E1422 QR Answers
E1422 QR Answers
E1422 QR Answers
XII
ANSWERS
section 1 : EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 1
Solution :
2 = 4π2f 2 2 ( 1 ) ( )
k m f 2 1 2 1
m2 4 m1.
m m1 f2 2
(6)
The acceleration of a system performing linear SHM, e.g. of a spring, is directly proportional to its
displacement from the mean position. Hence, the motion is a variably accelerated type of motion.
(9) The spring constant kA < kB. Since the period of oscillation T 1 , TA > TB, i.e., A will oscillate slowly
mk
compared to B.
(2) The surface tension of a liquid depends on the cohesive forces between its molecules. It is affected by
the temperature of the liquid and the presence of impurity in the liquid. In general, the surface tension
of a liquid decreases with increasing temperature of the liquid because cohesive forces decrease with
increase in molecular thermal activity. The surface tension of a liquid increases with dissolved impurities
while it decreases with insoluble surface impurities and with sparingly soluble substances.
(3) Capillarity depends on the surface tension and density of the liquid, the cosine of the solid-liquid contact
angle, the radius of the capillary bore and the acceleration due to gravity.
(4) The surface tension of a liquid is affected by the presence of impurities. Insoluble surface impurities and
sparingly soluble substances both lower the surface tension and therefore the capillary rise. Hence, the
capillary tube should be cleaned using dilute nitric acid and washed with clean water before every use.
Because of secretion of natural oils by our skin, the capillary tube should not be touched during the
experiment.
(6) The presence of air bubbles in the capillary tube affects the weight of the liquid column above the free
surface of the liquid. This affects the capillary rise and gives a very erroneous value for the surface
tension. Hence, while immersing the capillary tube into the liquid it is necessary to ensure that there are
no air bubbles in the capillary tube.
(7) Examples of capillary action :
(1) A blotting paper or a cotton cloth absorbs water, ink by capillary action.
(2) Oil rises in the wick of an oil lamp and sap rises in xylem tissues of a tree by capillarity.
(3) Ground water rises to the open surface through the capillaries formed in the soil. In summer, the
farmers plough their fields to break these capillaries and prevent excessive evaporation.
(4) Water rises in the crevices in rocks by capillary action. Expansion and contraction of this water due
to daily and seasonal temperature variations cause the rocks to crumble.
Questions :
(1) N
ewton’s law of cooling states that the rate of loss of heat by a body is directly proportional to the excess
of temperature of the body over the surroundings, provided the excess is small. OR
The rate of fall of temperature of a body is directly proportional to the excess of temperature of the body
over the surroundings, provided the excess is small.
(2) T
he rate of cooling of a body depends on the mass of the body, the specific heat and emissivity of the
material of the body, the surface area of the body and the nature of its surface.
(3) Newton’s law of cooling is an empirical law. For normal convection of the air surrounding the body, the
law is fairly well obeyed for small temperature excesses above the ambient, approximately up to a
temperature excess of 40 °C. For greater temperature excesses, there must be forced convection.
(4) The cooling curve is an exponentially decreasing curve. The same type of graph is also obtained in
radioactive decay and the discharging of a capacitor through a resistor.
dQ d
(5) The rate of loss of heat by a body, mS K ( 0 ), where m is the mass of the body and
dt dt
d K
S is the specific heat of the material of the body. Therefore, ( 0 ) is the required expression.
dt mS
70 60
(6) Let θ0 be the surrounding temperature. During the first 5 min, the rate of cooling is °C/min and
5
the average temperature excess is ( θ0) °C. Then, according to Newton’s law of cooling,
70 60
2
( θ0)
70 60 70 60
5 2
2 K (65 θ0) … (1)
Similarly,
( θ0)
60 54 60 54
5 2
2 0\90
0 45 °C
(7) See the answer to Q.(6) above :
(
18 ( 8) 18 8
32)
1 2
–10 = K (– 45)
2
K = 9 °C/min
8 1 2 8 1
= 9 ( 32)
5 2
– 72 91 40 51 320
141288
1 20.6 °C
Solution :
Since T1 > T2 , n1 > n2 so that n1 – n2 = 6. If T1 was decreased such that beat frequency remains the
same, n'1< n 2 and n'1 n 2 6. If T2 was increased such that beat frequency remains the same, n'2 > n1
and n'2 n 1 6. In the other three cases, the beat frequency will increase.
Solution :
Let n1 and n2 be the frequencies of the string for tensions T1 and T2. Since T2 > T1 , n2 > n1
256 n1 = 5
n1 = (256 5) Hz
Solution :
T
2 2
T1
2 pq 2 m2
n T
n1 T1
n s
(5) (a) pq
nx s1
Solution :
n n T
Since n n' x, pq
n n x T
weight in air
Relative density
loss in weight in water
s T or T ij s
TT T s1
n s
ij .
nx s1
(2) In the fundamental mode of vibration of a wire stretched between two points, its two fixed ends are the
nodes with one antinode formed at the centre.
(3) The vibrating length of a wire can be varied continuously but not the frequency of a tuning fork. Hence,
we take a tuning fork of fixed frequency and vary l to find the length of the wire that vibrates in unison
with the fork.
Solution :
v
The first overtone of an open pipe, n1 , i.e., λ L l 0.6d
L
Questions :
(1) A progressive wave is produced when a disturbance is created in the medium. The disturbance then
continuously travels away from the source and transports energy through the medium. Every particle
vibrates with the same amplitude but phase changes from particle to particle.
A stationary wave is produced due to interference, under certain conditions, between two identical
progressive waves travelling in opposite directions. It does not move in any direction and hence does
not transport energy through the medium. Amplitude of vibration is different for different particles. All
the particles in the same loop have the same phase, while the particles in adjacent loops are in opposite
phase.
(2) When a vibrating tuning fork is held over its open end, forced vibrations are sent down the air column.
These longitudinal vibrations are reflected from the water surface (a denser medium) with a phase
reversal. For a particular length of the air column, corresponding to that frequency, the two waves
moving in opposite directions superpose to form a stationary wave. The air column then resonates with
the tuning fork as its natural frequency coincides with that of the fork.
(3) See Experiment 4.
(4) See Experiment 4.
(5) See Experiment 4.
p
(7) According to Laplace, the speed of sound in a gas is given by v pq , where p and ρ are the pressure
and density of the gas, and γ is the ratio of its principal specific heats. The equation of state for an ideal
m
gas is pV nRT m RT , where m is the mass of n moles of the gas, M0 is the molar mass,
M0 n
p RT
T is the absolute temperature and R is the universal gas constant. Since ρ m/V, .
M0
RT
Hence, v pq .
M0
(8) The speed of sound in air is directly proportional to the square root of its absolute temperature.
Rser ies ( ) 2 ( ) ( ) ( )
L/4 L/4 L/4 L R
2A 2A 2A 4A 4
(2) (c) ( ) R
n–1
n
Solution :
(n – 1)R R = ({(n – 1) R} R ) ( n ) R
{(n – 1) R}R (n – 1) R2 n–1
nR
(3) (a) the end resistances
(4) (b) 30 cm
Solution :
R1 L1 35
R2 100 L1 65
On interchanging the resistors in the gaps, the null point is obtained at 65 cm from the left. Hence,
the null point shifts from 35 cm to 65 cm, i.e., a distance of 30 cm.
(5) (b) 80 mA, –20 mA.
Solution :
I2 I I1 100 60 40 mA
I2 I5 I4 0
I5 I4 I2 20 40 20 mA
I1I3I5 0
I3I1 I5 60 (–20) 80 mA
Questions :
(1) A
djust the rheostat such that its resistance is maximum and keep some resistance (about 50 ) in the
resistance box. Then, insert the plug in key K to close the circuit. Tap the jockey at one end of the metre
bridge wire and note the direction of the deflection shown by the galvanometer. Tap the jockey at the
other end of the wire and note the direction of the deflection. If the two deflections are in the opposite
directions, it means that the connections are correct.
(2) T
he rheostat is in series with the cell and hence limits the current that enters the Wheatstone network.
At off balance, a fraction of this current passes through the galvanometer. Thus, the rheostat resistance
also protects the galvanometer from excess current, especially when the jockey is touched at the two
ends of the bridge wire.
Questions :
(1) N
o. If the jockey is tapped at a point on the wire for which the bridge is not balanced, then the
galvanometer in the gap will show a change in deflection. When the jockey is tapped at the balance
point, the galvanometer deflection shows no change. Hence the galvanometer in the gap itself can be
used to detect the balance point.
(2) See Experiment 8.
(3) T
he balance point is not called the null point because the galvanometer in the gap, which is also used
to detect the balance point, does not show null (meaning, zero) deflection when the bridge is balanced.
(4) See Experiment 8.
(5) See Experiment 8.
(6) See Experiment 8.
(7) T
he metre bridge wire should have uniform diameter and composition so that it has constant resistance
per unit length. Then, the ratio of the resistances of the ratio arms is equal to the ratio of their lengths.
(8) If the plug key is kept closed, current will pass through the bridge network even whether or not the
jockey is in contact with the wire. Prolonged passage of current through the network will change the
resistance of the galvanometer coil being measured and also drain out the cell.
(9) Since this experiment aims to determine the resistance of the galvanometer coil, the galvanometer is
connected in one arm of the Wheatstone network. Hence, on inserting the plug in the plug key, a steady
current always passes through the galvanometer. The jockey is tapped along the wire to detect a point D which
is equipotential with B. In that case, there will be no current in the branch BD and the galvanometer
does not show any change in deflection on making or breaking the contact at D. If B and D are not
Questions :
(1) The work done by a cell in taking a unit positive charge through a complete circuit including the external
resistance and the electrolyte of the cell is called the emf of the cell. It is the open-circuit potential
difference across the terminals of the cell.
(2) No. A voltmeter measures the terminal p.d. V of a cell in a closed circuit. This is because the resistance
of a voltmeter is high but not infinite and hence the voltmeter is not ideal.
(3) A potentiometer consists of a long uniform wire stretched on a wooden board with a cell of extremely
stable emf connected across the wire.
(4) The p.d. across any length of the potentiometer wire is directly proportional to that length.
(5) When a potential difference is applied across a uniform resistance wire, the fall of potential (or potential
drop) from the high potential end per unit of length of the wire is called the potential gradient.
The SI unit of potential gradient is the volt per metre.
(6) For the same p.d. across the wire, the longer its length the smaller the potential gradient. By setting up
a suitably small potential gradient along a long potentiometer wire, any small voltage can be measured.
Increasing the length of the wire effectively decreases the potential gradient, and increases both the
precision and accuracy of measurement.
direct method, if k is the same, E1 kl1 and E2 kl2 so that the ratio of the emfs equals the ratio of the
E1 E2 kl1′.
balancing lengths. (Or, in sum and difference method, ) Hence, k should be the same for
E1 E2 kl2′
one set of observation.
(14) Prolonged passage of current will change the resistance of the potentiometer wire, thus changing the
potential gradient along it.
(15) The cross section and composition of the potentiometer wire should be uniform so that the potential
gradient along the wire is uniform.
r R ( 1) (5 ) ( 1) 5 (
l 208 cm 208 160 48 3
1) 1.5
l1 160 cm 160 32 2
(3) (c) increased to 40 Ω
Solution :
Vab
To double the sensitivity of the potentiometer, the potential gradient must be halved, i.e., Vab IR
l
5V I
must be halved, for which the current must be halved. Since I , for I'
R RA 2
R RA 2 (R RA)
RA R 2RA 10 2 (15 Ω) = 40 Ω, i.e., RA must be increased to 40 Ω.
(4) (c) 12.5 Ω/m
Solution :
E1 I , where λ is the resistance per unit length of the wire.
l1
E1 1.46 1
12.5 /m
Il1 (0.4) (0.292) 0.08
EV
(5) (c) R.
V
Questions : [Also see Experiment 10.]
(1) When a current is drawn from a cell, some energy is spent in the cell itself for the flow of charges
(electrons and ions) inside the cell between its terminals. This is because the electrolytic solution in the
cell offers resistance to the flow of charges. This resistance is called the internal resistance of the cell.
(2) The internal resistance of a cell depends upon the chemicals used in the cell, their concentration and
dimensions of the cell.
(3) Yes. The internal resistance of a cell increases if the current drawn from the cell is very large or is drawn
for a long time.
(5) The emf E is the open-circuit p.d. across the terminals of the cell while V is the closed-circuit p.d. across
the terminals. E = kl1 and V = kl2 . Since V < E, l2 < l1.
(1) (c) a ( )
B
I
(2) (a) I1 + I2
Solution :
I1 ( ) m1 and I2 ( ) m2, since they have the same dimensions. Hence, when tied together,
l2 b2 l2 b2
12 12
the moment of inertia of their combination is I ( ) (m1 m2 ) I1 I2
l2 b2
12
T 2o T 2a
(3) (b)
T 2o + T 2a
Solution :
The resultant magnetic moments for lμ1 and lμ2 (μ1 < μ2) assisting and opposing have magnitudes μ1 μ2
μ1 μ2 T 2o μ1 T 2o T 2a
and μ2 μ1, respectively. Therefore, μ2 μ1 , so that, μ2
T 2a T 2o + T 2a
(4) (c) To will be very large
Solution :
When the magnetic moments oppose each other, the resultant magnetic moment has magnitude
pqμ μ m5
T2 μ1 μ2
T1 2 1
T2 T1 m5 2m5 s
Questions :
(1) A vibration magnetometer works on the principle that when a bar magnet is suspended so as to rotate
freely in a horizontal plane, it comes to rest in approximately the North-South direction and when
disturbed from its equilibrium position, it starts vibrating about that position.
22 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII
(2) The magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of a magnet is defined as the magnitude of the torque
that acts on it when it is placed with its axis at right-angles to a uniform magnetic field of unit induction.
(3) In a magnetic dipole, the finite distance between the two poles is called its magnetic length. For the sake
of convenience, it is denoted by 2l, so that the distance of each pole from the centre of the dipole is l.
In the case of a bar magnet, an approximate relation exists between the magnetic length and the geometric
5
length : magnetic length, 2l 6 (geometric length, L).
(4) The moment of inertia of a body about a given axis of rotation is defined as the sum of the products of
the masses of the particles of the body and the squares of their respective distances from the axis of
rotation.
The moment of inertia of a rigid body depends on (i) the mass and shape of the body
(ii) orientation and position of the rotation axis (iii) distribution of the mass about the rotation axis.
(5) The vertical plane at a place passing through the north and south magnetic poles of the Earth and
containing the direction in which a compass needle sets itself at that place is called the magnetic meridian
at that place.
(6) Both the magnetometer, and the magnet at rest in the stirrup, should be set in the magnetic meridian.
Then, when the magnet is rotated from its rest position by a small deflection in the horizontal plane, it
experiences a restoring torque due to the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic induction. And,
when released, the magnet oscillates about the rest position in angular or torsional oscillation.
(7) We consider the moment of inertia of the bar magnet about a transverse axis through its centre of mass.
For the angular oscillations of a magnet suspended vertically, this transverse axis should be vertical and
along the axis of suspension. Hence, the plane of oscillation should be horizontal.
(8) The angular oscillations of a bar magnet in a uniform magnetic field are simple harmonic only when the
restoring torque responsible for the oscillations is directly proportional to the angular displacement of
the magnet and its direction is opposite to that of angular displacement. This is true only when the
amplitude of oscillations is small.
(9) Yes, we can.
We find the product μBh using a vibration magnetometer :
I
μBh 4 2 P (say)
T2
We find the ratio μ/Bh using a deflection magnetometer : The axial field of a bar magnet is
0 2d
Ba 4 . Thus, setting the deflection magnetometer for the axial field of the bar magnet,
(d l 2)2
2
(d 2 l 2)2 tan
Ba Bh tan . Then, B = Q (say)
h 2d (0 /4 )
0 (d 2 l2)2 tan
Be Bh tan , in which case = Q (say).
4 (d 2 l 2)2 Bh ( 0/4 )
Then, mnPQ .
Explanation :
Breakdown in a lightly-doped reverse-biased rectifier diode occurs by impact ionization in the depletion
region by energetic carriers. If the electric field in the depletion region is large, an electron entering from
the p-side may be accelerated to high enough kinetic energy to cause an ionizing collision with the lattice
ions. A single such interaction results in carrier multiplication; the original electron and the generated
electron are both swept to the n-side of the junction, and the generated hole is swept to the p-side. The
degree of multiplication becomes very high if these generated carriers also have ionizing collisions and
create more electron-hole pairs. This is an avalanche process, since each incoming carrier creates a large
number of new carriers.
(3) (c) tunnelling through the potential barrier
(4) (c) simple voltage regulator
(5) (a) 5 mA.
Solution :
R1 250 Ω, R2 1 kΩ. The voltage across R2 is V2 VZ 15 V, so that the current through it, .
V 15 V
I2 2 3 15 10 3 A 15 mA
R2 10
Questions :
(1) W
hen a sufficiently large reverse voltage is applied to a pn-junction, there is an abrupt strong increase
in the reverse current and its rectifying properties are lost. This is known as junction breakdown.
(2) Z
ener breakdown is a junction breakdown which takes place in heavily doped a diode due to tunnel
effect. The depletion region in a heavily doped pn-junction diode is very narrow. Because of this, the
electric field across the depletion region is intense enough (106 V/cm) to pull out valence electrons from
the covalent bonds between neighbouring silicon atoms. This results in conduction electrons and holes.
In the energy band diagram representation, this corresponds to the penetration of an electron of energy
less than the barrier height through the energy bandgap — a quantum mechanical process called tunnelling.
(3) The breakdown voltage is less than about 6 V in heavily doped diodes, such as a Zener diode, in which
the doping concentrations for both p- and n-regions are greater than 1018 cm–3. In lightly doped diodes,
with doping concentrations of 1017 cm–3 or less, the breakdown voltage is greater than 6 V.
Questions :
(1) T
he AND, OR and NOT gates are the basic logic gates. The AND gate is a circuit with two or more
inputs and one output in which the output signal is HIGH if and only if all the inputs are HIGH
simultaneously. The OR gate is a circuit with two or more inputs and one output in which the output
signal is HIGH if any one or more of the inputs is HIGH. The NOT gate or INVERTER is a circuit with
one input whose output is HIGH if the input is LOW and vice versa.
(2) L
ogic gates are transistor switches with multiple inputs to perform logical operations, i.e., the outputs of
these switches are determined in specified ways by the condition (binary state) of their inputs. They are
used to build flip-flops to store data, e.g., registers in arithmetic logic unit (ALU), computer memory,
etc. They are also used to build multiplexers.
(3) The NAND and NOR gates are called the universal logic gates because any gate can be implemented
by the combination of NAND and NOR gates.
(4) T
he NAND gate is a combination of an AND gate followed by a NOT gate so that the truth table of the
NAND function is obtained by inverting the outputs of the AND gate.
(5) T
he NOR gate is realized by connecting the output of an OR gate to the input of a NOT gate, so that
the truth table of the NOR function is obtained by inverting the outputs of the OR gate.
Questions :
(1) A
junction transistor consists of two back-to-back pn-junctions forming a sandwich structure in which a
thin layer of n-type or p-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two layers of opposite type
semiconductors. The three terminals of a transistor connected to its three layers are known as the emitter
(E), base (B) and collector (C). One pn-junction is between the emitter and the base while the other pn-
junction is between the collector and the base.
(2) No, they are not electrically interchangeable. The emitter and collector of a BJT are doped differently
and have different widths.
(3) On the emitter.
(4) T
he emitter-base junction is forward biased by the battery VBB while the collector-base junction is
reverse biased by the battery VCC. VBB should be greater than the emitter-base barrier potential
(the threshold voltage).
(5) N
o. For the normal operation of a BJT, the emitter-base junction is always forward biased and the
collector-base junction is always reverse biased. Hence, the bias battery VCC for a pnp transistor is
connected with its positive terminal to the base and the negative terminal to the collector.
(6) From emitter E to base B.
(7) O
f three configurations in which a transistor may be connected in a circuit, the common-emitter (CE)
configuration is one in which the emitter terminal is common to the input and output circuits.
(8) T
he dc common-emitter current ratio or current gain ( βdc ) is defined as the ratio of the collector current
to base current. βdc IC / IB .
Activity 1
(1)
A detergent is a surfactant. Its amphophilic molecules are absorbed in the air-water interface where they
align themselves so that the hydrophobic part of a molecule is in the air and the hydrophilic part is in
water. The cohesive forces between the water molecules are very strong so that the surface tension of
water is high. Surfactants break these interactions. The intermolecular forces between surfactant and
water molecules are much lower than between two water molecules. This decreases the surface tension.
(2) To remove dirt from clothes thoroughly, water must be forced through the tiny spaces between the
weave. This requires an increase in the surface area of water, which is not possible due to its large
surface tension. Adding detergent or soap to the water (and also increasing the temperature of water)
decreases the surface tension of water and makes washing clothes easier.
(4) (b) 4 m
Solution :
2 ij L 4LS 4 m
T L
Ts Ls
(5) (a) the shorter pendulum will have completed two oscillations.
Solution :
At a place where g 2 m/s2, the pendulum of length 1 m is a seconds pendulum. T1 2 s and T2 4 s.
1 rad/s and 2 rad/s. They will be in phase again after a time t when they differ in phase
2
by 2 rad, i.e., ( 1 2)t 2 rad. t 2 .
2
t 4 s, i.e., when the seconds pendulum completes two oscillations while the longer pendulum completes
only one.
Questions :
(1)
The magnitude of the maximum displacement of a particle performing SHM from its mean position is
called the amplitude of SHM.
(2) An ideal simple pendulum is defined as a heavy point mass suspended from a rigid support by a
weightless, inextensible and twistless string, and set oscillating under gravity through a small angle in a
vertical plane.
(3) A simple pendulum of period two seconds is called a seconds pendulum.
(4) When a simple pendulum is displaced from its initial position of rest through a small angle in a
vertical plane and released, the motion of its bob is linear SHM.
(6) Law of length : The period of a simple pendulum at a given place (g constant) is directly proportional
to the square root of its length.
T2
T mL or constant.
L
Questions :
(1) When two progressive waves having the same amplitude, wavelength and speed, travel through the same
region of a medium in opposite directions, their superposition under certain conditions creates a stationary
interference pattern called as a stationary (or standing) wave. It is called stationary because the resultant
harmonic disturbance of the particles does not travel in any direction and there is no transport of energy
in the medium.
(2) When the tuning fork is set into vibrations, it sends waves along the string. These waves are reflected
at the pulley (fixed end). Under suitable conditions of length, tension, etc., the incident and reflected
waves combine to form stationary waves. Then, a stable pattern of distinct loops can be seen.
(3) Musical instruments — string, wind and percussion.
(1) Radiation is the mechanism of heat transport or in general, energy transport, by electromagnetic waves.
Radiant heat, thermal radiation or heat radiation is the radiation produced by thermal agitation of the
particles of a body, and its spectrum, i.e., frequency distribution or wavelength distribution, is continuous
from the far infrared to the extreme ultraviolet region depending only on the temperature of the body.
(2) The emissive power or radiant power of a body at a given temperature is defined as the quantity of
radiant energy emitted by the body per unit time per unit surface area of the body at that temperature.
(3) The coefficient of emission (or emissivity) of a body is defined as the ratio of the emissive power of the
body (R) to the emissive power of a perfect blackbody (Rb) at the same temperature as that of the body.
(4) A blackened surface has emissivity close to 1 — that of a blackbody, while that of a polished surface is
much less than 1. Hence, the emissive power of a blackened surface is higher than that of a polished
surface and loses heat faster than a polished surface.
Questions :
(1) When light passes by the edge of an obstacle or through a small opening and falls on a screen, some of
the light deviates from its rectilinear path and penetrates into the region of the geometrical shadow. This
bending of light waves at an edge into the region of the geometrical shadow is called diffraction of light.
(2)
The closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a reflection grating which form the familiar rainbow
pattern. The hologram on a credit card is another familiar example from everyday life.
Questions :
(1) A household circuit is electrical wiring for lighting and power distribution in a home.
(2) House wiring uses a tree system. In this system, different branch lines are taken from the distribution
board to the different parts of the house. The distribution circuits look like different branches of a tree,
each branch line is taken to a room through a fuse on the live wire. The different distribution circuits
through their live wires are connected in parallel to the distribution board so that if there is a short-
circuiting in one distribution circuit, its fuse blows off, without affecting the electric supply in the other
circuits. All appliances in a room are connected in parallel so that they all may work at the same voltage
( 220 V).
► Each appliance gets connected to 220 V supply for its normal working.
► Each appliance works independently without being affected whether the other appliance is switched
on or off.
► The current through any one of the parallel branches stays small enough because in parallel circuits
the current is split up and travels along each separate path.
(5) An electric fuse is a wire made of an alloy of tin and lead. It works on the principle of the heating effect
of electric current. If the current through it increases beyond its rated limit, the wire melts and breaks
off the circuit. The fuse is then said to have blown off.
(8)
Earthing/grounding gives electric charges a more conductive path to the Earth rather than through a
human body in which case the person gets an electric shock. In case of a short circuit, the electric
charge flows to the Earth’s conducting surface through the earthing wire.
Earthing of an appliance prevents the appliance from acquiring the high potential of the live wire. This
protects the user from a fatal electric shock. In a house, local earthing is made near the electric
consumption (or kWh) meter. This prevents fire caused by short circuiting.
(9)
A 3-pin plug is a plug with three pins or metal projections to fit into a 3-pin socket. A socket is a device
or point on a wall where one can connect electrical equipment to the power supply.
The top thicker and longer pin of a plug is for earthing, the pin on the left is for the live wire and the
pin on the right is for the neutral.
The upper bigger hole in the socket is for ground connection, while the hole on the right side is for
connection to the live wire and the hole on the left side is for connection to the neutral wire of electric
supply.
(1) W
hen a potential difference is applied across a uniform resistance wire, the fall of potential (or potential
drop) from the high potential end per unit of length of the wire is called the potential gradient.
(2) Advantages of a potentiometer over a voltmeter :
► A potentiometer can measure the open-circuit p.d. across the terminals of a cell, or its emf E. Since
no voltmeter is ideal (i.e., of infinite resistance), a voltmeter measures the terminal p.d., V, of a cell
in a closed circuit.
► Bysetting up a suitably small potential gradient along a long potentiometer wire, any small voltage
can be measured. That is, increasing the length of the wire increases both the precision and accuracy
of measurement.
► The adjustment of a potentiometer is a ‘null’ method which does not, in any way, depend on the
calibration of the galvanometer. The accuracy of a voltmeter is limited by its calibration.
► Sincea potentiometer can measure both the emf and terminal p.d. of a cell, the internal resistance of
the cell can be found.
Questions :
(1) No. There is no standard method of identifying transistor leads except checking lead specifications from
the transistor manual.
(2) A TO5 package has a metal case. Looking at the bottom of the package, with the leads towards you, the
protrusion on the case marks the emitter lead.
(3) A TO92 package has a plastic cylindrical case, partly flattened. Looking at the bottom of the package,
with the flattened face pointing up and the leads towards you, the left lead is the emitter lead.
(4) On a conventional/rectifier diode, the lead of the diode adjacent to the silver ring marked on the plastic
casing of the diode is the cathode lead (n-terminal).
There are three ways to identify the leads of an LED : The anode lead (p-terminal) is slightly longer
than the cathode lead (n-terminal). Or, if you are able to see inside the plastic casing, the lead connected
to the larger chunk of the metal inside is the cathode lead. Or, the rim of the plastic casing is slightly
flattened near the cathode lead.
(5) As the diode is forward biased, the display should show 0.3 V.
(6)
The LED is forward biased in this case. Yet if it does not glow, it means it is defective.
(7)
Systematic error. For a digital multimeter (DMM), accuracy is usually specified as a per cent of the
reading, not the full scale reading. Also, most manufacturers’ specifications include a range of digits to
the right of the percentage, e.g., ± (1 % 2 digits). This gives an indication of how many counts the last
digit on the right can vary.
(8)
We can distinguish between rectifier and Zener diodes by checking for their PIV (peak inverse voltage),
i.e., breakdown voltage. For regular/rectifier diodes, this voltage is normally 50 V or more, but in a Zener
diode, it is designed to be a specified low value.
Questions :
(1) A
light dependent resistor (LDR) or photoresistor or light activated resistor (LAR) is made of an intrinsic
or extrinsic semiconductor (e.g., CdS, CdSe, PbS, InSb, Ge:Cu) deposited on an insulating substrate such
as ceramic.
(2) The photoconductivity of the material increases linearly with an increase in the intensity of light. But an
LDR is less sensitive than photodiodes and phototransistors.
(3) The resistance of the material decreases linearly (from about few megohms) with an increase in the
intensity of light.
(4) Applications of LDR :
► Street light controller in solar street lamps
► Nightlights
► Alarm clocks
► Outdoor clocks
► Burglar alarm circuits
► Light intensity meters
► Optocoupler