
Frequently used instructions are stored in cache since they can be retrieved more quickly,
improving the overall performance of the computer. Level 1 (L1) cache is located on the
processor; Level 2 (L2) cache is located between the processor and RAM.

Secondary Storage and Input/Output Devices

• Secondary storage
– Also called permanent storage
– Nonvolatile
– Greater capacity and greater economy than memory

As with other computer system components, secondary storage media and devices must be chosen
to support information systems objectives, and ultimately the business objectives. There’s a trade
off between access time, cost, capacity, and portability among different media and devices. The
table below shows some of these tradeoffs, comparing secondary storage to primary storage. For
example, the most cost effective media to use for secondary storage magnetic tape. Tape also has
a fairly large storage capacity and is relatively cheap. However data stored on a tape cannot be
accessed quickly, nor can records stored on tape be accessed in random order. Likewise, although
hard disks have a large storage capacity and are relatively inexpensive, for the most part they are
not easily portable. Thus a tape would not be a good storage medium for someone who needed to
look up customer records while handling customer phone calls, and a diskette may be more
appropriate than a hard drive for someone who continually works on spreadsheet files on different
computers.

Secondary Storage Access Methods

 Sequential access: records must be retrieved in order

 Direct access: records can be retrieved in any order
o Direct access storage devices (DASDs)

Data and information can be retrieved from secondary storage in two main ways. Access can be
either sequential or direct. In sequential storage, records stored on a secondary storage device
must be retrieved in the same order in which they were stored. For example, if a university has
student records stored on a computer tape in order of ascending social security numbers, using
sequential access, records must be retrieved in ascending order of social security numbers. Thus,
to edit the record of a student with social security number 444-44-4444, roughly half the records
stored in the student file must first be read before the desired student is found. Thus, sequential
access is a very slow way to access a single records.

Secondary Storage Devices and Media: Magnetic Media

 Magnetic tapes
 Magnetic disks
 Redundant array of independent/inexpensive disks (RAID)

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  Storage Area networks (SAN)
 Compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM)

The most commonly used forms of secondary storage include magnetic tapes, disks, and optical
disks. Magnetic tape allows only sequential access of data, while others allow both direct and
sequential.

Magnetic tape is similar in composition to the kind of tape found in videotapes and audio tapes.
A plastic film is coated with iron oxide which is magnetized to represent bits. Note that while data
existed as electrical in a computer, it exists as magnetized areas on magnetic tapes and disks. A
main use of magnetic tape is to backup disk drives.

Magnetic disks are similar to magnetic tapes in that areas are magnetized to represent bits.
However the disks’ read write head can go directly to the desired record, allowing fast data
retrieval. Magnetic disks can range from small and portable, such as diskettes with 1.44MB of
storage capacity, to large capacity fixed hard disks which are more expensive and less portable.

RAID stands for redundant arrays of independent or inexpensive disks. RAID technology is fault
tolerant; that is, it allows data to be stored so that no data or transactions are lost in the event of
disk failure. RAID involves using multiple hard disks in a special controller unit and storing data
across all the disks in conjunction with extra reconstruction information that allows data to be
recovered if a hard disk fails. RAID 1, or disk mirroring, is the simplest form, storing the same
data on two hard disks. RAID 5 is a more complex form that uses numerous disks and recovery
information. RAID 5 is more efficient and cost effective than is disk mirroring.

A storage area network connects servers and storage devices in a network to store large volumes
of data. Data stored in a storage area network can be quickly retrieved and backed up. The use of
storage area networks will likely increase in the near future.

 Provides high-speed connections between data-storage devices and computers(servers)

Optical Media

 Optical disks
o CD-ROM
o CD-W (aka WORM)
o CD-RW
 Magneto-optical (MO) disks
 Digital video (versatile) disks (DVDs)

Unlike magnetic media, optical disks use low power lasers to mark the surface of a plastic disk in
order to represent bits. Optical disks have a very high storage capacity, although generally the
access time is slower than that of magnetic media.

There are three kinds of optical disks. The oldest is CD- ROM, which stands for compact disk
read-only memory. Data or programs are recorded on CD- ROMs by the manufacturer, and
cannot be modified. CD-ROMs are used for the mass distribution of large quantities of data, such
as software programs, encyclopedias, or documentation.

By: Shimelis. K Introdution to computer 5

CD-Writable, or CD-W, disks are also known as WORM disks. WORM stands for write once,
read many. This means that you can record on the disk, but not change data once it has been
recorded. An ideal use for these disks is to archive data.

CD-RW which stands for read-write, works like the diskettes that you are used to, with greater
storage capacity. These disks can hold 740MB of data, far greater than the 1.44MB held by most
diskettes. Data can be recorded, modified, deleted or replaced.

DVDs are physically similar to CD-ROMs, but have a far greater storage capacity. A DVD can
hold at least 4.7 billion bytes of data. Quality of DVDs surpasses that of CD ROMs, and DVD
drives are faster than those of CD ROMs.
Storage Area Network

DVD disks look like CDs but have a much greater storage capacity and can transfer data at a much
faster rate.

Although DVD players can read at CD-ROMs, the reverse is not true.

Additional Devices and Media

 Memory cards
 Flash memory
 Expandable storage devices

PC memory cards can be installed in any laptop and desktop computers. The card functions as a
hard disk. However, the cost per megabyte of storage is higher than that of hard disks.

Flash memory is a non volatile silicon chip that can be reprogrammed. Although flash memory is
very expensive compared to other types of secondary storage the market for flash memory is
growing. For example, flash memory is used to store photos in digital cameras and to store flight
information in airplane cockpits. Flash memory is also used in hand-held computers and cell
phones. We will likely see the market for flash memory continue to increase.

Expandable storage devices are disk cartridges that can store large amounts of data, ranging from
around 100MB to several gigabytes. Many of us are familiar with zip drives by omega, which
come standard on many desktop computers.

By: Shimelis. K Introdution to computer 6

Input Devices

• Personal computer input devices

– Keyboard
– Mouse
• Voice-recognition devices
• Terminals
• Touch-sensitive screens
• Bar-code scanners
• Optical data readers
• Point-of-sale (POS) devices
• Automatic teller machine (ATM) devices
• Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) devices
• Pen input devices
• Light pens
• Touch screens
Data
 Data can be human or machine readable
 Data entry converts human readable data into machine-readable form
 Data input transfers machine-readable data into the system
 Source data automation

Human readable data can be read only by humans; while computer readable data is understood
only by computers. Often human readable data, such as a purchase order, must be transferred into
the computer system. To do this, the data must first be entered to convert it into machine readable
form; this process is called data entry. Computer keyboards are used to translate human readable
letters into machine readable digital codes. Once in machine readable form, the data can be
transferred into the computer system; this process is called data input.

Keyboard and Mouse

Almost everyone is familiar with the keyboard and mouse, the primary input devices for personal
computers. Whereas a keyboard can be used to enter characters and symbols, a mouse is useful
for selecting menu items and for drawing. Track balls and touch screens are alternatives to a
mouse.

Digital cameras

A digital camera is another input device. Images stored in flash memory can be downloaded to a
computer, converted into digital format, and edited.
For a long time terminals were the main input devices.

Terminals

A terminal is a combination of monitor and a keyboard used to view output and to enter and check
input: also called a video display terminal (VDT).

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Terminals are devices that perform data input and data entry at the same time. Terminals are
connected to computer systems, since they have no processing capacity of their own. Terminals
are cheap and easy to use.

Terminals were mostly used in the early days of computing where a centralized computer system
such as a mainframe is located at one site in an organization and employees accessed it via
terminals.

Scanning devices

Data directly into a computer. The scanner digitizes the data into machine-readable form.
One type of scanner is called an optical data reader. There are two types of optical data readers:
one for optical mark recognition, the other for optical character recognition, or OCR. Optical mark
recognition readers are often used for test scoring since they can read the location of marks on
what is sometimes called a mark sense document. This is how, for instance, standardized tests,
such as the SAT, are scored.

Universal product code, also called UPC, scanners used a low power laser to read a bar coded
label. These are commonly used for input in grocery store checkouts.

Output Devices

• Display monitors
o Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs)
o Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs)

• Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)

• Printers and plotters

Display monitors

CRT monitors are large and bulky in comparison to LCD monitors (flat displays).

Overview of Software

• Computer programs: sequences of instructions

• Documentation: describes program functions
• Systems software: coordinates the activities of hardware and programs
• Application software: helps users solve particular problems

A computer program is a sequence of instructions to tell the computer what to do. Programs are
written in programming languages which consists of a set of symbols combined according to a
given syntax. Documentation, which may be displayed on the computer screen or in written
documents, tells the user how to operate the computer system.

There are two general types of software. Systems software consists of programs that coordinate
the activities of the hardware and other programs in a computer system. System software is
designed for a specific CPU and hardware class. The combination of a particular hardware
configuration and operating system is called a computer platform.

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Applications software includes programs designed to help end users solve particular problems
using the computer or to perform specific tasks. Applications software has a far greater potential
to impact value-added processes and to be strategically used than does system software.

Systems Software
 Operating systems
 Utility programs

Systems software is required to control the computer hardware and coordinate application
programs. System software includes operating systems and utility programs.

Supporting Individual, Group, and Organizational Goals

It is useful to classify software according to its sphere of influence. Sphere of influence refers to
the scope of the problems and opportunities addressed. In most organizations the spheres of
influence are personal, workgroup, and enterprise.

Information systems that address the personal sphere of influence meet the needs of an individual
user. For example, personal productivity software, such as word processing applications or
spreadsheets, helps users improve their personal effectiveness.

A workgroup is two or more people working together to achieve a common goal. A workgroup
may be permanent, or it may be informal and ad hoc. Information systems affecting the work
group sphere of influence are applications that support the interaction, communication and
collaboration of groups. Workgroup software includes group scheduling or conferencing software.
Increasingly, personal productivity software includes collaborative features such as the ability to
add comments to an Excel spreadsheet or word document.

Information systems that operate within the enterprise sphere of influence are those that help a
firm interact with its environment, such as customers, suppliers, shareholders, for competitors.
Many systems that handle basic business transactions fall into this category. This includes, for
instance, systems that record and process customer orders or employee payroll.

• Sphere of influence: the scope of problems and opportunities addressed by a particular

organization
– Personal
– Workgroup
– Enterprise

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Classifying Software by Type and Sphere of Influence

Operating Systems

Operating system (OS): set of programs that control the hardware and act as an interface with
applications

 Perform common hardware functions

o Get input (e.g., Accept keyboard input
o Retrieve data from disks and store data on disks
o Send data to output devices (Display information on a monitor or printer)

 Provide a user interface

 Allows individuals to access and command the computer system
 Command-based user interface: uses text commands
 Graphical user interface (GUI): uses icons and menus to send commands
to the computer system

An operating system provides a user interface, that is, the user’s point of contact with
the overall computer system. A user interface allows the user to access and control the
computer system. The first user interfaces were command-based. Command-based
means that a user had to know and enter particular text commands to get the computer
to do specific tasks. Increasingly, user interfaces are becoming graphical, using icons,
windows, and pull down menus to provide an easy and more intuitive way for users to
interact with computer systems.
 Provide a degree of hardware independence
o Application program interface (API): allows applications to make use of the
operating system
 Manage system memory
o Control how memory is accessed and maximize available memory and storage
 Manage processing tasks
o Multitasking: more than one program can run at a time using a single processor
o Time sharing: multiple users simultaneously using the resources of a single
processor
o Scalability: easy adaptation to more users or tasks

By: Shimelis. K Introdution to computer 10