LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Define Cell and Describe its Basic Structure.
 Discuss the Role of Organelles Within a Cell.
 Differentiate Mitosis from Meiosis.

CELLS, CELLS DIVISION & CELL CYCLE

In the intricate tapestry of life, cells serve as the fundamental building blocks, the
microscopic units that orchestrate the symphony of existence. Understanding cells, their
division, and the intricacies of the cell cycle illuminates the very essence of life itself.
At the heart of biology lies the cell, a marvel of nature encapsulating the essence of
life. Cells come in diverse forms, each tailored to its unique function, yet all sharing common
features. From the humble single-celled organisms to the complex multicellular structures
that constitute higher life forms such as the human beings, cells exhibit an astonishing array
of structures and functions. Within its minuscule borders, the cell conducts a multitude of
life-sustaining tasks, harmoniously orchestrating the delicate balance of biological functions.
It is a world where molecular machineries tirelessly work, where genetic blueprints are
meticulously followed, and where the secrets of life itself are zealously guarded.
Thus, the journey through the cell, its division, and the orchestrated cell cycle is a
testament to the elegance and complexity of life at its most fundamental level. This
microscopic exploration is not just a scientific endeavor; it is a journey into the essence of
existence, revealing the profound interconnectedness of all living beings. As we uncover
more about these cellular processes, we gain not only scientific insight but also a deeper
appreciation for the remarkable intricacy and resilience of life.
What are Cells?
Cells are often referred to as the "building blocks of life", it is defined as the smallest, basic
unit of life that is responsible for all life’s processes. The cell is the most important element
and fundamental unit of living beings that contains all the material necessary to maintain
growth, nutrition, reproduction, and other vital processes. Cells have different shapes, sizes,
and functions.

KINDS OF CELL

Prokaryotic Cell is simply single-celled that lack true nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles such as Mitochondria, Endoplasmic Reticulum, and Golgi apparatus. They are
generally smaller in size, with a simpler internal structure. It is mostly found in the domains
of bacteria and archaea.
Parts or the Organelles of Prokaryotic Cell:
1. Cell Wall
- the outermost tough and rigid layer, it is made up of cellulose which gives shape and
rigidity to the cell.
2. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
- the outer boundary of the cytoplasm. It controls the movement of materials into and
out of the cell. A lipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
3. Cytoplasm
- the jelly-like materials that consist of the organelles outside the nucleoid and fluid
portion called cytosol.
4. Capsule
- the outer protective covering found in the bacteria cells, in addition to the cell wall.
It helps retain moisture, protects the cell when engulfed, and helps in the attachments
of cells to nutrients and surfaces.
5. Nucleoid
- it functions much like the nucleus in eukaryotic cells, it is the regulatory center of
the prokaryotic cell. This region regulates the growth, reproduction, and function of
the prokaryotic cell.
6. Plasmids
- it carries small number of non-essential genes and are copied independently of the
chromosome inside the cell. It sometimes spread genes that are beneficial for survival.
7. Pilus (Plural: Pili)
- the short hair-like structures on the cell surface of prokaryotic cells. It is often
involved in adherence to surfaces, which facilitates infection, and is a key virulence
characteristic.
8. Flagella / Flagellum
- it is used for cell movement and is found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. They
help an organism in movement. They act as sensory organs to detect temperatures and
pH levels.
9. Ribosomes
- it produces proteins. These are organelles that process the cells genetic instructions
to create proteins. These organelles can float freely in the cytoplasm or be connected
to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Eukaryotic Cells possess a true nucleus that encloses genetic material and membrane-bound
organelles, contributing to a more complex internal organization. These cells are typically
larger in size and mostly found in the Domains of Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista.
Parts or the Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells:
1. Nucleus
– it serves as the cell’s command center, sending directions to the cell to grow, mature,
divide, or die. It also houses the DNA, the cells hereditary material.
2. Nucleolus
- it is a spherical structure found in the cell’s nucleus whose primary function is to
produce and assemble the cell’s ribosomes. The nucleolus is also where ribosomal
RNA genes are transcribed.
3. Mitochondria
– it is often referred to as the powerhouses of the cell. Their main function is to
generate the energy necessary to power cells. But there is more to mitochondria than
energy production. Present in nearly all types of human cell, mitochondria are vital to
our survival.
4. Vacuoles
- it stores nutrients and water on which a cell can rely for its survival. They also store
the waste from the cell and prevents the cell from contamination. Hence, it is an
important organelle.
5. Lysosomes
- it functions as the digestive system of the cell, serving both to degrade material
taken up from outside the cell and to digest obsolete components of the cell itself.
6. Ribosomes
– it is the cellular machinery responsible for making proteins. They essential for
protein synthesis. They serve as the cellular machinery responsible for translating
mRNA (messenger RNA) into functional proteins. Ribosomes consist of large and
small subunits that come together during protein synthesis.
7. Cytoplasm
– it is an integral part of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and functions to house
and maintain an optimal environment for the cellular organelles.
8. Cell Membrane
– it regulates the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell.
9. Endoplasmic Reticulum

- it is a large, dynamic structure that serves many roles in the cell including calcium
storage, protein synthesis and lipid metabolism. The diverse functions of the ER are
performed by distinct domains, consisting of tubules, sheets, and the nuclear
envelope.
10. Golgi Apparatus
- it functions as a factory in which proteins received from the ER are further
processed and sorted for transport to their eventual destinations: lysosomes, the
plasma membrane, or secretion.
 CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

Growth and reproduction are features of living organisms and cells. Growth is the increase in
the size of an organism or cell. This can be caused by an increase in the number of cells or an
increase in the size of the cells. Reproduction is the process by which an organism or cell
creates a new copy of itself. This can be done through mitosis or meiosis.

2 PHASES OF CELL CYCLE

1. Interphase

This phase represents the resting stage, however new research states that this phase was
very active, preparing the parents cell for DNA replication.

Interphase the name given to the phase of the cell cycle that occurs between mitosis
and cytokinesis. It is a period of growth and preparation for cell division. During interphase,
the cell’s DNA replicated, the cell grows and prepares for division.

2. M (Mitosis/ Meiosis) Phase

This is where the actual division of cell occur.

2 TYPES OF CELL DIVISION

1. Mitosis (M Phase)

The process of mitosis is the division of a cell nucleus into two (2) daughter nuclei.
Mitosis begins with prophase and ends with telophase. During mitosis, the chromosomes are
replicated, and the cells divide. It consists of four stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and
Telophase.

2. Meiosis (M Phase)

Meiosis is a pivotal process in sexual reproduction, distinct from mitosis, as it aims to

create genetic diversity. Meiosis begins with a diploid parent cell, but it doesn't stop at just
two (2) daughter cells. Instead, it proceeds through two distinct stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis
II.
 The Difference Between MITOSIS and MEIOSIS

MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Occur in Somatic Cell or body cell such as Occur in Germ Cell / Reproductive System
nerve cell, blood cells, skin cell etc. (Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis). It
particular takes place in testis of male and
ovary of female.

Daughter cell is identical. Daughter cell is genetically different.

Daughter cell is diploid. Daughter cell is haploid.

Completed in one stages or division. Completed in two stages or two division.

2 daughter cells are produced. 4 daughter cells are produced.

No crossover takes place during the Crossover takes place during metaphase.
metaphase.

Involved in healing, repair, and growth. Involved in genetic variation.

Malfunction results in cancer. Malfunction results genetic disorder such as

Down Syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome
and Turner's Syndrome.
Below is the picture of cell division and cell cycle between MITOSIS and MEIOSIS.
 SPERMATOGENESIS AND OOGENESIS

Spermatogenesis is the process by which male germ cells, called “Spermatogonia”, undergo
a series of mitotic and meiotic divisions to ultimately form mature sperm cells
(Spermatozoa).

This complex process occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and involves three main
phases:

1. Proliferation Phase (Mitosis)

Spermatogonia, the diploid stem cells located along the inner surface of the
seminiferous tubules, undergo mitotic divisions to produce more spermatogonia. Some of
these cells remain as stem cells for continuous spermatogenesis, while others differentiate
into primary spermatocytes.

2. Meiotic Phase

First Meiotic Division (Meiosis I):

Primary spermatocytes undergo the first meiotic division, resulting in the formation of
two haploid secondary spermatocytes.

Second Meiotic Division (Meiosis II):

Each secondary spermatocyte further divides into two haploid spermatids. At the end
of meiosis, the number of chromosomes is reduced from diploid (2n) to haploid (n).

3. Spermiogenesis

This phase involves the maturation of spermatids into spermatozoa (sperm cells).
Spermatids undergo significant structural changes, including the formation of a tail
(flagellum) and the development of a head with a compact nucleus. The excess cytoplasm is
shed to produce streamlined, motile sperm cells.

The mature spermatozoa are released into the lumen of the seminiferous tubules and
then move through the epididymis for further maturation and storage. During ejaculation,
spermatozoa travel through the vas deferens, mixing with seminal fluid from accessory
glands to form semen.
 SPERMATOGENESIS

Spermatogenesis ensures the continuous production of functional sperm, providing the male
reproductive system with the ability to produce and deliver viable gametes for fertilization.

During spermatogenesis, four sperm result from each primary spermatocyte, which divides
into two haploid secondary spermatocytes; these cells will go through a second meiotic
division to produce four spermatids.
 OOGENESIS

Oogenesis occurs in the outermost layers of the ovaries. As with sperm production, oogenesis
starts with a germ cell, called an “Oogonium” (plural: Oogonia), but this cell undergoes
mitosis to increase in number, eventually resulting in up to one to two million cells in the
embryo.

In oogenesis, diploid oogonium go through mitosis until one develops into a primary oocyte,
which will begin the first meiotic division, but then arrest; it will finish this division as it
develops in the follicle, giving rise to a haploid secondary oocyte and a smaller polar body.

The secondary oocyte begins the second meiotic division and then arrests again; it will not
finish this division unless it is fertilized by a sperm; if this occurs, a mature ovum and another
polar body is produced.

The process of oogenesis occurs in the ovary’s outermost layer. A primary oocyte begins the
first meiotic division, but then arrests until later in life when it will finish this division in a
developing follicle. This results in a secondary oocyte, which will complete meiosis if it is
fertilized.
 Republic of the Philippines
UNIVERSITY OF THE EASTERN PHILIPPINES
University Town, Northern Samar, Philippines

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

MAJOR 7
(GENETICS)

Topic: Cells, Cell Cycle & Cell Division

CLAIRE DELA ROSA

Professor

MARIA LEE G. ARAIZ

ALIAH FAYE C. BANDAL
BSEd - Science 2nd Year
S.Y. 2023 – 2024