Respiratory Histology 2

▎Report on the Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
▎Introduction
The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, is a
crucial metabolic pathway that plays a central role in cellular respiration. Discovered by
Hans Krebs in 1937, this cycle occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and is
essential for the production of energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
▎Overview of the Krebs Cycle

The Krebs cycle consists of a series of enzymatic reactions that convert acetyl-CoA into
carbon dioxide and high-energy electron carriers. The main products of the cycle are
NADH, FADH2, and ATP, which are vital for the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis.
▎Steps of the Krebs Cycle

1. Acetyl-CoA Formation: Acetyl-CoA is produced from pyruvate (via glycolysis) or from
fatty acids and amino acids.
2. Condensation: Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate (citric acid),

catalyzed by the enzyme citrate synthase.
3. Isomerization: Citrate is converted into isocitrate through the action of aconitase.
4. Oxidative Decarboxylation: Isocitrate is oxidized to α-ketoglutarate, producing NADH

and releasing CO2.
5. Second Oxidative Decarboxylation: α-Ketoglutarate is further oxidized to succinyl-

CoA, generating another NADH and releasing CO2.
6. Substrate-Level Phosphorylation: Succinyl-CoA is converted to succinate, producing

GTP (or ATP) in a substrate-level phosphorylation reaction.
7. Oxidation: Succinate is oxidized to fumarate, producing FADH2.
8. Hydration: Fumarate is hydrated to malate by the enzyme fumarase.
9. Final Oxidation: Malate is oxidized back to oxaloacetate, generating another NADH.
The cycle then repeats as oxaloacetate combines with another acetyl-CoA.
▎Key Products
- NADH: 3 molecules per cycle (used in the electron transport chain).
- FADH2: 1 molecule per cycle (also used in the electron transport chain).
- GTP/ATP: 1 molecule per cycle (directly usable energy).
- CO2: 2 molecules per cycle (waste product).
▎Importance of the Krebs Cycle

1. Energy Production: The Krebs cycle is central to aerobic respiration, providing high-
energy molecules that drive ATP synthesis.
2. Metabolic Intermediates: It generates intermediates that are precursors for amino

acids, nucleotides, and other vital biomolecules.
3. Regulation of Metabolism: The cycle helps integrate carbohydrate, fat, and protein
metabolism, allowing cells to respond to energy demands.
▎Conclusion
The Krebs cycle is an essential metabolic pathway that not only contributes to energy
production but also plays a significant role in overall cellular metabolism. Understanding
this cycle is fundamental for studying cellular respiration and energy dynamics in living
organisms.
▎References
- Berg, J. M., Tymoczko, J. L., & Stryer, L. (2012). Biochemistry. W.H. Freeman.
- Nelson, D. L., & Cox, M. M. (2017). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. W.H. Freeman.
- Voet, D., & Voet, J. G. (2016). Biochemistry. Wiley.
This report provides a comprehensive overview of the Krebs cycle, highlighting its
significance in cellular metabolism and energy production.
Alpha-ketoglutarate (often abbreviated as AKG) is a key intermediate in the Krebs cycle
(also known as the citric acid cycle or TCA cycle), which is a vital metabolic pathway that
generates energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats,
and proteins.
▎Key Points about Alpha-Ketoglutarate:
1. Chemical Structure: It is a five-carbon dicarboxylic acid with the chemical formula

C5H5O5.
2. Role in Metabolism:
- It plays a crucial role in amino acid metabolism and the production of
neurotransmitters.
- It is involved in the conversion of glutamate to other amino acids and is important for
nitrogen metabolism.
3. Energy Production: As an intermediate in the Krebs cycle, AKG helps in the production
of ATP, which is the primary energy currency of cells.
4. Supplementation: Alpha-ketoglutarate is sometimes used as a dietary supplement,

particularly in sports nutrition, for its potential benefits in muscle recovery, reducing
exercise-induced muscle damage, and enhancing performance.
5. Clinical Research: Some studies suggest that AKG may have roles in aging, metabolic
health, and certain diseases, but more research is needed to fully understand its effects
and potential therapeutic uses.
Overall, alpha-ketoglutarate is an important compound in cellular metabolism and has

various implications in health and nutrition.

Respiratory Histology 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Respiratory Histology 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Respiratory Histology 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

▎Report on the Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

▎Overview of the Krebs Cycle

▎Steps of the Krebs Cycle

2. Condensation: Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate (citric acid),

3. Isomerization: Citrate is converted into isocitrate through the action of aconitase.

4. Oxidative Decarboxylation: Isocitrate is oxidized to α-ketoglutarate, producing NADH

5. Second Oxidative Decarboxylation: α-Ketoglutarate is further oxidized to succinyl-

6. Substrate-Level Phosphorylation: Succinyl-CoA is converted to succinate, producing

7. Oxidation: Succinate is oxidized to fumarate, producing FADH2.

8. Hydration: Fumarate is hydrated to malate by the enzyme fumarase.

9. Final Oxidation: Malate is oxidized back to oxaloacetate, generating another NADH.

The cycle then repeats as oxaloacetate combines with another acetyl-CoA.

▎Importance of the Krebs Cycle

2. Metabolic Intermediates: It generates intermediates that are precursors for amino

▎Key Points about Alpha-Ketoglutarate:

1. Chemical Structure: It is a five-carbon dicarboxylic acid with the chemical formula

4. Supplementation: Alpha-ketoglutarate is sometimes used as a dietary supplement,

Overall, alpha-ketoglutarate is an important compound in cellular metabolism and has

You might also like