CHAPTER 13

Temperature, Kinetic Theory,

and the Gas Laws

Group 10 members
Banghal, Ana Marie
Devilla, Raychell Ron
Polo, Mary Dexcelyn B.
Tumalom, Princess Vea
 13.1 Temperature
13.2 Thermal Expansion of Solids and
Liquids
13.3 The Ideal Gas Law
13.4 Kinetic Theory: Atomic and
SUBTOPICS Molecular Explanation of
Pressure and Temperature
13.5 Phase Changes
13.6 Humidity, Evaporation, and Boiling
 • Define temperature.
13.1 • Convert temperatures between the
Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin scales.
TEMPERATURE • Define thermal equilibrium.
• State the zeroth law of thermodynamics.

What is the temperature¢

• Temperature is operationally defined to be what we
measure with a thermometer.
• its common concepts is the hot and cold.
• Any physical property that depends on temperature, and whose
response to temperature is reproducible, can be used as the
basis of a thermometer.
• For example, if you place one hand in hot water and the
other in cold water, and then place both hands in tepid water,
the tepid water will feel cool to the hand that was in hot
water, and warm to the one that was in cold water.
Figure 13.3 The curvature of Figure 13.4 Each of the six squares
a bimetallic strip depends on on this plastic thermometer contains
temperature. a film of a different heat-sensitive
liquid crystal material.
Temperature Scales
•The three most common temperature scales are the Fahrenheit,
Celsius, and Kelvin scales.
•Celsius scale has the freezing point of water at 0°C and the boiling
point at 100°C and its unit is the degree Celsius °C
•Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32°F at and the
boiling point is at . The unit of temperature on this scale is the degree
Fahrenheit.
• Kelvin scale is the temperature scale that is commonly used in
science. It is an absolute temperature scale defined to have 0
K at the lowest possible temperature, called absolute zero.
•The freezing and boiling points of water are 273.15 K and 373.15 K
Figure 13.6 Relationships between the
Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin temperature
scales rounded to the nearest degree. The
relative sizes of the scales are also shown.

Converting between
Room Temperature Temperature Scales:
Solution for (a)
1. Choose the right equation. To convert from to , use the
• Example: “Room equation

temperature” is generally
defined to be in 25°C? (a)
What is room
temperature in °F? (b)
What is it in K?
Temperature Ranges in the Universe
• The lowest temperatures ever recorded have been Figure 13.8 Shows the wide
measured during laboratory experiments: 4.5x10-¹⁰K at the range
of temperatures found
in the universe
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA), and 1.0x10-
¹⁰K at Helsinki University of Technology
• The coldest recorded place on Earth’s surface is Vostok,
Antarctica at 183 K , and the coldest place (outside the lab)
known in the universe is the Boomerang Nebula, with a
temperature of 1 K

Making Connections: Absolute Zero

• Absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecular
motion has ceased.
• The concept of absolute zero arises from the behavior of
gases.
Figure 13.9 Graph of pressure
versus temperature for various Thermal Equilibrium and the
gases kept at a constant volume.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• Heat will flow from the hotter object to
the cooler one until they have exactly the
same temperature that is thermal
equilibrium.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

•If two systems, A and B, are in thermal equilibrium with each other, and
B is in thermal equilibrium with a third system, C,
then A is also in thermal equilibrium with C.
•It is called the zeroth law because it comes logically before the first
and second laws
THERMAL EXPANSION OF
SOLIDS AND LIQUID
13.2 Thermal Expansion of solids and
liquids
OBJECTIVES:
• Define and describe thermal expansion
• Calculate the linear expansion of an object given it’s initial
length, change in temperature and coefficient of linear
expansion.
• Calculate the volume, change in temperature, and
coefficient of volume expansion.
• Calculate thermal stress on an object given it’s original
volume, temperature change , volume change and bulk
modulus.
Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids
° Thermal Expansion – the change in size or volume of a given
mass with temperature.
> Hot air rises because it’s volume increases , which
causes the hot air’s density to be smaller than the density of
surrounding air , causing a buoyant ( upward) force on the hot
air.
> Solids also undergo thermal expansion. Railroad tracks
and bridges, for example, have expansion joints to allow them
to freely expand and contract with temperature changes.
Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids
ʶBasic Properties of Thermal Expansion:
> Thermal expansion is clearly related to temperature
change.
> It depends on the material. In a thermometer, for
example, the expansion of alcohol is much greater than the
expansion of the glass containing it.
ʶUnderlying Cause of Thermal Expansion:
1. An increase in temperature implies an increase in the
kinetic energy of the individual atoms.
2. For most substances under ordinary conditions , there is
no preferred direction, and an increase in temperature will
increase the solids size by a certain fraction in each
dimensions.
Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids
ʶLINEAR THERMAL EXPANSION - THERMAL EXPANSION IN
ONE DIMENSION
- The change in length ΔL is proportional to length L . The
dependence of thermal expansion on temperature, substance,
and length is summarized in the equation.
ΔL = aLΔT
• Example:
Calculating Linear Thermal Expansion: The Golden Gate
Bridge

The main span of San Francisco’s Golden Gate Bridge is

1275 m long at its coldest. The bridge is exposed to
temperatures ranging from to . What is its change in length
between these temperatures? Assume that the bridge is
made entirely of steel.
ʶ THERMAL EXPANSION IN TWO DIMENSIONS
> For small temperature changes , the change in area ΔA is
given by :

ʶTHERMAL EXPANSION IN THREE DIMENSIONS

> The change in volume ΔV is very nearly ΔV=3aVΔT. This
equation is usually written as
•Calculating Thermal Expansion: Gas vs. Gas Tank
Suppose your 60.0-L (15.9-gal) steel gasoline tank is full of gas, so
both the tank and the gasoline have a temperature of .How much
gasoline has spilled by the time they warm to ?
ʶStrategy
The tank and gasoline increase in volume, but the gasoline increases
more, so the amount spilled is the difference in their volume changes.
(The gasoline tank can be treated as solid steel.) We can use the
equation for volume expansion to calculate the change in volume of
the gasoline and of the tank.
✓1.Solution
Use the equation for volume expansion to calculate the increase in
volume of the steel tank:
2. The increase in volume of the gasoline is given by this
equation:

3. Find the difference in volume to determine the amount

spilled as:

Alternatively, we can combine these three equations into a

single equation. (Note that the original volumes are equal.)
ʶDiscussion
This amount is significant, particularly for a 60.0-L tank. The effect
is so striking because the gasoline and steel expand quickly. The
rate of change in thermal properties is discussed in Heat and Heat
Transfer Methods.
• If you try to cap the tank tightly to prevent overflow, you will
find that it leaks anyway, either around the cap or by bursting
the tank. Tightly constricting the expanding gas is equivalent to
compressing it, and both liquids and solids resist being
compressed with extremely large forces. To avoid rupturing
rigid containers, these containers have air gaps, which allow
them to expand and contract without stressing them.
ʶ THERMAL STRESS
- Is created by thermal expansion or contraction.
> Thermal stress can explain many phenomena, such as the
weathering of rocks and pavement by the expansion of ice
when it freezes.
Calculating Thermal Stress: Gas Pressure
What pressure would be created in the gasoline tank
considered from the previous example, if the gasoline
increases in temperature from 15.0°C to 35.0°C without being
allowed to expand? Assume that the bulk modulus for gasoline
is 1.00x10⁹ N/m².
ʶStrategy
>To solve this problem, we must use the following equation, which relates a
change in volume to pressure:
•Solution
• Rearrange the equation for calculating pressure:

2. Insert the known values. The bulk modulus for gasoline is

B=1.00x10⁹N/m². In the previous example, the change in volume is
ΔV=1.10L the amount that would spill. Here, V⁰=60.0L is the original
volume of the gasoline. Substituting these values into the equation, we
obtain

This pressure is about 2500 lb/in² , much more than a gasoline tank can
handle.
Chapter 13
13.3 The Ideal Gas Law
The Ideal Gas Law
• The ideal gas law states that, PV=NkT

– where P is the absolute pressure of a gas, V is the volume it occupies, N is the number of
atoms and molecules in the gas, and T is its absolute temperature. The constant k is called
the Boltzmann constant in honor of Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906)
and has the value; k = 1.38×10^-23 J/K.
Calculating Pressure Changes Due to Temperature
Changes: Tire Pressure
Sample Problem
• Suppose your bicycle tire is fully inf la ted, with an
a bs o lute pres s ure o f 7. 00×10^5 Pa (a ga uge
pressure of just under 90.0 lb/in^2) at a temperature
of 18.0°C. What is the pressure after its temperature
has risen to 35.0°C? Assume that there are no
appreciable leaks or changes in volume.
Calculating Pressure Changes Due to Temperature
Changes: Tire Pressure
 Mole and Avogadro’s
number
• A mole (abbreviated mol)
is def ined to be the amount
• T he a ctua l number o f
atoms or molecules in one
of a substance that mole is called Avogadro’s
contains as many atoms or number.
mo l ecul es a s ther e a r e
atoms in exactly 12 grams • The value of Avogadro’s
(0.012 kg) of carbon-12. number is NA = 6.02×10^23
mol^–1.
Mole and Avogadro’s Number
Sample Problem
• The active ingredient in a Tylenol
pill is 325 mg of acetaminophen
(C8H9NO2). Find the number of
active molecules of acetaminophen
in a single pill.
Mole and Avogadro’s Number
The Ideal Gas Law Restated using Moles
• A very common expression of the • Note that n = N/NA is the number
ideal gas law uses the number of of moles. We def in e the universal
moles, n, rather than the number of gas constant R = NAk, and obtain
atoms and molecules, N. We start the ideal gas law in terms of moles.
from the ideal gas law, PV = NkT,
and multiply and divide the
equation by Avogadro’s number NA.
This gives,
The Ideal Gas Law Restated using Moles
Calculating Number of Moles: Gas in a bike tire
Sample Problem
• How many moles of gas are
in a bike tire with a volume of
2.0×10^–3 m^3 (2.00L), a
pressure of 7.00×10^5 Pa (a
gauge pressure of just under
90.0 lb/in^2), and at a
temperature of 18.0°C?
Calculating Number of Moles: Gas in a bike tire
Sample Problem
• How many moles of gas are
in a bike tire with a volume of
2.0×10^–3 m^3 (2.00L), a
pressure of 7.00×10^5 Pa (a
gauge pressure of just under
90.0 lb/in^2), and at a
temperature of 18.0°C?
The Ideal Gas Law and Energy
• The ideal gas law is closely related to energy: the units on both sides are
joules.
• The right-hand side of the ideal gas law in PV = NkT is NkT. This term is
roughly the amount of translational kinetic energy of N atoms or
molecules at an absolute temperature T, as we shall see formally in Kinetic
Theory: Atomic and Molecular Explanation of Pressure and Temperature.
The Ideal Gas Law and Energy
• The Left-hand side of the ideal gas law is PV, which also has the units of
joules.

• We know from our study of f luids that pressure is one type of potential
energy per unit volume, so pressure multiplied by volume is energy. The
important point is that there is energy in a gas related to both its pressure
and its volume.
The Ideal Gas Law and Energy
• The important point is that there is energy in a gas related to both its
pressure and its volume. The energy can be changed when the gas is
doing work as it expands—something we explore in Heat and Heat
Transfer Methods—similar to what occurs in gasoline or steam engines
and turbines.
 Kinetic Theory:
Atomic and Molecular
Explanation of
Pressure and
Temperature

Princess Vea Tumalom BS Psych 2B

 Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, students will be able to:

● Express the ideal gas law in terms of molecular mass and velocity.

Define thermal energy.

Calculate the kinetic energy of a gas molecule, given its
temperature.

Describe the relationship between the temperature of a gas and the
kinetic energy of atoms and molecules.

Describe the distribution of speeds of molecules in a gas
● Pressure is the force divided by the area on which
the force is exerted.
● Temperature is measured with a thermometer.

● These collisions are the source of pressure in a

gas. As the number of molecules increases, the
number of collisions and thus the pressure
increase. Similarly, the gas pressure is higher if the
average velocity of molecules is higher.
●
● We can derive a relationship between temperature and the
average translational kinetic energy of molecules in a gas

Ideal Gas Law:

●
Example 1: Calculating Kinetic Energy and Speed of a Gas Molecule

(a) What is the average kinetic energy of a gas molecule at 20.0°C(room
temperature)?

(b) Find the rms speed of a nitrogen molecule (N2)at this temperature.
●
●
●
Example 2
Some incandescent light bulbs are filled with argon gas. What is vrms for
argon atoms near the filament, assuming their temperature is 2500 K?
● The motion of molecules in a gas is random in magnitude and
direction for individual molecules, but a gas of many molecules has a
predictable distribution of molecular speeds. This distribution is
called the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.
● The curve is shifted to higher speeds
at higher temperatures, with a broader
range of speeds.

● The distribution of thermal speeds

depends strongly on temperature. As
temperature increases, the speeds
are shifted to higher values and the
distribution is broadened.
Example 3
In order to escape Earth’s gravity, an object near the top of the atmosphere
(at an altitude of 100 km) must travel away from Earth at 11.1 km/s. This
speed is called theescape velocity . At what temperature would helium
atoms have an rms speed equal to the escape velocity?

Given: v = 11.1 km/s

Ask: Temperature
Solution: Solve for mass of helium
●
Example 4
The escape velocity from the Moon is much smaller than from Earth and
is only 2.38 km/s. At what temperature would hydrogen molecules
(molecular mass is equal to 2.016 g/mol) have an average
velocityvrmsvrmsequal to the Moon’s escape velocity?
Chapter 13
13.5 Phase Changes
Phase Changes
• Real gases are like ideal gases at high
temperatures. At lower temperatures, however,
the interactions between the molecules and their
volumes cannot be ignored.

• The molecules are very close (condensation

occurs) and there is a dramatic decrease in
volume, as seen in Figure 13.26.
Phase Changes

Figure 13.26
Phase Changes
• High pressure may also cause a gas to
change phase to a liquid.
• Take Carbon Dioxide as an example.

• Another example of a gas that can be

in a liquid phase is liquid nitrogen (LN2).
 PV Diagram
• We can examine aspects of the • Now, assuming the number of
behavior of a substance by molecules and the temperature are
plotting a graph of pressure versus f ix ed, PV = constant (ideal gas,
volume, called a PV diagram. constant temperature).

• For example, the volume of the

• When the substance behaves like
gas will decrease as the pressure
an ideal gas, the ideal gas law
increases. If you plot the
describes the relationship
relationship on a PV = constant on
between its pressure and volume.
a PV diagram, you find a hyperbola.
That is, PV = NkT (ideal gas).
See Figure 13.27
PV Diagram

Figure 13.27
PV Diagram
• The hyperbolas represent ideal-gas behavior at
various f ix ed temperatures, and are called
isotherms.

• Critical pressure is the minimum pressure

needed for liquid to exist at the critical
temperature. Table 13.3 lists representative
critical temperatures and pressures.
PV Diagram

Table 13.3
 Phase Diagrams
• The plots of pressure versus
temperatures provide considerable
insight into thermal properties of
substances. There are well-def ined
r e g i o n s o n t h e s e g ra p h s t h a t
correspond to various phases of
matter, so PT graphs are called
phase diagrams.

Figure 13.28
 Phase Diagrams
• Similarly, the curve between the solid
and liquid regions in Figure 13.28 gives
the melting temperature at various
pressures
• The phase change from solid to gas is
called sublimation.
• All three curves on the phase diagram
meet at a single point, the triple point,
where all three phases exist in
equilibrium.
• See Table 13.14 for the triple point
values of other substances.
Figure 13.28
 Equilibrium
• Liquid and gas phases are in
equilibrium at the boiling
temperature. (See Figure 13.29).

• If a substance is in a closed
container at the boiling point,
then the liquid is boiling and the
gas is condensing at the same
rate without net change in their
relative amount. Figure 13.29
Equilibrium

Table 13.4
Vapor Pressure, Partial Pressure, and
Dalton’s Law
• Vapor pressure is def ined as the • In a mixture of gases, the total
pressure at which a gas coexists pressure is the sum of partial
with its solid or liquid phase. pressures of the component
gases, assuming ideal gas
• Partial pressure is defined as the behavior and no chemical
pressure a gas would create if it reactions between the
occupied the total volume components. This law is known
available. a s D a l t o n ’s l a w o f p a r t i a l
pressures.
Vapor Pressure, Partial Pressure, and
Dalton’s Law
• Dalton’s law is based on kinetic
theory, where each gas creates its
pressure by molecular collisions,
independent of other gases present.
It is consistent with the fact that
pressures add according to Pascal’s
Principle.
 • Explain the relationship between vapor
pressure of water and the capacity of air to
13.6 hold water vapor.
• Explain the relationship between relative
Humidity, Evaporation, humidity and partial pressure of water
vapor in the air.
and Boiling • Calculate vapor density using vapor
pressure.
• Calculate humidity and dew point.
• Relative humidity tells us how much water vapor is in the aircompared
with the maximum possible
• Denoted as saturation, the relative humidity is 100%, and evaporation is
inhibited and the documentation the amount of water vapor in the air
depends on temperature
• The amount of water vapor in the air depends on the vapor pressure of
water
 Figure 13.32 (a) Because of the distribution of speeds
and kinetic energies, some water molecules can break
away to the vapor phase even at temperatures below the
ordinary boiling point. (b) If the container is sealed,
evaporation will continue until there is enough vapor
density for the condensation rate to equal the
evaporation rate. This vapor density and the partial
pressure it creates are the saturation values.

• They increase with temperature and are independent of the presence of

other gases, such as air. They depend only on the vapor pressure of
water.
• Relative humidity is related to the partial pressure of water vapor in the
air.
• The water vapor is not held by the air. The amount of water in air is
determined by the vapor pressure of water and has nothing to do with
the properties of air.
Calculating Density Using
Vapor Pressure
Example: gives the vapor pressure of water at
as Use the ideal gas law to calculate the
density of water vapor in that would create a
partial pressure equal to this vapor pressure.
Compare the result with the saturation vapor
density given in the table
Percent Relative Humidity
• We define percent relative humidity as the ratio of
vapor density to saturation vapor density, or
Calculating Humidity and Dew Point
• Example:(a) Calculate the percent relative humidity on a day when the temperature is
and the air contains 9.40 g of water vapor per . (b) At what temperature will this air
reach 100% relative humidity (the saturation density)? This temperature is the dew
point. (c) What is the humidity when the air temperature is and the dew point is ?

a.
b. Inspection of Table 13.5 reveals this to
be the case at , where the relative humidity
will be 100%.

c.
Why does it form bubbles when it boils?
This is because water ordinarily contains significant amounts of dissolved air and
other impurities, which are observed as small bubbles of air in a glass of water. If a
bubble starts out at the bottom of the container at , it contains water vapor (about
2.30%). As the temperature rises, the amount of air in the bubble stays the same, but
the water vapor increases; the bubble expands to keep the pressure at 1.00 atm. The
bubble grows in size and thereby increases the buoyant force. The bubble breaks
away and rises rapidly to the surface—we call this boiling!