International Journal of Research in Sociology and Anthropology (IJRSA)

Volume 1, Issue 1, June 2015, PP 37-52

www.arcjournals.org

Policy Responses to Climate Finance in Bangladesh:

An Anthropological Interpretation of Policy Making Process
Nushrat Tashmin
Lecturer
Department of Sociology and Anthropology
Green University of Bangladesh
Begum Rokeya Sarani, Dhaka, Bangladesh
[email protected]

Abstract: Bangladesh is widely recognized to be one of the most climate vulnerable countries in the world and
climate change issues are being one of the major focuses of the government and other development agencies of
Bangladesh. The present paper deals with the policy making process of climate change finance in Bangladesh,
as policy and financing issues are the major responses to combat climate change, which is posing constant
threat to the ecosystem of Bangladesh. In the present paper, this issue is analyzed from the perspective of the
anthropology of public policy, as anthropology is a multidisciplinary field. The Current public policy discourses
(regarding climate change finance) of Bangladesh do not significantly uncover the insight stories of making the
policies. How culture, power, social structures in a particular institution play a central role in defining policy
agenda and how and what ideology incentives and grievance drive the policy agenda is not explored and well
written in most of the policy research. These issues are revealed in the present paper which identifies the
contestation, negotiation and gaps of the present climate finance policies of Bangladesh by analyzing the
process of policy formulation from the perspective of the anthropology of public policy, on which we need to
know more about.
Keywords: Climate Change; Climate Finance; Culture of Policy Making; Anthropology of Public Policy

1. INTRODUCTION
The present article is about the critical analysis of the present situation of the policy making
procedures regarding climate change in Bangladesh with a specific lens of anthropology. The present
article focuses on the public policies of Bangladesh regarding climate change from a critical analytical
stance of the anthropology of public policy. As a subject of anthropological analysis the importance of
policy arises from the fact that policies are major instruments through which governments, companies,
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), public agencies and international bodies classify and
regulate the spaces and subjects they seek to govern, and through the analysis of these policy
processes we are able to observe the way fragments of culture and society are brought into new
alignments with each other to create new social and sematic terrains (Shore and Wright 2011).
Bangladesh is widely recognized to be one of the most climate vulnerable countries in the world and
climate change issues are being one of the major focuses of the government and other development
agencies of Bangladesh. In the last several decades Bangladesh played important roles in the scientific
and political arena of climate change. The country also made significant progress in formulating
climate change related policy documents. In the last few years all major national policy documents
have addressed and incorporated climate change issue (Mukta 2012). The Government and other
development agencies are involved in climate change adaptation (CCA) and disaster risk reduction
(DRR) programs and in Bangladesh context, the Ministry of Forest and Environment plays an
important role (Including policy formulation, planning, resource allocation and programme
implementations). A financial procedure regarding the climate change funding (policy and fund
management) is largely involved in translating climate change policies. Therefore, it is very important
that without proper strategies, planning and resource allocation procedures, the meaningful
implementation of national level climate change policies and plans will be impossible in Bangladesh.
In case of meaningful implementation of the sectoral programmes regarding climate change, policies
are essential. Considering climate change risks, Bangladesh government has already formulated
National Adaptation Program and Action (NAPA), Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action
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Nushrat Tashmin

Plan (BCCSAP-2009), and Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund Act-2010. In recent time,
anthropologists have expanded their analysis of the current context from a concentration on
communities and nation states to the interrelationships between economic, cultural, social, and
political dimensions of globalization. They high- light the similarities and differences in the
experiences of people, and the multiple dimensions of global, economic, political, and cultural
processes on productive and reproductive activities (Okongwu and Mencher 2000). In the present
article, the major reason for focusing on policy is because it articulates social processes which span
many locations. Climate related policies in our country corresponds to the differing needs and
capabilities of the people to deal with the challenges of climate change, as well as the social and
economic realities of the people living in this country. With a special lens of the anthropology of
public policy, the present article proposes to highlight the policy making procedures of the climate
change in Bangladesh with a detailed analysis of the policy formulation, planning, allocation,
distribution, implementation and evaluation of the regarding the issue. Here another goal is to identify
the loopholes of the policy making procedures of climate change in Bangladesh with a critical
analysis from the perspective of anthropology of public policy.
The notion of policy is different from the authoritative instrumentalism of conventional approaches,
entails opening up and sustaining a space for reflection by critical and reasoning subjects. In this
present article anthropology gives the policy making process of climate change in Bangladesh, an
analytical edge which is about to understand the meanings and subjective understandings of the policy
makers of the climate change related activities in Bangladesh and at the same time, it is about to
challenge received wisdom and to think outside of the conventional policy box. An anthropology of
policy is not simply concerned with representing local, indigenous, or marginalized ‗cultures‘ to
policy makers, government agencies, or concerned NGOs. Its focus instead is simultaneously wider
and narrower: wider insofar as its aim is to explore how the state (or to be more exact, those
policy makers and professionals who are authorized to act in the state's name) relates to local
populations; and narrower to the extent that its ethnographic focus tends to privilege the goal of
understanding how state policies and government processes are experienced and interpreted by
people at the local level, keeping in mind that anthropologists are recasting the ‗local‘ or the
‗community‘ to capture changing realities (Wedel, et al. 2009). From the researcher‘s point of view,
social anthropologists are experienced at tracking the genealogies and flows of policies and their
impact on peoples‘ lives and everyday behavior. For this reason the researcher tends to present the
policy making process of climate change related activities in Bangladesh form the perspective of the
anthropology of public policy.
To have an overview on the policy making procedures regarding climate change related activities,
here, the researcher has studied the policy making procedures for combating climate change in
Bangladesh, from the perspective of the anthropology of public policy. For collection of data, the
researcher used various methods (qualitative research methods). For the present study the researcher
has interviewed different actors and stakeholders related to the field of the climate finance of
Bangladesh. Anthropological approach in the analysis of public policy recognizes that policies are
simply instrumental governmental tools- they are actants that have agency and that change as they
enter into relations with actors, objects and institutions in new domains. There has also been a series
of policy and institutional changes undertaken by the Government of Bangladesh in recent years
influenced by transformations in ideas, knowledge, actors and incentives to face the challenges of
climate change. Here, the available sources of secondary information (like: Books, articles,
newspapers, magazines, relevant Government documents, policies, national and international policy
related documents , relevant study reports and documents of different NGOs and NGOs, web sites)
regarding the climate change, and policies to combat against climate change in Bangladesh, have been
explored. As the present article focuses on the policy making procedures of climate change related
activities in Bangladesh, so the researcher has collected plenty of data from secondary sources for the
basic understanding about the climate change related policies and the process of the planning and
implementation of the policies in Bangladesh. To have an overview on the topic many actors were
interviewed who are related to the climate change issues of Bangladesh. Different stakeholders were
interviewed, such as, actors of policy making, experts on IPCC /academics/practitioners, climate
change experts, government bureaucrats, international organization personnel, local community
people, NGO personnel and so on. To have data from primary sources different methods were used,
such as Interview, key informant interview, focused group discussion, and the extended case method.
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Policy Responses to Climate Finance in Bangladesh: An Anthropological Interpretation of Policy Making
Process

1.1. SITUATION and CONTEXT

Climate change is the significant change in the weather patterns over periods (Jade 2014). It means a
change in the climate patterns of the world. Climate change can lead to desertification, more intense
storms, melting of the polar ice caps, and rising sea levels, changing the physical face of the Earth and
the pattern of our everyday lives (Encyclopedia 2007). Today climate change is one of the greatest
challenges for the world (The World Bank Group 2012) and the intensity and frequency of climate-
induced disasters have been increased in recent years (Roy 2010).
Climate change policy making involves many actors. These include emitters of greenhouse gases,
those who make climate change policy and those who will be affected directly and indirectly by
climate change. This covers organizations from the national and international research community;
national, regional and local government; non-governmental organizations (NGOs); multinational
corporations and the huge range of local communities and citizens. Thus, perceptions of, and policy
responses to, climate change are closely related to individual/ societal outlooks, consumption patterns,
and the influence of regulations, pricing, media coverage and awareness-raising campaigns (Shafie
2014).
Public policy making can be seen as a process occurring in several domains including problem
identification, policy formulation, advocacy, implementation, and evaluation. Although these domains
of activities ‗ought to‘ happen sequentially, but in reality many of these processes are iterative and
may occur simultaneously. In the case of climate change, challenges of designing research to be
‗policy-relevant‘ largely remains with the responsiveness of the scientific process to the needs of
policy managers for particular clarity or understanding lying behind scientific assessments or
predictions (Shafie 2014).
1.2. Climate Change Impacts in Bangladesh
A change in climate will affect natural resources, such as water, forests, and grasslands. Changes in
natural resources will have social and economic effects; some beneficial, some detrimental. The
socio-economic effects of climate change therefore arise from interactions between climate and
society and how these in turn affect both natural and managed environments. Traditionally, in
Bangladesh, climatic variations have provided opportunities (resources) and imposed costs (hazards),
depending on how society adapted to the environment. Bangladesh is a newly developing country in
transition from being a traditional rice-growing society. In the drive for modernization, evolving
technologies and economical and social structures alter existing systems and make many sectors of,
and groups in, society more vulnerable to significant variations in climate and sea level (Ericksen,
Ahmad and Chowdhury 1993). The impacts of global warming and climate change are worldwide.
For Bangladesh they are most critical as large part of the population is chronically exposed and
vulnerable to a range of natural hazards (Deparment of Environment, Bangladesh 2007).
Climate change impacts are already adding significant stress to our physical and environmental
resources, our human ability, and economic activities. Impacts of observed changes are felt most in
the different sectors, like: Water resources, Coastal resources, Agriculture, Health Livelihoods, Food
security, Habitat/settlement security (Deparment of Environment, Bangladesh 2007).
1.3. Climate Change Response in Bangladesh
1.3.1. Policy Initiatives
Bangladesh has extreme environmental vulnerability to climate hazards, irrespective of the
exacerbation caused by increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. . In recent years therefore,
whilst climate change policy is a new element in national policy and development partner support, it
is being framed within these broader policy contexts. With the support of the well-established
scientific community and strategic development initiatives, Bangladesh and has long been active in
the UNFCCC process. There has also been a series of policy and institutional changes undertaken by
the Government in recent years influenced by transformations in ideas, knowledge, actors and
incentives (Gereral Economics Division, Planning Commission, Bangladesh &UNDP 2009).
Bangladesh produced its National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) in 2005 and was a lead
player on NAPAs in the UNFCCC. But weaknesses in relying on this selective approach became
clear. Spurred on by Cyclone Sidr and with the stimulus of the Bali Action Plan, the GoB prepared the
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Nushrat Tashmin

Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) in 2008/9 to provide strategic
direction on climate change. Prior to BCCSAP formulation, GoB formulated a number of national and
sectoral strategies and action plan including the national water management plan, the national
biodiversity strategy and action plan for Bangladesh and national environmental management plan
including climate viabilities (Planning Commission, Ministry of Planning, Bangladesh 2012).
1.3.2. Recent Policy Developments in Bangladesh Regarding Climate Change
Key recent policy developments include:
 National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) (2005 and revised 2009)
 Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) (2009)
 Climate Change Unit in Ministry of Environment & Forests
 Climate Change focal points established in relevant ministries (Planning Commission, Ministry of
Planning, Bangladesh 2012).
Bangladesh is the one among many developing and least-developed countries that formulated and
adopted such policy positions, through these policy documents have some limitations both in terms of
process and subject matter (Shamsuddoha and Bijoy 2014). Policy proposals on Climate Change
issues in Bangladesh emerged as one of the top of the agendas because the associated impacts are
recognized as important. But the driving question here is that how this problem is framed or brought
to policy maker‘s attention (example: through data or focusing events) and by whom the policy
proposals are generated, debated, revised, and put forth for serious consideration? The likelihood of
policy to be successful increases if perceived as technically feasible, compatible with policymaker‘s
values, reasonable in cost, and appealing to the public. In this respect, climate change policies requires
significant revisions focusing on how the choices are actually made from the large set of possible
policy alternatives in the context of Bangladesh. The problem, policy and politics streams together
converge into the overall policy process to open up policy windows. These there streams are
important and decisive to the overall policy process to transform an issue from a mere topic and/or
problem into a concrete policy. In addressing a compelling problem like climate change, the policy
entrepreneurs had played a key role in connecting the streams, and the different types of couplings
between them (Shafie ).
For the implementations of the climate policies in our country, here comes the issue of finance. So we
can link the climate finance as a response of climate change in Bangladesh. This is a crucial co-
ordination mechanism in the allocation of resources and it is essential that balanced policy influences
operate to optimize resource allocation.
2. ANTHROPOLOGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE ISSUES
Anthropologists increasingly have been active in documenting the special challenges, lived
experiences, local knowledge, and perceptions of contemporary anthropogenic climate change in
human communities, especially in developing settings that are hardest hit but least involved in the
production of greenhouse gases. Here anthropologists are assessing concepts like risk, vulnerability
and resilience in examining the sustainability of local ways of life and resource utilization.
Anthropologists have worked on identifying the range of factors that influence how and why
communities react as they do to climate change. There has been growing anthropological involvement
in assessing the social origins of climate change in light of the growth of the global economic
system‘s dependent on profit-making and unequal distribution of wealth, continual resource-
depletion, and mounting waste producing economic expansion. Susan Crate brings an inherently
interdisciplinary social science teaching and research agenda to our center, focusing on the theoretical
frames of human, cultural & political ecology, and environmental and cognitive anthropology
(George Masson University: Center for Climate Change Communication 2012). Susan A. Crete and
Mark Nuttall described about anthropology and climate change in their book: ‗Anthropology and
Climate Change: From Encounters to Actions‘ 2009 (Eds.). They described about anthropological
insights to climate change which can be related to the issues of the present research. According to
them, from an anthropological perspective, climate change is ultimately about culture, for in its wake,
more and more of the intimate human-environment relations, integral to the world‘s cultural diversity,
lose place. They make a salient point that despite the impact of climate change on indigenous peoples

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Policy Responses to Climate Finance in Bangladesh: An Anthropological Interpretation of Policy Making
Process

and their traditional knowledge, international experts and policy makers most often overlook the
rights of indigenous peoples as well as the potentially in-valuable contributions from indigenous
peoples‘ traditional knowledge, innovations, and practices in the global search for climate change
solutions. And since adaptation to climate change is something that primarily takes place at the local
level, it is paramount that indigenous peoples and place-based societies themselves define the risks
related to rapid change (Nuttall 2009).
According to them, communities differ in the way they perceive risk, in the ways they utilize
strategies for mitigating negative change, and in the effectiveness of local adaptive capacity. In field
contexts anthropologists see that the effects of climate change are prompting the adoption of different
subsistence and local economic strategies to suit new ecosystem regimes or, with more rapid change,
the displacement and resettlement of peoples who risk losing their homeland to environmental
change. Policy responses need to be informed by a greater understanding of how potential impacts of
climate change are distributed across different regions and populations. Climate change brings
additional vulnerabilities for indigenous peoples, which add to existing challenges, including political
and economic marginalization, land and resource encroachments, human rights violations, and
discrimination. Anthropologists have begun to draw attention to the interaction of climate change
with a substantial list of other anthropogenic environmental transformation and ecological crises.
Anthropologists are working in applied initiatives that seek to respond to climate change at the local,
regional, national, and global scales (American Anthropological Association 2013). This is how
anthropology and the issues of climate change are linked.
3. ANTHROPOLOGY AND POLICY MAKING CONTEXT IN BANGLADESH
―Public policy is the action taken by government to address a particular public issue. Local, state,
federal, and international government organizations all craft and implement public policy to protect
and benefit their populations‖ (John Hopkins Institute for Policy Studies 2014).
Policy is needed to prioritize and strategize the unlimited needs with limited resources. Therefore, the
prioritization and stratification become important and the issues of Ideology, guidance, institution and
strategies play decisive role in setting agenda (Kingdon 2003). In Bangladesh, there are several public
policies regarding climate change adaptation (CCA) and disaster risk reduction (DRR). There are also
policies for arranging and spending funds for implementing these issues. In this area, Ministry of
Environment and Forest plays an important role. There are various projects which have already been
implemented or being implemented under this ministry. The activities of MoEF include formulation
of policies regarding climate change adaptation, mitigation and finance (Planning Commission,
Ministry of Planning, Bangladesh 2012).
Anthropology of policy evaluates how the state relates to local population and explores how the state
policies are implemented among the local people and their experiences about these (Wedel, Shore, &
Feldman 2009). Anthropology of policy is more concerned with understanding of how the policies
functions and the anthropologists have the potential to be effective interpreters in pursuit of consensus
of policies generated by the state (Berreman 2008). From an anthropological perspective climate
change is about culture because of intimate human-environment relations which are integral to
Worlds‘ cultural diversity (Crate and & Nuttall 2009).
Now a days, climate change issues are being one of the major focuses of the government and other
development agencies of Bangladesh. The Government and other development agencies are involved
in climate change adaptation (CCA) and disaster risk reduction (DRR) programs and in Bangladesh
context, the Ministry of Forest and Environment plays an important role (Including policy
formulation, planning, resource allocation and Programme implementations). A financial procedure
regarding the climate change funding (policy and fund management) is largely involved in translating
climate change policies. Therefore, it is very important that without proper strategies, planning and
resource allocation procedures, the meaningful implementation of national level climate change
policies and plans will be impossible in Bangladesh. In case of meaningful implementation of the
sectoral programmes regarding CCA and DRR, the essential funds and funding policies are essential.
Resource allocation for CCA and DRR derives from the national budget of our country.
Although the climate change problems are vast in our country, therefore finance play and critical
incentives and grievance in shaping the policy agenda in Bangladesh. There is an operational structure
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Nushrat Tashmin

in Bangladesh regarding climate change adaptation (CCA) and disaster risk reduction (DRR)
concerns. This operational structure includes policy formulation (sectoral strategies and policies),
planning (sectoral plan), resource allocation (sectoral budget envelope) and Programme
implementations (sectoral programmes). The actors and stakeholders play an important role in the
formulation of policies, strategies and plans because on these policy formulation procedures, the
resource allocation system depends. Under this background the present study aims to reveal the
concerns of the actors and stakeholders of policy making procedures regarding climate change
finance. This study analyzes the policy formulation and implementation of climate finance processes
with the perspective of the anthropology of public policy.
Anthropology as a field has contributed, and continues to contribute, to social policy research,
practice, and advocacy in a number of different ways; it has taken on increasing relevance as the
world is rapidly being transformed by the process of globalization (Wedel, et al. 2009).
Anthropological approach in the analysis of public policy recognizes that policies are simply
instrumental governmental tools- they are actants that have agency and that change as they enter into
relations with actors, objects and institutions in new domains. Here the challenge is to study policies
as they develop and as they enacted in everyday practice (Shore and Wright 2011). In anthropology
the reason for focusing on policy is because it articulates social processes which span many locations.
Anthropological perspectives on the study of policy usually focus on the fields which spanned
international and national governmental agencies, industrial and other pressure groups, professional
organizations, as well as media, all of whom have interest in shaping the policies (Shore and Wright
2011). In the anthropological analysis of policies, it is important to recognize that ideology and public
policy are critically linked, the policies reflects the contestation of the ideologies of the actors and
stakeholders in the making and implementation of the public policies.
The anthropology of policy takes public policy itself as an object of analysis, rather than as the
unquestioned premise of a research agenda. Anthropology is well suited to explore the cultural and
philosophical underpinnings of policy. Its enabling discourses, mobilizing metaphors, and underlying
ideologies and uses. Anthropologists can explain how taken-for-granted assumptions channel policy
debates in certain directions, inform the dominant ways policy problems are identified, enable
particular classifications of target groups, and legitimize certain policy solutions while
marginalizing others (Wedel, et al. 2009).
Anthropology contributes a broad holistic outlook on society-environment relations (Barnes, Dove,
Lahsen, & Mathews 2013). To cope with the challenges posed by climate change re-quires significant
financial resources and climate finance is complex because of the diversity of sources of funds
(Irawan & Heikens 2012). The effect of climate change are not just about communities or peoples but
about their capacity to adapt and exercise resilience to face the changes (Crate & & Nuttall 2009).
Developing countries like Bangladesh, have emphasized on the climate change issues specially on
adaptation(CCA) and disaster risk reduction (DRR) from the government and developed country
finances to cope with the climate change challenges (Planning Commission, Ministry of Planning,
Bangladesh, 2012 ; Practical Action n.d.; Siddiqui n.d.). In our country there has been a series of
polies taken by the government (Planning Commission, Ministry of Planning, Bangladesh 2012;
Ayers 2008; Finance Division, Ministry of Finance, Government of the People's Republic of
Bangladesh 2014; Department of Environment, Bangladesh 2009) regarding climate change.
The Current public policy discourses (regarding climate change finance) of Bangladesh do not
significantly uncover the insight stories of making the policies (Department of Economics, Göteborg
University 2006; (Finance Division, Ministry of Finance, Government of the People's Republic of
Bangladesh 2014; Shafie 2014; Dutta, et al. 2011)). How culture, power, social structures in a
particular institution play a central role in defining policy agenda and how and what ideology
incentives and grievance drive the policy agenda is not explored and well written in most of the policy
research.
Anthropologists have begun to assess the social origins of climate change in light of the growth of the
global economic system‘s dependent on profit-making and unequal distribution of wealth, continual
resource-depletion, and mounting waste producing economic expansion. The impacts of, and policy
response to climate change varies from country to country. In Bangladesh, policy proposals on
Climate Change issues emerged as one of the top agendas as the impacts of climate change is robust.
The likelihood of policy to be successful increases, if perceived, as technically feasible, compatible
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Policy Responses to Climate Finance in Bangladesh: An Anthropological Interpretation of Policy Making
Process

with policymaker‘s values, reasonable in cost, and appealing to and owned by the public. In this
respect, climate change policies requires significant revisions focusing on how the choices are
actually made from the large set of possible policy alternatives in the context of Bangladesh.
4. CLIMATE CHANGE RESPONSE IN BANGLADESH
4.1.1. Policy Response
In Bangladesh there are several policy response options that exist that relate to climate change. These
include:
 Indirectly addressing the impacts of climate change through programmes that reduce vulnerability
through for example poverty alleviation, employment generation, crop diversification;
 Directly addressing vulnerability to climate variability and extreme events through disaster risk
reductions and management schemes; and specifically targeting climate change by mainstreaming
climate change into sectoral plans and national policies. (Ayers, 2008)
Climate Change Policy in Bangladesh
Bangladesh has long been active in the UNFCCC process and a series of policy and institutional
changes undertaken by the Government in recent years. Bangladesh produced its National Adaptation
Program of Action (NAPA) in 2005 and was a lead player on NAPAs in the UNFCCC. The
Government of Bangladesh (GoB) prepared the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan
(BCCSAP) in 2008/9 to provide strategic direction on climate change. Prior to BCCSAP formulation,
GoB formulated a number of national and sectoral strategies and action plan including the national
water management plan, the national biodiversity strategy and action plan for Bangladesh and
national environmental management plan including climate viabilities (Planning Commission,
Ministry of Planning, Bangladesh, 2012).
So the key climate policy developments in our country include
 National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) (2005 and revised 2009)
 Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) (2009)
 Climate Change Unit in Ministry of Environment & Forests
 Climate Change focal points established in relevant ministries
 (Planning Commission, Ministry of Planning, Bangladesh, 2012)
Bangladesh has taken several steps in recent years to embed climate change in national policy making
and as regards policy and strategy making process in Bangladesh, experience so far suggests that most
polices are driven by expert and bureaucrats, again following a top-down process. While participation
of stakeholders has significantly increased, quality of participation of poor people appears to have
remained unsatisfactory (Planning Commission, Ministry of Planning, Bangladesh, 2012).

Figure: 1. Climate Change Finance and Government Agencies

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Nushrat Tashmin

 According to the CPEIR, 37 ministries/divisions have some link with climate change related
activities either of non-development or of development nature or both. The reason which work
behind the leading role of MoEF is the rule of the Allocation of Business among the Different
Ministries and Divisions (1996, revised up to August 2000), the Planning, regulation and
coordination of environmental and forestry programmes are the major activities of Ministry of
Environment and Forest (Cabinet Division, Government of the People's Republic of Bngladesh
2000). Climate Change has been seen as the environmental issue here, so the leading ministry to
deal with the climate finance is the MoEF. But now a days, climate change issues are being seen as
the development issue (no more environmental issue).
 As we discussed that the 37 ministries/divisions have some link with climate change related
activities either of non-development or of development nature or both, then the climate finance
issues should be governed by the Planning Ministry. Because when any issue is the matter of the
involvement of more than one ministry that should be the matter of the Ministry of Planning and
should follow the development budgetary procedures. So here comes the issue of decentralizing
the role of MoEF in the policy making of climate related activitiesHere comes the issues of the
aspects of coordination within the government. There should be three types of coordination for the
better climate change related policy adoption in our country and those are:
 Policy Coordination: the achievement of balanced influence between sector policy and climate
change policy. This should be the role of the Planning Commission.
 Technical Coordination: This role lies with MoEF at the moment and has evolved from an
environmental mandate.
 Financial and Performance Coordination: This role lies with Finance Division and is implemented
via the MTBF which acts as the governance and performance management mechanism, as well as
matching resources to policy. So the finance division should play a crucial role in the coordination
of funding.
So the Synergies between institutional roles and responsibilities for climate change planning need to
be encouraged.
5. POLICY MAKING PROCESSES REGARDING BCCTF AND BCCRF:
5.1 Policy Formulation
The Planning Commission is the central planning body of Bangladesh responsible for macro and
micro economic plans and policies. When it comes to a sectoral policy and plan, the Ministries are
responsible for the policy formulation, planning, evaluation, and execution. In Bangladesh, the
climate change is still considered as an environmental issue. This implies that the climate change
planning should be led by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. But the planning and
management of BCCSAP initiated a special nature that differs from the regular national planning
appraisal, approval and financing process. Two different governance and management infrastructures
have been created for appraisal, approval and monitoring of projects under BCCSAP. The projects
that will be financed from the National Trust Fund with GoB‘s own funds will be managed by the
Climate Change Unit in MoEF and NGO funded by the PKSF (Palli Karma Sahayak Foundation).
The second set was created for the projects to be financed by donor grants/ the BCCRF and governed
and managed by an evolving new system with the involvement of GoB, participating donors and
World Bank as the Trustee of Fiduciary service provider.
5.2 Fund Approval and Release
BCCTF: the Trustee of BCCTF enjoys the supreme authority for project approval after being assessed
by the Technical Committee. Trustee Boards approves project in their regular meeting through a
detail discussion on each of the submitted projects before them. Once projects are approved MoEF,
the secretariat of this Board, send fund request letter to the Ministry of Finance. The fund request
letter includes list of approved projects, name of the implementing organization and other related
documents. As per demand the MoEF provides fund in favor of BCCTF Trust account. As the
Secretary of Ministry of Finance is a member of BCCTF Trustee Board, so no prior and additional
approval is required for fund release from the Ministry of Finance.
BCCRF: BCCRF is implemented in line with the agreed implementation manual, and considering
grant requests submitted by various line ministries and other eligible institutions. The projects grants
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Policy Responses to Climate Finance in Bangladesh: An Anthropological Interpretation of Policy Making
Process

approved for government implementing agencies are governed by a legal agreement between the
Bank as and the recipient, defining the eligible Activities and Expenditures/Disbursement Categories.
Funds may be used only for the purposes and activities described in the Grant Agreement, ensuring
that expenditures are incurred using the Bank‘s procurement and financial management guidelines.
5.3 Coordination in Fund Approval and Management
Projects undertaken by government ministries and departments are monitored by the monitoring wing
of the respective ministries under the guidance of a Joint Secretary. On the hand NGO projects are
overseen by the PKSF on the basis of PKSF‘s own financial management policy and only on the basis
of bilateral agreement between PKSF and the fund recipient NGO.
The project year are best aligned with the government‘s budget cycle. The project budgets are
prepared by grant seeking agencies which are further reviewed and finalized with the assistance of
CCU stuff, on the basis of the government‘s procurement and sectoral implementation plans. But so
far no guideline is available in any published sources regarding the responsibilities of CCU.
In case of BCCRF, the Secretariat and the World Bank Team plays role in coordinating partners,
maintaining and monitoring a processing schedule and accelerating along the process to prevent
slippage.
As per the BCCRF implementation manual Bank team, with members of the Secretariat, would
undertake regular implementation support mission every six months to review the implementation
progress of the grant project activities. The team will review all technical and fiduciary aspects of the
project, and consult beneficiaries and stakeholders.
Monitoring, Verification, and Reporting
In relation to BCCTF, the CCU has already developed a framework for verification and assessment of
project implementation. But monitoring mechanism of NGO projects funded through PKSF is yet to
develop.
On the other hand, BCCRF funded project expenses will be audited by the Comptroller and Auditor
General (CAG) of the government of Bangladesh. BCCTF Trustee also could employ third party
auditing firm. Aside with monitoring and reporting measures from government, the Bank will do
monitoring and reporting out of their responsibility of fiduciary service provider on behalf of the
contributors to the fund. The Bank will provide the donors with an annual report on the financial and
physical progress of activities and also will provide annual single audit, comprising: 1. a management
assertion together with an assentation from the World Bank Group‘s external auditors concerning the
adequacy of internal control over cash based financial statement for all cash-based trust funds together
with the external auditor‘s opinion thereon. The cost of such attestations shall be borne by the Bank.
6. ASSESSING THE PRESENT CLIMATE POLICIES AND PROCESS
 Therefore, there remains a tension among the Ministries over climate change related issues owing
to the tension that exists between the development of policy and the differences in budget between
institutions. This situation makes the case for clarification and specialization of mandates and for
strengthening the interface between key institutions.
 The intra-government coordination mechanism is a limitation. Bureaucracy appears to have
hindered progress in this regard which points towards a real imperative in developing these.
 Currently, the main responsibility to foster adaptation lies with the lead institution, Ministry of
Environment and Forest (MoEF). Unfortunately, its performance so far appears to have not been
satisfactory for many reasons, such as weak structure, duality in mandate, lack of manpower,
trained human resources and weak legal framework. It is argued that the MoEF has neither a clear
legal mandate as yet, nor specific Rules of Business to lead all the activities centered on climate
change in the country.
 It is encouraging to note that the NGOs of Bangladesh have been playing an important role in
reducing climate change induced hazards. Some of the NGOs are engaged in massive public
awareness campaign including preparedness training on climate change and sea-level rise and their
impacts. There is also insufficient capacity of local bodies to plan and manage climate related
projects continues to remain a major challenge to improve on climate vulnerability.
International Journal of Research in Sociology and Anthropology (IJRSA) Page | 45
Nushrat Tashmin

 In addition to intra-government co-ordination, the co-ordination between institutions i.e. national,

regional and local governments would appear to be quite limited, undermining the effectiveness of
the results that the project outcomes are designed to achieve. This is perhaps best evidenced by the
absence of climate change references in the MTBF of Local Government.
 The involvement of the private sector is at its initial stage, and offers a lot of potential
opportunities. The functioning of Local Consultative working groups is yet to gain momentum.
Bangladesh has not formulated a policy in relation to private sector involvement in Climate
Change and has not set any target of preferred mix of funding or delivery modalities. This perhaps
is a stage that should be considered more fully in the development of a National Climate Fiscal
Framework.
 Policy and strategy making process in Bangladesh, experience so far suggests that most polices are
driven by expert and bureaucrats, again following a top-down process while participation of
stakeholders has significantly increased, the quality of participation of poor people appears to have
remained unsatisfactory
Analysis of policy and programmes in many Ministries shows how wide and strong the connections
are to climate change. Climate change impinges on the responsibilities of a wide range of Ministries
although the Ministry of Environment and Forests has the lead. Accordingly, in recent years a large
number of investments have been made by a range of Ministries, for example in coastal infrastructure
and crop development which provide a base from which to improve climate resilience. The active
disaster risk management agenda has been a long running focus for development, and helped put in
place some local planning processes and policy transformations which help provide resilience for
climate change.
Capacity Issues of Moef (Ministry of Environment and Forests)
MoEF does not have a track record as a spending ministry. According to various sources accessed,
there is a major problem with coordination across the ministries. Whilst there is some interest in
accessing the climate change funds that apparently will be available, the convening capacity of the
MoEF is weak, in part because it is not a high-ranking ministry represented in Cabinet. It was evident
from the interviews that this issue has been widely discussed across the several groups that were
interviewed. On the positive side, one major international development organization reported that,
compared to other countries involved in the World Bank-led PPCR, MoEF had effectively
coordinated other Government ministries for the programmes development.
Increasing capacities of professional and technical staff is not a straightforward task. Civil service
procedures can slow the creation of new posts, and the internal career path can mean frequent moves
of key staff – this point has apparently been discussed at the Bangladesh Development Forum.
Externally funded projects rely on consultants, who get paid more than civil servants, and who can
move to other projects, so that the processes of building organizational learning and institutional
memory is undermined. Ironically too, Bangladesh‘s international profile on climate change, which it
has been developing, is potentially undermining immediate progress in the country. Key staff are
always ‗either going or gone‘ to climate change meetings outside the country according to one
organization Basically, as there is a legacy of under-spend on aid in general including climate change
increasing professional and technical capacity for project development is vital.
Donor Capacity Issues
Capacity for coordination is not just a problem for the GoB – donors also face problems. This issue is
covered in more detail in the following section within the discussion about the aid effectiveness
process. Comparatively few donors have been operating on a wide scale in Bangladesh. For the most
part, donors have been operating in well-established niches and have developed their own various
ways of working with the governance and accountability challenges. Donors are grappling with
problems about how to spend their money wisely and where climate change fits in with longer
running programmes.
7. CONCLUSION
In Bangladesh, we see that Government has taken different policies in formulating climate change
related strategies and actions plans for undertaking adaptation measures. In this regard the policy
makers of Bangladesh with the supervision of government develop the policies regarding climate
International Journal of Research in Sociology and Anthropology (IJRSA) Page | 46
Policy Responses to Climate Finance in Bangladesh: An Anthropological Interpretation of Policy Making
Process

change. In Bangladesh the policy making process regarding climate change come with a linear model
where we see different steps: problem recognition, identification comparison of alternative responses,
decision making, implementation, evaluation and possible amendment. The main responsibility of the
implementation of climate related policies lies with the lead institution Ministry of Environment and
Forest (MoEF). The reason which work behind the leading role of MoEF is the rule of the ‗Allocation
of Business among the Different Ministries and Divisions‘ (1996, revised up to August 2000), the
Planning, regulation and coordination of environmental and forestry programmes are the major
activities of Ministry of Environment and Forest. Climate Change has been seen as the environmental
issue here, so the leading ministry to deal with the climate finance is the MoEF. But now a days,
climate change issues are being seen as the development issue (no more environmental issue).
Currently, the main responsibility to foster adaptation lies with the lead institution, Ministry of
Environment and Forest (MoEF). Unfortunately, its performance so far appears to have not been
satisfactory for many reasons, such as weak structure, duality in mandate, lack of manpower, trained
human resources and weak legal framework. It is argued that the MoEF has neither a clear legal
mandate as yet, nor specific Rules of Business to lead all the activities centered on climate change in
the country.
Analysis of policy and programmes in many Ministries shows how wide and strong the connections
are to climate change. Climate change impinges on the responsibilities of a wide range of Ministries
although the Ministry of Environment and Forests has the lead. Accordingly, in recent years a large
number of investments have been made by a range of Ministries, for example in coastal infrastructure
and crop development which provide a base from which to improve climate resilience. The active
disaster risk management agenda has been a long running focus for development, and helped put in
place some local planning processes and policy transformations which help provide resilience for
climate change.
Under the present conditions of the climate finance of Bangladesh, the development of a national
climate fiscal framework is a high priority to ensure allocative efficiency and effective transaction of
strategy to both policy and budgets.
There is also a case for strengthening the co-ordination and transaction of climate policy, finance and
delivery between the levels of government and the various non-government institutions, including the
private sector, involved in climate change in Bangladesh. It is also important that the private sector
and civil society organizations create more inclusive partnerships so that all their efforts are coherent
and have greater impact on reducing climate vulnerability. Existing institutions that could potentially
be developed in this regard could include the Ministry of Industry and the NGO Bureau.
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Nushrat Tashmin

AUTHOR’S BIOGRAPHY
Nushrat Tashmin, is a Lecturer in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology
at Green University of Bangladesh. She has completed her graduation in
Anthropology from University of Dhaka. She has conducted her academic research
in the field of Anthropology of Climate Change from culture of policy making
perspectives. Prior to her faculty position in Green University of Bangladesh, she
worked in the Policy & Advocacy Department of Oxfam in Bangladesh and
Research Wing of Development Frontiers.

International Journal of Research in Sociology and Anthropology (IJRSA) Page | 52