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NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STD.

XII

ANSWERS

section 1 : EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 1

Multiple Choice Questions :

(1) (a) free oscillations


(2) (d) the fourth power of the radius of the wire of the spring
(3) (c) the number of turns
(4) (b) 0.2π m/s
Solution :
T 2π 2π
 0.5 s    T  1 s   vmax  ωA  A   0.1  0.2π m/s.
2 T 1
1
(5) (a) 4 times

Solution :
 2 = 4π2f  2     2  ( 1 )  ( )
k m f 2 1 2   1
 m2 4 m1.
m m1 f2 2

(6) (c) 128 N/m.


questions :
(1) Hooke’s law states that for elastic strain up to the proportional limit, the stress developed in a body is
directly proportional to the strain produced in it. Stress  strain.
In this experiment, for elastic strain of the spring by a deforming force (the load), there is a restoring
force set up within the body tending to restore it to its unstrained condition. According to Hooke’s law
of elasticity, the restoring force  the deformation. The proportionality factor is the force constant k of
the spring.
(2) The force constant of a spring is defined as the deforming force per unit displacement of deformation.
ηr4 ,
For a helical spring, the force constant is k  where r the radius of the wire of the spring,
4NR3
Rthe radius of the helix, Nthe number of turns and ηthe modulus of rigidity of the material of the
wire.
(3) Linear simple harmonic motion is defined as the linear periodic motion of a body in which the force on
the body (or its acceleration) is always directed towards the mean position of the body and its magnitude
is proportional to the displacement of the body from the mean position.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 1


(4) Oscillations of gradually decreasing amplitude are called damped oscillations. Oscillations of a system
in the presence of dissipative frictional forces, such as air resistance, are damped.
(5) The oscillations of a body in response to an external periodic force are called forced oscillations.

(6) 
The acceleration of a system performing linear SHM, e.g. of a spring, is directly proportional to its
displacement from the mean position. Hence, the motion is a variably accelerated type of motion.

(7) The period of a vertically oscillating spring is


— directly proportional to the square root of the total mass (i.e., suspended mass  effective mass of
the spring)
— independent of the amplitude of oscillation, provided it is small
— inversely proportional to the square root of the force constant of the spring
— directly proportional to the square root of the length of the spring (as in the case of a simple
pendulum)
— inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration due to gravity.
x x
(8) Yes. The time period of an ideal spring (ms = 0) is T  2  pg , so that, g  4  2 2 . Hence, g can be
T
x 2
calculated from the mean 2 . Alternatively, a graph of T against x is plotted. The slope of the straight
T
2 42
line graph is T . Then, g
x slope .

(9) The spring constant kA <   kB. Since the period of oscillation T  1 , TA > TB, i.e., A will oscillate slowly
mk
compared to B.

2 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


Experiment 2

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (a) a cohesive force
(2) (b) an adhesive force
(3) (a) acute
(4) (b) the liquid falls in the tube
(5) (a) 2.6 cm.
Solution :
r1 0.2
hr = constant    h2  h1.  5.2  0.4  2.6 cm.
r2
Questions :
(1) (i) The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the tangential force per unit length, acting at right angles
on either side of an imaginary line on the free surface of the liquid.
(ii) The angle of contact for a liquid-solid pair (a liquid in contact with a solid) is defined as the angle
between the surface of the solid and the tangent drawn to the free surface of the liquid at the extreme
edge of the liquid, as measured through the liquid.

(2) The surface tension of a liquid depends on the cohesive forces between its molecules. It is affected by
the temperature of the liquid and the presence of impurity in the liquid. In general, the surface tension
of a liquid decreases with increasing temperature of the liquid because cohesive forces decrease with
increase in molecular thermal activity. The surface tension of a liquid increases with dissolved impurities
while it decreases with insoluble surface impurities and with sparingly soluble substances.

(3) Capillarity depends on the surface tension and density of the liquid, the cosine of the solid-liquid contact
angle, the radius of the capillary bore and the acceleration due to gravity.

(4) The surface tension of a liquid is affected by the presence of impurities. Insoluble surface impurities and
sparingly soluble substances both lower the surface tension and therefore the capillary rise. Hence, the
capillary tube should be cleaned using dilute nitric acid and washed with clean water before every use.
Because of secretion of natural oils by our skin, the capillary tube should not be touched during the
experiment.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 3


(5) Every screw working in a nut gives a backlash error. Hence, a screw on a measuring instrument should
be rotated only in one direction when taking a reading.

(6) The presence of air bubbles in the capillary tube affects the weight of the liquid column above the free
surface of the liquid. This affects the capillary rise and gives a very erroneous value for the surface
tension. Hence, while immersing the capillary tube into the liquid it is necessary to ensure that there are
no air bubbles in the capillary tube.
(7) Examples of capillary action :
(1) A blotting paper or a cotton cloth absorbs water, ink by capillary action.
(2) Oil rises in the wick of an oil lamp and sap rises in xylem tissues of a tree by capillarity.
(3) Ground water rises to the open surface through the capillaries formed in the soil. In summer, the
farmers plough their fields to break these capillaries and prevent excessive evaporation.
(4) Water rises in the crevices in rocks by capillary action. Expansion and contraction of this water due
to daily and seasonal temperature variations cause the rocks to crumble.

4 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


Experiment 3

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (d) Newton’s law of cooling
(2) (c) Processes (I) and (II)
(3) (b)  S
(4) (c) 7.8
Solution :
d 2
At 75 °C,  10 °C/min  k (75  30).   k  min1.
dt 9
d 2 2 70
 At 65 °C,  (65  30) (35)   7.8 °C/min.
dt 9 9 9
(5) (b) decreases exponentially.

Questions :
(1) N
 ewton’s law of cooling states that the rate of loss of heat by a body is directly proportional to the excess
of temperature of the body over the surroundings, provided the excess is small.  OR
The rate of fall of temperature of a body is directly proportional to the excess of temperature of the body
over the surroundings, provided the excess is small.
(2) T
 he rate of cooling of a body depends on the mass of the body, the specific heat and emissivity of the
material of the body, the surface area of the body and the nature of its surface.
(3) Newton’s law of cooling is an empirical law. For normal convection of the air surrounding the body, the
law is fairly well obeyed for small temperature excesses above the ambient, approximately up to a
temperature excess of 40 °C. For greater temperature excesses, there must be forced convection.
(4) The cooling curve is an exponentially decreasing curve. The same type of graph is also obtained in
radioactive decay and the discharging of a capacitor through a resistor.
dQ d
(5) The rate of loss of heat by a body,  mS  K (   0 ), where m is the mass of the body and
dt dt
d K
S is the specific heat of the material of the body. Therefore,  (   0 ) is the required expression.
dt mS

70  60
(6) Let θ0 be the surrounding temperature. During the first 5 min, the rate of cooling is °C/min and
5
the average temperature excess is (  θ0) °C. Then, according to Newton’s law of cooling,
70  60
2

(  θ0)
70  60 70  60
  
5 2
 2  K (65  θ0) … (1)
Similarly,

(  θ0)
60  54 60  54
  
5 2

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 5


 1.2  K (57  θ0) … (2)
K (65  θ0 ) 2
 
K (57  θ0 ) 1.2
65  θ0 5
 
57  θ0 3

 195  3 0  285  50

 2 0\90

  0  45 °C
(7) See the answer to Q.(6) above :

(
18  (  8) 18  8
    32)
1 2
 –10 = K (– 45)
2
 K =  9 °C/min

8  1 2 8  1
   =  9  (  32)
5 2
 – 72  91   40  51 320
 141288
 1  20.6 °C

6 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


Experiment 4

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (c) amplitude, wavelength and speed
(2) (b) fundamental
(3) (a) the radius of the wire
(4) (b) 2L
(5) (b) 20 m/s.
Solution : The fixed end being a node, the distance between consecutive nodes  0.1 m  λ / 2.
 λ  0.2 m and v  nλ  (100 Hz) (0.2 m)  20 m/s.
Questions :
(1) Law of length : The fundamental frequency of vibrations of a stretched string is inversely proportional
to its vibrating length, if the tension and mass per unit length of the string are kept constant. If T and m
1
are constant, n  l or nl  constant.
(2) The vibrations of a body in response to an external periodic force are called forced vibrations. If a body
is made to vibrate by an external periodic force, whose frequency is equal to the natural frequency
(or very nearly so) of the body, the body vibrates with the maximum amplitude. This phenomenon is
called resonance.
(3) The points at which the particles of the vibrating medium are always at rest are called the nodes. The
points at which the particles of the medium vibrate with the maximum amplitude are called the antinodes.
(4) When a stationary wave is set up in a bounded medium, the lowest allowed frequency, n1, is called the
fundamental frequency of vibration. Integral multiples of the fundamental frequency are called the
harmonics, the fundamental frequency being called the first harmonic. The second harmonic is twice the
fundamental, i.e., 2n1, the third harmonic is 3n1, and so on.
The higher allowed frequencies are called the overtones. Above the fundamental, the first allowed
frequency is called the first overtone, the next higher frequency is the second overtone, and so on.
(5) The vibration of a body at its lowest allowed frequency in response to an external periodic force is called
the fundamental mode of vibration.
(6) The surface area of a wire being small, the intensity of sound emitted by a vibrating wire is low. Air in
the hollow box vibrates in tune with the wire. Thus, it serves as a sounding box to amplify the sound.
(7) The speed of sound in air, and thus the frequency of stationary waves set up in a sounding box, depends
upon the air temperature. Holes are provided at the side of the box to equalize the air temperature inside
with that outside and for the sound to emerge.
(8) When the length of the vibrating wire is gradually changed and the natural frequency of the wire becomes
equal to that of the vibrating tuning fork, the wire starts vibrating in unison with the fork.
The paper rider placed at the middle of the vibrating wire then flutters violently and is thrown off.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 7


 In the fundamental mode, the points of contact of the wire with the two bridges are nodes and the
middle of the vibrating length is the antinode. If the rider is placed on the middle of the wire between
the two bridges, this indicates that the wire is vibrating in the fundamental mode. If the rider is kept
closer to a bridge — i.e., away from the centre — the rider will flutter when that point is an antinode.
Hence, it will detect a harmonic higher than the fundamental.
(9) A
 periodic variation in loudness with time when two sound notes of slightly different frequencies are
sounded together is called beats.
(1) Listening for beats — or rather, their absence — is the usual method of tuning musical instruments
and in the determination of the frequency of a musical note.
(2) Beats are also used in music to produce a low frequency sound (a grave tone). Two notes whose
difference in frequency is equal to the desired low frequency are used for this purpose.
1 T 1 T 1
(10) The fundamental frequency of vibration of a wire, n  pq  pq . Therefore, n  when
2l m 2lr   r
density ρ, length l and tension T remain the same. Hence, the thinner wire will emit shriller sound, i.e.,
it will have greater fundamental frequency.
(11) For the rider to flutter and fly off at resonance, it should be light and dry. It should also not load the
vibrating wire.

8 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


Experiment 5

Multiple Choice Questions :


L
(1) (a)
2
(2) (d) T1 was decreased or T2 was increased

Solution :

Since T1 > T2 , n1 > n2 so that n1 – n2 = 6. If T1 was decreased such that beat frequency remains the
same, n'1< n 2 and n'1  n 2  6. If T2 was increased such that beat frequency remains the same, n'2 > n1
and n'2  n 1 6. In the other three cases, the beat frequency will increase.

(3) (a) (256  5) Hz

Solution :

Let n1 and n2 be the frequencies of the string for tensions T1 and T2. Since T2   > T1 , n2   > n1

 Either 256 > n2 > n1, or n2 > 256 > n1

 256  n1 = 5

 n1 = (256  5) Hz

(4) (c) is m2 times the original frequency

Solution :
T
   2  2
T1
 2  pq 2  m2
n T
n1 T1

n s
(5) (a)  pq
nx s1

Solution :
n n T
Since n  n' x,   pq
n n x T
weight in air
Relative density 
loss in weight in water

 s T     or    T  ij s
TT  T s1

n s
  ij .
nx s1

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 9


Questions : [Also see Experiment 4.]
(1) Law of tension : The fundamental frequency of vibrations of a stretched string is directly proportional
to the square root of the applied tension, if the length and mass per unit length of the string are kept
constant. If l and m are constant, n  mT or n2/T  constant.

(2) In the fundamental mode of vibration of a wire stretched between two points, its two fixed ends are the
nodes with one antinode formed at the centre.

(3) The vibrating length of a wire can be varied continuously but not the frequency of a tuning fork. Hence,
we take a tuning fork of fixed frequency and vary l to find the length of the wire that vibrates in unison
with the fork.

10 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


Experiment 6

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (a) are in the same phase
(2) (b) 2p  1
(3) (d) 0.2 m
Solution :
λ 0.8 m
L   0.2 m
4 4
(4) (b) 2n
Solution :
L v
The length of the open pipe  L and that of the stopped pipe 2 . nO  2n 
2L
v v
 nC  2L  2n
4(L / 2)
(5) (d) l  0.6d

Solution :
v
The first overtone of an open pipe, n1  , i.e., λ  L  l  0.6d
L
Questions :
(1) A progressive wave is produced when a disturbance is created in the medium. The disturbance then
continuously travels away from the source and transports energy through the medium. Every particle
vibrates with the same amplitude but phase changes from particle to particle.
   A stationary wave is produced due to interference, under certain conditions, between two identical
progressive waves travelling in opposite directions. It does not move in any direction and hence does
not transport energy through the medium. Amplitude of vibration is different for different particles. All
the particles in the same loop have the same phase, while the particles in adjacent loops are in opposite
phase.
(2) When a vibrating tuning fork is held over its open end, forced vibrations are sent down the air column.
These longitudinal vibrations are reflected from the water surface (a denser medium) with a phase
reversal. For a particular length of the air column, corresponding to that frequency, the two waves
moving in opposite directions superpose to form a stationary wave. The air column then resonates with
the tuning fork as its natural frequency coincides with that of the fork.
(3) See Experiment 4.
(4) See Experiment 4.
(5) See Experiment 4.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 11


(6) Air molecules in the plane of an open end of a tube are not free to move in all directions. Hence,
reflection of the longitudinal waves at an open end takes place slightly beyond the rim of the tube. This
distance, approximately 0.3d for each open end, is called the end correction. Here, d is the inner diameter
of a cylindrical pipe.
End correction cannot be eliminated. For the correct resonating length of the air column, the end
correction is added to the measured length of the air column from the water surface to the rim of the
tube.

p
(7) According to Laplace, the speed of sound in a gas is given by v  pq , where p and ρ are the pressure

and density of the gas, and γ is the ratio of its principal specific heats. The equation of state for an ideal
m
gas is pV  nRT  m RT , where m is the mass of n moles of the gas, M0  is the molar mass,
M0 n
p RT
T is the absolute temperature and R is the universal gas constant. Since ρ  m/V,  .
 M0
 RT
Hence, v  pq .
M0
(8) The speed of sound in air is directly proportional to the square root of its absolute temperature.

12 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


Experiment 7

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (b) IAB
(2) (b) the torque constant of the spiral spring
(3) (d) both (b) and (c)
(4) (a) rotate to maximize the magnetic flux through its plane
(5) (b) both (i) and (ii) are true.
Solution :
NAB
The current sensitivity of a permanent-magnet moving-coil meter, SI  , i.e., SI  B. Since iron has
C
much higher permeability than air, the soft iron cylinder between the pole pieces concentrates the field
in the annular gap and thus increases the current sensitivity of the meter.
Questions :
(1) A
 current-carrying coil suspended in a magnetic field experiences a torque which rotates the plane of the
coil such that the magnetic flux through the coil is maximum.
(2) F
 irstly, as the coil rotates, its plane is always parallel to the field. That way, the deflecting torque is
always a maximum depending only on the current in the coil, but not on the position of the coil.
Secondly, the radial field makes the deflection proportional to the current. The instrument then has a
linear (equiangular) scale, i.e., the divisions of the scale are evenly spaced. This makes it easy to calibrate
and to read.
(3) T
 he current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the change in the deflection per unit change in
the current through it.
(4) The SI unit of current sensitivity is the radian per ampere.
(5) T
 he current sensitivity of a moving-coil galvanometer depends directly upon the values of the number
of turns N, area of the coil A and magnetic induction B. It depends inversely upon the value of torque
constant C of the spiral spring of a table galvanometer or that of the suspension fibre of a suspended-coil
galvanometer.
(6) To increase the sensitivity of a moving-coil galvanometer :
(i) the number of turns N, area of the coil A and magnetic induction B should be made large
(ii) the torque constant C should be made small.
(7) T
 he current for full-scale deflection in a galvanometer is very small. Hence, to avoid passing excessive
current through it, we start with a high value of the series resistance and gradually decrease it, taking
care that at no point this resistance is zero or less than that required for full-scale deflection.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 13


Experiment 8

Multiple Choice Questions :


R
(1) (d)
4
Solution :

Rser ies   (  )  2 ( )  ( ) ( )
L/4 L/4 L/4 L R
2A 2A 2A 4A 4

(2) (c) ( ) R
n–1
n
Solution :

(n – 1)R R =  ({(n – 1) R}  R )  ( n ) R
{(n – 1) R}R (n – 1) R2 n–1
nR
(3) (a) the end resistances
(4) (b) 30 cm
Solution :

R1 L1 35
 
R2 100  L1 65
 On interchanging the resistors in the gaps, the null point is obtained at 65 cm from the left. Hence,
the null point shifts from 35 cm to 65 cm, i.e., a distance of 30 cm.
(5) (b) 80 mA, –20 mA.
Solution :
 I2 I  I1 100  60  40 mA
  I2  I5  I4  0
 I5  I4  I2  20  40   20 mA
I1I3I5  0
  
 I3I1 I5  60  (–20)  80 mA

Questions :

(1) A
 djust the rheostat such that its resistance is maximum and keep some resistance (about 50  ) in the
resistance box. Then, insert the plug in key K to close the circuit. Tap the jockey at one end of the metre
bridge wire and note the direction of the deflection shown by the galvanometer. Tap the jockey at the
other end of the wire and note the direction of the deflection. If the two deflections are in the opposite
directions, it means that the connections are correct.
(2) T
 he rheostat is in series with the cell and hence limits the current that enters the Wheatstone network.
At off balance, a fraction of this current passes through the galvanometer. Thus, the rheostat resistance
also protects the galvanometer from excess current, especially when the jockey is touched at the two
ends of the bridge wire.

14 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


(3) In using a metre bridge, the jockey is tapped along the wire and the point D is determined such that
the deflection shown by the galvanometer is zero when the contact is made at the point D. It means
that the Wheatstone bridge is balanced, i.e., the points B and D are at the same potential. The point D
is called the balance point or null point.
(4) A voltmeter or an ammeter is not an ideal meter, i.e., a voltmeter does not have an infinite resistance
nor does an ammeter have zero resistance. Their finite resistances change the current in a circuit in
which they are used. Hence, the voltmeter-ammeter method does not give a precise value of a resistance.
In comparison, the Wheatstone metre bridge is a comparison method where an unknown resistance is
compared against a known precision resistance.
(5) T
 he bridge wire serves as the ratio arm of a Wheatstone network. A change in its resistance due to
prolonged passage of current during the experiment will change the ratio and introduce random error
in the measurement of a resistance.
(6) This reduces the error due to non-uniformity of the metre bridge wire.
(7) This reduces the errors due to (i) the resistance of the copper strips (ii) the contact resistances at A and C
(iii) the inaccuracy in the measurement of LX and LR.
(8) The bridge wire should be uniform in cross section and composition, and should have a low temperature
coefficient of resistance. Also, it must have finite resistance such that the resistance of each ratio arm
is comparable to the unknown resistance being measured.
(9) Two resistances are said to be in series if they are connected end-to-end such that the same current
passes through both. A series combination of two resistances is used (1) to increase the resistance in a
circuit (2) as a potential divider.
(10) Two resistances are said to be in parallel if the potential difference across both is the same.
    
A parallel combination of two resistances is used (1) to decrease the resistance in a circuit
(2) to apply the same potential difference across both but divide the current drawn from the source.
(11) If the plug key is kept closed, current will pass through the bridge network even when the jockey is
not in contact with the wire. Prolonged current through the network will change the resistance being
measured and also drain out the cell.
(12) Let l and A be the original length and area of cross section of the wire.
Let l1 and A1 be its new length and area of cross section after stretching.
l l
Then, l1 3l, X   and X1   1 . Assuming the volume of the wire remains unchanged, lA  l1A1,
A A1
l
so that A  1  1.01.
A1 l
X l A
 X1  l1   1.01  1.01  1.02. Therefore, its new resistance, X1 1.02 X, i.e., increases by 2%
A1
of the original resistance.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 15


Experiment 9

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (b) the end resistances
(2) (a) increase
(3) (b) decrease to zero
(4) (a) The rheostat is used to adjust the galvanometer deflection while the resistance R is used to shift the
balance point.
(5) (b) increased by R.
Solution :
G LG
  1. To increase the voltage range of a galvanometer p times, a resistor of resitance RS must be
R LR
connected in series with the galvanometer, where RS G (p – 1), so that Reff in the left gap is Reff RS  G
 Gp. Let R be the resistance in the right gap such that the balance point is again at the centre.
Gp LG
Then,   1.
R LR
Therefore, R '  Gp  (R)(2)  2R, so that the resistance in the right gap must be increased by R.

Questions :
(1) N
 o. If the jockey is tapped at a point on the wire for which the bridge is not balanced, then the
galvanometer in the gap will show a change in deflection. When the jockey is tapped at the balance
point, the galvanometer deflection shows no change. Hence the galvanometer in the gap itself can be
used to detect the balance point.
(2) See Experiment 8.
(3) T
 he balance point is not called the null point because the galvanometer in the gap, which is also used
to detect the balance point, does not show null (meaning, zero) deflection when the bridge is balanced.
(4) See Experiment 8.
(5) See Experiment 8.
(6) See Experiment 8.
(7) T
 he metre bridge wire should have uniform diameter and composition so that it has constant resistance
per unit length. Then, the ratio of the resistances of the ratio arms is equal to the ratio of their lengths.
(8) If the plug key is kept closed, current will pass through the bridge network even whether or not the
jockey is in contact with the wire. Prolonged passage of current through the network will change the
resistance of the galvanometer coil being measured and also drain out the cell.
(9) Since this experiment aims to determine the resistance of the galvanometer coil, the galvanometer is
connected in one arm of the Wheatstone network. Hence, on inserting the plug in the plug key, a steady
current always passes through the galvanometer. The jockey is tapped along the wire to detect a point D which
is equipotential with B. In that case, there will be no current in the branch BD and the galvanometer
does not show any change in deflection on making or breaking the contact at D. If B and D are not

16 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


equipotential, there will be a current in the branch BD on making a contact with the wire and the
deflection in the galvanometer will change from its initial deflection. The galvanometer deflection will
never be zero.
(10) Yes, because B and D are equipotential at balance and there is no current in the branch BD.
(11) The circuit will no longer be a Wheatstone network and will not function as desired.
(12) 
A shunted galvanometer is an ammeter of very low resistance. The steady current through the
galvanometer may be too large. Then, instead of using a shunt, the simplest method for a moving-coil
galvanometer is to clamp the coil and use a second galvanometer in the branch BD as the null detector.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 17


Experiment 10

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (b) l   potential gradient
(2) (c) the volt/metre
(3) (a) 30 mV
Solution :
V
k  Lab  3 μV/mm  3 mV/m, L  10 (1 m)  10 m
 Vab  (3 mV/m)(10 m)  30 mV. This is the maximum potential difference that can be measured
using this potentiometer.
(4) (c) 20 mA
Solution :
VAB
L
 20 mV/m

 VAB  (20 ) (5 m)  100 mV  0.1 V


mV
m
RAB  (5 m)(1  /m)  5 
VAB 0.1 V VAB/l 20 mV/m
 I   0.02 A  20 mA OR I   20 mA
RAB 5 RAB/l 1  /m
(5) (c) will be more than l1 but less than lab only if E2 < Vab.

Questions :
(1) The work done by a cell in taking a unit positive charge through a complete circuit including the external
resistance and the electrolyte of the cell is called the emf of the cell. It is the open-circuit potential
difference across the terminals of the cell.
(2) No. A voltmeter measures the terminal p.d. V of a cell in a closed circuit. This is because the resistance
of a voltmeter is high but not infinite and hence the voltmeter is not ideal.
(3) A potentiometer consists of a long uniform wire stretched on a wooden board with a cell of extremely
stable emf connected across the wire.
(4) The p.d. across any length of the potentiometer wire is directly proportional to that length.
(5) When a potential difference is applied across a uniform resistance wire, the fall of potential (or potential
drop) from the high potential end per unit of length of the wire is called the potential gradient.
The SI unit of potential gradient is the volt per metre.
(6) For the same p.d. across the wire, the longer its length the smaller the potential gradient. By setting up
a suitably small potential gradient along a long potentiometer wire, any small voltage can be measured.
Increasing the length of the wire effectively decreases the potential gradient, and increases both the
precision and accuracy of measurement.

18 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


(7) T
 he rheostat is connected in series with the supply cell of extremely stable emf. It controls the current
in the potentiometer wire and thus the potential gradient along the wire.
(8) T
 he supply emf must be stable so that the potential gradient along the wire remains constant during
measurements.
(9) T
 he positive terminals of the cells must be connected to the high potential terminal of the potentiometer,
i.e., the terminal at which the positive of the supply emf is connected. Only then the p.d. across a length
of the wire will be able to balance the emf of a cell.
(10) When an emf E1 (or E2) is balanced against a certain length AD of the potentiometer wire, the p.d.
VAD E1. Since VAB > VAD , the p.d. across the potentiometer wire and, obviously, the supply emf E
should be greater than the emf being balanced. When two emfs are being compared, balancing one
at a time, E should be greater than the greater emf of the two.
(11) See the answer to Q. (10) above. When two emfs are being compared by the sum and difference
method, VAB and E should be greater than the sum (E1  E2).
(12) Only then the higher potential end of their difference combination will be at A (assuming the positive
terminal of the supply E is at A). Otherwise you will be able to balance the sum (E1  E2) but not a
much smaller difference emf (E1  E2).
(13) The rheostat setting changes the potential gradient k along the wire. In comparing two emfs by the

direct method, if k is the same, E1  kl1 and E2  kl2 so that the ratio of the emfs equals the ratio of the
E1  E2 kl1′.
balancing lengths. (Or, in sum and difference method,  ) Hence, k should be the same for
E1  E2 kl2′
one set of observation.
(14) Prolonged passage of current will change the resistance of the potentiometer wire, thus changing the
potential gradient along it.
(15) The cross section and composition of the potentiometer wire should be uniform so that the potential
gradient along the wire is uniform.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 19


Experiment 11

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (d) all of the above
(2) (b) 1.5 Ω
Solution :

r  R (  1) (5 ) (  1)  5 (
l 208 cm 208  160 48 3
 1)   1.5 
l1 160 cm 160 32 2
(3) (c) increased to 40 Ω
Solution :
Vab
To double the sensitivity of the potentiometer, the potential gradient must be halved, i.e., Vab  IR
l
5V I
must be halved, for which the current must be halved. Since I  , for I' 
R  RA 2

R  RA  2 (R  RA)
 RA R  2RA  10   2 (15 Ω) = 40 Ω, i.e., RA must be increased to 40 Ω.
(4) (c) 12.5 Ω/m

Solution :
E1 I , where λ is the resistance per unit length of the wire.
l1
E1 1.46 1
     12.5  /m
Il1 (0.4) (0.292) 0.08
EV
(5) (c) R.
V
Questions : [Also see Experiment 10.]

(1) When a current is drawn from a cell, some energy is spent in the cell itself for the flow of charges
(electrons and ions) inside the cell between its terminals. This is because the electrolytic solution in the
cell offers resistance to the flow of charges. This resistance is called the internal resistance of the cell.

(2) The internal resistance of a cell depends upon the chemicals used in the cell, their concentration and
dimensions of the cell.

(3) Yes. The internal resistance of a cell increases if the current drawn from the cell is very large or is drawn
for a long time.

20 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


(4) 
When an emf E (or p.d. V ) is balanced against a certain length AD of the potentiometer wire,
the p.d. VAD  E. Since VAB > VAD , the p.d. across the potentiometer wire and, obviously, the supply
emf E′ should be greater than the emf/p.d. being balanced.

(5) The emf E is the open-circuit p.d. across the terminals of the cell while V is the closed-circuit p.d. across
the terminals. E = kl1 and V = kl2 . Since V < E, l2 < l1.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 21


Experiment 12

Multiple Choice Questions :

(1) (c) a   ( )
B
I
(2) (a) I1 + I2

Solution :

I1  ( ) m1 and I2 ( ) m2, since they have the same dimensions. Hence, when tied together,
l2 b2 l2 b2

12 12
the moment of inertia of their combination is I ( ) (m1  m2 )  I1 I2
l2 b2
12
T 2o  T 2a
(3) (b)
T 2o + T 2a
Solution :
The resultant magnetic moments for lμ1 and lμ2 (μ1 < μ2) assisting and opposing have magnitudes μ1  μ2
μ1  μ2 T 2o μ1 T 2o  T 2a
and μ2 μ1, respectively. Therefore, μ2  μ1  , so that, μ2 
T 2a T 2o + T 2a
(4) (c) To will be very large
Solution :

When the magnetic moments oppose each other, the resultant magnetic moment has magnitude

μ1  μ 2 4  2 ( ) , where I  is the moment of inertia of the combination of the two magnets.


I
T 2o Bh

Hence, if μ1μ 2 , To will be very large.


(5) (d) 2m5 s.
Solution :
μ1 3
  μ 
2 2
μ1  μ2 3  2 5
 μ μ  
2 1 32 1

 pqμ  μ  m5
T2 μ1  μ2

T1 2 1

 T2  T1 m5  2m5 s

Questions :

(1) A vibration magnetometer works on the principle that when a bar magnet is suspended so as to rotate
freely in a horizontal plane, it comes to rest in approximately the North-South direction and when
disturbed from its equilibrium position, it starts vibrating about that position.
22 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII
(2) The magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of a magnet is defined as the magnitude of the torque
that acts on it when it is placed with its axis at right-angles to a uniform magnetic field of unit induction.
(3) In a magnetic dipole, the finite distance between the two poles is called its magnetic length. For the sake
of convenience, it is denoted by 2l, so that the distance of each pole from the centre of the dipole is l.
In the case of a bar magnet, an approximate relation exists between the magnetic length and the geometric
5
length : magnetic length, 2l  6  (geometric length, L).
(4) The moment of inertia of a body about a given axis of rotation is defined as the sum of the products of
the masses of the particles of the body and the squares of their respective distances from the axis of
rotation.
   
The moment of inertia of a rigid body depends on (i) the mass and shape of the body
(ii) orientation and position of the rotation axis (iii) distribution of the mass about the rotation axis.
(5) The vertical plane at a place passing through the north and south magnetic poles of the Earth and
containing the direction in which a compass needle sets itself at that place is called the magnetic meridian
at that place.
(6) Both the magnetometer, and the magnet at rest in the stirrup, should be set in the magnetic meridian.
Then, when the magnet is rotated from its rest position by a small deflection in the horizontal plane, it
experiences a restoring torque due to the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic induction. And,
when released, the magnet oscillates about the rest position in angular or torsional oscillation.
(7) We consider the moment of inertia of the bar magnet about a transverse axis through its centre of mass.
For the angular oscillations of a magnet suspended vertically, this transverse axis should be vertical and
along the axis of suspension. Hence, the plane of oscillation should be horizontal.
(8) The angular oscillations of a bar magnet in a uniform magnetic field are simple harmonic only when the
restoring torque responsible for the oscillations is directly proportional to the angular displacement of
the magnet and its direction is opposite to that of angular displacement. This is true only when the
amplitude of oscillations is small.
(9) Yes, we can.
We find the product μBh using a vibration magnetometer : 
I
μBh  4  2  P (say)
T2
We find the ratio μ/Bh using a deflection magnetometer : The axial field of a bar magnet is

0 2d
Ba 4  . Thus, setting the deflection magnetometer for the axial field of the bar magnet,
(d  l 2)2
2

 (d 2  l 2)2 tan 
Ba  Bh tan  . Then, B =  Q (say)
h 2d (0 /4  )

Then,   mnPQ and Bhpq


P
.
Q

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 23


If the deflection magnetometer is set for the equatorial field of the bar magnet,

0   (d 2  l2)2 tan 
Be  Bh tan  , in which case  = Q  (say).
4  (d 2  l 2)2 Bh (  0/4  )

Then,   mnPQ  .

24 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


Experiment 13

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (c) the depletion region
(2) (d) accelerated minority charge carriers

Explanation :
Breakdown in a lightly-doped reverse-biased rectifier diode occurs by impact ionization in the depletion
region by energetic carriers. If the electric field in the depletion region is large, an electron entering from
the p-side may be accelerated to high enough kinetic energy to cause an ionizing collision with the lattice
ions. A single such interaction results in carrier multiplication; the original electron and the generated
electron are both swept to the n-side of the junction, and the generated hole is swept to the p-side. The
degree of multiplication becomes very high if these generated carriers also have ionizing collisions and
create more electron-hole pairs. This is an avalanche process, since each incoming carrier creates a large
number of new carriers.
(3) (c) tunnelling through the potential barrier
(4) (c) simple voltage regulator
(5) (a) 5 mA.
Solution :

R1  250 Ω, R2  1 kΩ. The voltage across R2 is V2  VZ  15 V, so that the current through it, .
V 15 V
I2 2  3 15  10 3 A  15 mA
R2 10 

The voltage across R1 , V1  V  V2  20 V  15 V  5 V. Therefore, the current through R1,


V 5V 1
I1 1    0.02 A  20 mA
R1 250  50
 IZ = I1 – I2 = 20 – 15 = 5 mA

Questions :
(1) W
 hen a sufficiently large reverse voltage is applied to a pn-junction, there is an abrupt strong increase
in the reverse current and its rectifying properties are lost. This is known as junction breakdown.
(2) Z
 ener breakdown is a junction breakdown which takes place in heavily doped a diode due to tunnel
effect. The depletion region in a heavily doped pn-junction diode is very narrow. Because of this, the
electric field across the depletion region is intense enough (106 V/cm) to pull out valence electrons from
the covalent bonds between neighbouring silicon atoms. This results in conduction electrons and holes.
In the energy band diagram representation, this corresponds to the penetration of an electron of energy
less than the barrier height through the energy bandgap — a quantum mechanical process called tunnelling.
(3) The breakdown voltage is less than about 6 V in heavily doped diodes, such as a Zener diode, in which
the doping concentrations for both p- and n-regions are greater than 1018 cm–3. In lightly doped diodes,
with doping concentrations of 1017 cm–3 or less, the breakdown voltage is greater than 6 V.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 25


(4) A
 Zener diode is heavily doped — the doping concentrations for both p- and n-regions are greater than
1018 cm–3 while those of an ordinary/rectifier diode are about 1017 cm–3 or less. Due to this, the peak
inverse voltage (PIV) or breakdown voltage of an ordinary diode is higher than a Zener diode and the
breakdown occurs by impact ionization (avalanche process). Their I – V characteristics are otherwise
similar.
(5) Applications of a Zener diode :
(1) Voltage regulator
(2) Fixed reference voltage in biasing transistors
(3) Peak clipper in a wave shaping circuit
(4) Meter protection from voltage fluctuations.
(6) In the breakdown region of a Zener diode, for widely changing Zener current IZ , the voltage VZ across
the Zener diode remains almost constant. As the load current (I ) or supply voltage (V ) changes, IZ adjusts
itself at constant VZ . This allows a Zener diode to be used as a voltage regulator.

26 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


Experiment 14

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (b) if and only if the two inputs are different from each other
(2) (c) a NOR gate
(3) (a) XOR gate
(4) (c) 7 and 14
(5) (b) 7404.

Questions :
(1) T
 he AND, OR and NOT gates are the basic logic gates. The AND gate is a circuit with two or more
inputs and one output in which the output signal is HIGH if and only if all the inputs are HIGH
simultaneously. The OR gate is a circuit with two or more inputs and one output in which the output
signal is HIGH if any one or more of the inputs is HIGH. The NOT gate or INVERTER is a circuit with
one input whose output is HIGH if the input is LOW and vice versa.

(2) L
 ogic gates are transistor switches with multiple inputs to perform logical operations, i.e., the outputs of
these switches are determined in specified ways by the condition (binary state) of their inputs. They are
used to build flip-flops to store data, e.g., registers in arithmetic logic unit (ALU), computer memory,
etc. They are also used to build multiplexers.

(3) The NAND and NOR gates are called the universal logic gates because any gate can be implemented
by the combination of NAND and NOR gates.

(4) T
 he NAND gate is a combination of an AND gate followed by a NOT gate so that the truth table of the
NAND function is obtained by inverting the outputs of the AND gate.

(5) T
 he NOR gate is realized by connecting the output of an OR gate to the input of a NOT gate, so that
the truth table of the NOR function is obtained by inverting the outputs of the OR gate.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 27


Experiment 15

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (d) the saturation region
(2) (a) IB against VBE for different constant values of VCE
(3) (d) IC against VCE for different constant values of IB
(4) (a) the base to emitter
(5) (b) 4 mA.
Solution :
I
 dc  C  0.95
IE
 IC  0.95 IE

 IE  IB IC IB  0.95 IE

 0.05 IE IB  0.2 mA


0.2 20
 IE    4 mA
0.05 5

Questions :
(1) A
 junction transistor consists of two back-to-back pn-junctions forming a sandwich structure in which a
thin layer of n-type or p-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two layers of opposite type
semiconductors. The three terminals of a transistor connected to its three layers are known as the emitter
(E), base (B) and collector (C). One pn-junction is between the emitter and the base while the other pn-
junction is between the collector and the base.
(2) No, they are not electrically interchangeable. The emitter and collector of a BJT are doped differently
and have different widths.
(3) On the emitter.
(4) T
 he emitter-base junction is forward biased by the battery VBB while the collector-base junction is
reverse biased by the battery VCC. VBB should be greater than the emitter-base barrier potential
(the threshold voltage).
(5) N
 o. For the normal operation of a BJT, the emitter-base junction is always forward biased and the
collector-base junction is always reverse biased. Hence, the bias battery VCC for a pnp transistor is
connected with its positive terminal to the base and the negative terminal to the collector.
(6) From emitter E to base B.
(7) O
 f three configurations in which a transistor may be connected in a circuit, the common-emitter (CE)
configuration is one in which the emitter terminal is common to the input and output circuits.
(8) T
 he dc common-emitter current ratio or current gain ( βdc ) is defined as the ratio of the collector current
to base current. βdc IC / IB .

28 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


(9) In the common-emitter (CE) configuration, the emitter is common to the input and output circuits and
the input characteristics is a set of curves of base current IB against base to emitter voltage VBE for
different constant collector to emitter voltages VCE . In a CE amplifier, the voltage Vi to be amplified
(called the signal voltage) is applied between the base and the grounded emitter. V i (or IB) controls the
output collector current. Hence, the input characteristic in this case is also called the base characteristic.
(10) Base current.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 29


section 2 : ACTIVITIES

Activity 1

Questions : [Also see Experiment 2]

(1) 
A detergent is a surfactant. Its amphophilic molecules are absorbed in the air-water interface where they
align themselves so that the hydrophobic part of a molecule is in the air and the hydrophilic part is in
water. The cohesive forces between the water molecules are very strong so that the surface tension of
water is high. Surfactants break these interactions. The intermolecular forces between surfactant and
water molecules are much lower than between two water molecules. This decreases the surface tension.

(2) To remove dirt from clothes thoroughly, water must be forced through the tiny spaces between the
weave. This requires an increase in the surface area of water, which is not possible due to its large
surface tension. Adding detergent or soap to the water (and also increasing the temperature of water)
decreases the surface tension of water and makes washing clothes easier.

30 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


Activity 2

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (c) The force is zero at time T/2
(2) (c) halved
Solution :
L 1 1 22 mA 2
In the usual notations, T  2 ij and total energy E  kA2  m  2A 2  . Therefore, for a
g 2 2 T2
simple pendulum of length L1  2L at the same place, T12 2T 2 so that, for the same amplitude, its
2  2 mA 2 1
energy is E1   E.
2T 2 2
(3) (b) equal to two seconds
Solution :

In an elevator moving with a constant speed, up or down, the effective acceleration due to gravity is the
same as that in a stationary elevator on the Earth.

(4) (b) 4 m
Solution :

 2  ij     L  4LS  4 m
T L
Ts Ls
(5) (a) the shorter pendulum will have completed two oscillations.
Solution :
At a place where g   2 m/s2, the pendulum of length 1 m is a seconds pendulum.  T1  2 s and T2  4 s.

 1   rad/s and 2  rad/s. They will be in phase again after a time t when they differ in phase
2

by 2  rad, i.e., ( 1  2)t  2  rad.    t  2  .
2
 t  4 s, i.e., when the seconds pendulum completes two oscillations while the longer pendulum completes
only one.

Questions :
(1) 
The magnitude of the maximum displacement of a particle performing SHM from its mean position is
called the amplitude of SHM.
(2) An ideal simple pendulum is defined as a heavy point mass suspended from a rigid support by a
weightless, inextensible and twistless string, and set oscillating under gravity through a small angle in a
vertical plane.
(3) A simple pendulum of period two seconds is called a seconds pendulum.
(4) When a simple pendulum is displaced from its initial position of rest through a small angle  in a
vertical plane and released, the motion of its bob is linear SHM.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 31


(5) The force constant in SHM is the magnitude of the restoring force on a particle performing SHM per
unit magnitude of the displacement of the particle from its mean (or equilibrium) position.

(6) Law of length : The period of a simple pendulum at a given place (g constant) is directly proportional
to the square root of its length.
T2
T mL or  constant.
L

32 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


Activity 3

Questions :

(1) When two progressive waves having the same amplitude, wavelength and speed, travel through the same
region of a medium in opposite directions, their superposition under certain conditions creates a stationary
interference pattern called as a stationary (or standing) wave. It is called stationary because the resultant
harmonic disturbance of the particles does not travel in any direction and there is no transport of energy
in the medium.
(2) When the tuning fork is set into vibrations, it sends waves along the string. These waves are reflected
at the pulley (fixed end). Under suitable conditions of length, tension, etc., the incident and reflected
waves combine to form stationary waves. Then, a stable pattern of distinct loops can be seen.
(3) Musical instruments — string, wind and percussion.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 33


Activity 4

Questions : [Also see Experiment 3]

(1) Radiation is the mechanism of heat transport or in general, energy transport, by electromagnetic waves.
Radiant heat, thermal radiation or heat radiation is the radiation produced by thermal agitation of the
particles of a body, and its spectrum, i.e., frequency distribution or wavelength distribution, is continuous
from the far infrared to the extreme ultraviolet region depending only on the temperature of the body.
(2) The emissive power or radiant power of a body at a given temperature is defined as the quantity of
radiant energy emitted by the body per unit time per unit surface area of the body at that temperature.
(3) The coefficient of emission (or emissivity) of a body is defined as the ratio of the emissive power of the
body (R) to the emissive power of a perfect blackbody (Rb) at the same temperature as that of the body.
(4) A blackened surface has emissivity close to 1 — that of a blackbody, while that of a polished surface is
much less than 1. Hence, the emissive power of a blackened surface is higher than that of a polished
surface and loses heat faster than a polished surface.

34 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


Activity 5

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (d) diffraction
(2) (a) light can behave like a wave
(3) (c) widths of non-central bright fringes
(4) (a) a sin m  m

(5) (d)
a

Questions :

(1) When light passes by the edge of an obstacle or through a small opening and falls on a screen, some of
the light deviates from its rectilinear path and penetrates into the region of the geometrical shadow. This
bending of light waves at an edge into the region of the geometrical shadow is called diffraction of light.
(2) 
The closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a reflection grating which form the familiar rainbow
pattern. The hologram on a credit card is another familiar example from everyday life.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 35


Activity 6

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (c) 15 A
(2) (b) electric shock
(3) (a) earthing
(4) (b) the hole on the right
(5) (d) either (a) or (b)
(6) (a) kilowatt-hour
(7) (b) the live wire
(8) (c) electrical energy

Questions :

(1) A household circuit is electrical wiring for lighting and power distribution in a home.
(2) House wiring uses a tree system. In this system, different branch lines are taken from the distribution
board to the different parts of the house. The distribution circuits look like different branches of a tree,
each branch line is taken to a room through a fuse on the live wire. The different distribution circuits
through their live wires are connected in parallel to the distribution board so that if there is a short-
circuiting in one distribution circuit, its fuse blows off, without affecting the electric supply in the other
circuits. All appliances in a room are connected in parallel so that they all may work at the same voltage
(  220 V).

(3) Advantage of connecting electrical appliances in parallel :

► Each appliance gets connected to 220 V supply for its normal working.

► Each appliance works independently without being affected whether the other appliance is switched
on or off.

► The current through any one of the parallel branches stays small enough because in parallel circuits
the current is split up and travels along each separate path.

(4) Electric fuse, switch, earthing/ground, three-pin plug and socket.

(5) An electric fuse is a wire made of an alloy of tin and lead. It works on the principle of the heating effect
of electric current. If the current through it increases beyond its rated limit, the wire melts and breaks
off the circuit. The fuse is then said to have blown off.

36 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


There are various types of fuses, some used only in buildings while others are used in appliances. These
days instead of fuses, miniature circuit breakers (MCB) are used for each individual circuit. An MCB
has a quicker response and does not require a new fuse wire to be connected (after an electrical fault
is rectified).
(6) An electric fuse is a safety device to prevent damage to an electrical circuit when excessive current
passes through it. The fuse is always connected in the beginning of the circuit of the appliance in the
live wire. If the appliance draws current beyond the limiting current, the fuse blows and breaks off the
circuit and stops the current, thus protecting the appliance.
(7) In any electrical installation or an electricity supply system, an earthing or grounding connects specific
parts of that installation to the main earth wire, which is attached to a metal pipe and/or special metal
electrode (metal stake) driven into the ground with the Earth for safety.
The idea is that the electricity is given a more conductive path.

(8) 
Earthing/grounding gives electric charges a more conductive path to the Earth rather than through a
human body in which case the person gets an electric shock. In case of a short circuit, the electric
charge flows to the Earth’s conducting surface through the earthing wire.
Earthing of an appliance prevents the appliance from acquiring the high potential of the live wire. This
protects the user from a fatal electric shock. In a house, local earthing is made near the electric
consumption (or kWh) meter. This prevents fire caused by short circuiting.

(9) 
A 3-pin plug is a plug with three pins or metal projections to fit into a 3-pin socket. A socket is a device
or point on a wall where one can connect electrical equipment to the power supply.
The top thicker and longer pin of a plug is for earthing, the pin on the left is for the live wire and the
pin on the right is for the neutral.
The upper bigger hole in the socket is for ground connection, while the hole on the right side is for
connection to the live wire and the hole on the left side is for connection to the neutral wire of electric
supply.

(10) Colour coding of single-phase domestic electrical wiring in India :

Old colour code New colour code

Live wire : RED Live wire : BROWN

Neutral wire : BLACK Neutral wire : LIGHT BLUE

Earth wire : GREEN Earth wire : GREEN

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 37


Activity 7

Questions : [Also see Experiment 10]

(1) W
 hen a potential difference is applied across a uniform resistance wire, the fall of potential (or potential
drop) from the high potential end per unit of length of the wire is called the potential gradient.
(2) Advantages of a potentiometer over a voltmeter :
► A potentiometer can measure the open-circuit p.d. across the terminals of a cell, or its emf E. Since
no voltmeter is ideal (i.e., of infinite resistance), a voltmeter measures the terminal p.d., V, of a cell
in a closed circuit.
► Bysetting up a suitably small potential gradient along a long potentiometer wire, any small voltage
can be measured. That is, increasing the length of the wire increases both the precision and accuracy
of measurement.
► The adjustment of a potentiometer is a ‘null’ method which does not, in any way, depend on the
calibration of the galvanometer. The accuracy of a voltmeter is limited by its calibration.
► Sincea potentiometer can measure both the emf and terminal p.d. of a cell, the internal resistance of
the cell can be found.

38 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII


Activity 8

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (a) 0.3 V
(2) (d) 0.7 V
(3) (d) the base
(4) (b) The transistor may be a pnp transistor
(5) (c) The transistor is not in working order.

Questions :

(1) No. There is no standard method of identifying transistor leads except checking lead specifications from
the transistor manual.
(2) A TO5 package has a metal case. Looking at the bottom of the package, with the leads towards you, the
protrusion on the case marks the emitter lead.
(3) A TO92 package has a plastic cylindrical case, partly flattened. Looking at the bottom of the package,
with the flattened face pointing up and the leads towards you, the left lead is the emitter lead.
(4) On a conventional/rectifier diode, the lead of the diode adjacent to the silver ring marked on the plastic
casing of the diode is the cathode lead (n-terminal).
There are three ways to identify the leads of an LED : The anode lead (p-terminal) is slightly longer
than the cathode lead (n-terminal). Or, if you are able to see inside the plastic casing, the lead connected
to the larger chunk of the metal inside is the cathode lead. Or, the rim of the plastic casing is slightly
flattened near the cathode lead.
(5) As the diode is forward biased, the display should show 0.3 V.
(6) 
The LED is forward biased in this case. Yet if it does not glow, it means it is defective.
(7) 
Systematic error. For a digital multimeter (DMM), accuracy is usually specified as a per cent of the
reading, not the full scale reading. Also, most manufacturers’ specifications include a range of digits to
the right of the percentage, e.g., ± (1 %  2 digits). This gives an indication of how many counts the last
digit on the right can vary.
(8) 
We can distinguish between rectifier and Zener diodes by checking for their PIV (peak inverse voltage),
i.e., breakdown voltage. For regular/rectifier diodes, this voltage is normally 50 V or more, but in a Zener
diode, it is designed to be a specified low value.

NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII 39


Activity 9

Multiple Choice Questions :


(1) (b) a photoresistor
(2) (b) decreases
(3) (d) few megohms

Questions :

(1) A
 light dependent resistor (LDR) or photoresistor or light activated resistor (LAR) is made of an intrinsic
or extrinsic semiconductor (e.g., CdS, CdSe, PbS, InSb, Ge:Cu) deposited on an insulating substrate such
as ceramic.
(2) The photoconductivity of the material increases linearly with an increase in the intensity of light. But an
LDR is less sensitive than photodiodes and phototransistors.
(3) The resistance of the material decreases linearly (from about few megohms) with an increase in the
intensity of light.
(4) Applications of LDR :
► Street light controller in solar street lamps
► Nightlights

► Alarm clocks
► Outdoor clocks
► Burglar alarm circuits
► Light intensity meters
► Optocoupler

40 NAVNEET HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS : STANDARD XII

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