Equation of State

Chapter 3 Prialnik

Chapter 5 Krumholtz and Glatzmaier

Chapter 3 Pols
Usually, though not universally*, the independent
variables in a stellar evolution model are radius
(or mass), density, and temperature. In addition,
the matter is characterized, at any point in time,
by a composition {Xi}.

The “equation of state” tells how such thermodynamic

quantities as the pressure and internal energy
are given as functions of these variables.

In general, this is a solved problem in physics, although

often a tedious one, that can be handled by the computer.

* especially in multi-dimensional codes

 Stars are spheres of mostly ionized gas
The criterion for being a gas (as opposed to a liquid
or solid) is that the thermal energy of a pair of ions substantially
exceed their electrical potential energy, i.e.
Z1Z2e 2
kT >>
r12
where the typical separation depends on the density and ion mass
1/3
3mion ⎛ 3mion ⎞ A
ρ≈ ⇒r12 = ⎜ ⎟ mion = AmH =
4π r12 ⎝ 4πρ ⎠
3
NA
where A is the atomic mass of the nucleus - e.g., 12 for carbon,
and NA = 6.02× 10 23 particles / Mole is the inverse weight of an Hatom
1/3
Z1Z2e 2 ⎛
2 4πρNA
⎞
kT >> ≈ Z1Z2e ⎜
r12 ⎝ 3A ⎟⎠
1/3
⎛ Z1Z2e 2 ⎞ ⎛ 4π NA ⎞
T >> ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ρ 1/3
⎝ k ⎠ ⎝ 3A ⎠
e.g., for a single component gas with Z, A
1/3
⎛ Z e ⎞ ⎛ 4π NA ⎞
2 2
⎛ Z 2 ⎞ 1/3
T >> ⎜ ρ 1/3
= 2.3 × 10 ⎜ 1/3 ⎟ ρ Kelvin
5

⎝ k ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3A ⎟⎠ ⎝A ⎠
Generally stars satisfy this condition. The mean density of the
sun is 1.4, the mean temperature several million (e.g. from
the Virial theorem). The center of the sun (150 g cm−3 ;15 MK)
satisfies this condition. The solar surface layers where T
is as small as 5000 K have a very low density and also
satisfy this condition. Heavier main sequence stars are hotter
and less dense. Even in very low mass main sequnece stars,
this condition is satisfied, though not by a large margin. It
is important that nuclei with high Z - like iron (Z= 26) - are rare in
stars.
 Pols (p 39)

log "
Is the gas ionized?
If one applies the Saha equation to the center of the
sun (ρ =160 gcm−3 ; T = 15.7 × 10 6 K), one finds,
perhaps surprisingly, that not all the hydrogen is ionized.

3/2
y2
1 ⎛ 2π mekT ⎞
= e −13.6/kT
(1− y) ρNA X H ⎜⎝ h 2 ⎟⎠
1
( )( )
3/2
= 2.41× 1015 1.57 × 107 e −13.6/1353.
(160)( 6.02 × 10 23
)( )
0.35
= 4.4
where 1353 eV is 15.7 MK turned into eV (the temperature at
the center of the sun is about a kilovolt - 1.35 keV). Note that,
very unlike the photosphere, the exponential doesn't do anything
here. It's just ≈ 1. Solving for y we get

n(H II)
y= = 0.84
n(H I)
16% of the hydrogen is neutral!
Pressure ionization
But the hydrogen is all ionized due to an effect called "pressure
ionization". As the average inter-ion spacing becomes comparable
to atomic dimensions, the energy required to ionize an atom is
reduced.
The average ion spacing for hydrogen at 160 g cm−3 is
1/3 1/3
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
d ≈⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 1.9 × 10 −9 cm if X H = 0.35
⎝ 4π nH ⎠ ⎝ 4πρNA X H ⎠
The radius of the ground state of the H atom is 5 ×10 −9 cm,
so H is ionized.

Actually since the temperature is not zero the hydrogen is

ionized due to a combination of thermal and density effects
at an even lower density. The effect of the background density
is to decrease the 13.6 eV ionization potential of H. This shows
a limitation of the simplest Saha equation.
 Pols (p 39)

log "
Non perfect gas effects:

• Even in low mass main sequence stars there may

be appreciable corrections, these so called non-ideal
or “Coulomb corrections” need to be accounted for
in accurate models.

• The Coulomb corrections can be appreciable in

white dwarfs and old cold white dwarfs may crystalize

• The Chandrasekhar mass is substantially altered

(reduced) by Coulomb corrections
.
 The pressure integral

http://intro.chem.okstate.edu/1314f00/laboratory/glp.htm
 Consider a single particle
impacting at angle . The
momentum transferred to
the plane is 2 p Cos "

Now consider a beam of

particles with the same
momentum and angle
with number density n.

The incident flux is

nv Cos  per unit area
and the momentum transfer
now is
Only a fraction of the particles impact d 2 psurf
dA per unit time. If  is 90o none do. = 2nv p Cos 2 (θ )
If  is 0o they all do
dt dA
Continuing to assume all particles have the same momentum
but an isotropic distribution, the the fraction of particles at
angle  is just the fraction of the solid angle that lies
between  and +d. The area of the strip is 2  sin  d"
and the solid angle of the entire sphere is 4 , so we have"
dn(θ ) 1
= n Sin(θ )
dθ 2
Combining terms:
π /2
d 2 psurf
= npv ∫ Cos 2θ Sinθ dθ
dt dA 0
0 1

= -npv ∫ Cos θ d(Cosθ ) = npv ∫ Cos 2θ d(Cosθ )

2

1 0
1
x ⎞
3
1
= npv = n pv if p is a constant but the angular
3 ⎟⎠ 0
3
distribution is isotropic

For a distribution of momenta

2 ∞
This is called the “pressure
d psurf 1 dn(p) integral”. It is the momentum
P≡
dt dA
=
3 ∫0 dp p v dp transferred to the surface
per unit time per unit area
So far we have said nothing about the particles
To evaluate the pressure integral one needs a
description of dn(p)/dp. Because different particles
have different distributions of momentum for a
given temperature and density there are
different kinds of pressure. “Distribution functions”
are a way of counting energy states in the gas
and the many ways the particles can be arrayed
(distributed) in those states.

Particles can be distinguishable (ideal gas) or

indistinguishable (radiation and QM particles).
They can be packed many per state, or only one
(Pauli exclusion principle for Fermions like neutrons,
protons and electrons).
E.g.
Consider the ways 2 particles A and B can be put
into just 2 states.
http://eiffel.ps.uci.edu/cyu/p214A/LectureNotes/Lecture13/lecture13.pdf

State 1 State2

AB
AB 4 states
MB statistics e.g., by x, y, x
A B (distinguishable) px, py, pz
B A
or
3 states
AB
BE statistics
AB (indistinguishable)
A or B A or B
or 1 state
A or B B or A FD statistics
(one indistinguishable
particle per state)
Statistical mechanics is a way of describing a system of many
particles given certain macroscopic quantities such as the
temperature and total number of particles.

The basic entities are “microstates” which might be defined for

a classic system as the (x,y,z) and (px, py, pz) coordinates of every
particle or in quantum mechanics by the allowed states subject
to given quantum numbers and restrictions.

A “macrostate” is a state of of the system where the distribution

of particles over the energy levels is specified subject to conservation
of energy. It contains many microstates.

The disorder number  is the number of microstates available to

a given macrostate. It can be a big number, but varies with how the
available energy is distributed. A fundamental assumption of
statistical mechanics is that the system will distribute itself
“probabilistically”, spending most of the time in a macrostate
that has high probability (e.g., 100 coins flipped are more likely to
distribute around 50 heads and tails than 100 heads). This most
probable state is “equilibrium”. It is a state of maximum “entropy”.
Operationally then statistical mechanics is a way of counting
microstates, subject to different restrictions, and enumerating
their probability.

Classical particles are “distinguishable” by their coordinates which,

being continuous, form an infinite set. However they can be
“coarse binned” into groups between r and r + dr, p and p+ dp.

Quantum particles, when examined at the level of their wavelength

are indistinguishable. The wave functions cannot be distinguished

Spin ½ particles (fermions) are limited to 2 per quantum mechanical

shell. This has to do with the symmetry properties of the wave function.
Exchanging two particles changes the sign of the wave function

Spin 1 particles (bosons) are not limited. Any number can go into a
state. For relativistic bosons, e.g., photons, particle number is
not conserved.

http://www.spms.ntu.edu.sg/PAP/courseware/statmech.pdf
 DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS

The “distribution function” gives the likely number of particles

in a given energy state, s, in the equilibrium macrostate
− ε s /kT
e
ns = N
Maxwell Bolzmann
∑e − ε r /kT

Bose-Einstein
1
= ε s /kT
(µ = 0 for photons
e −1 because N not fixed)

1
= ( ε s − µ )/kT
Fermi-Dirac
e +1
When combined with a volume factor for
phase space 4p2 dp and an inherent degeneracy
factor (2 for spin states for Fermions; 2 for
polarization for photons). One has.

dn
∝ 4π p 2e − ε /kT MB
dp

( )(
1 2 4π p
= 3 ε /kT
2
) BE
h e −1

( )(
1 2 4π p
= 3 (ε − µ )/kT
2
) FD
h e +1
 1
The factor 3
in the FDand BE distributions reflects
h
the fact that they describe quantum mechanical systems
which obey
V Δ 3 p ≥ h3
where V is the volume per particle (actually per pair of
particles for Fermions). The volume per particle is also
1/n, where n is the number density of particles (if particles
are conserved).

4π p 2dp 4π p 2dp
dN ∝ = V
Δ p
3
h 3

dN 4π p 2dp
dn = =
V h3
Ideal gas – Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics ε = p 2 / 2m
dn(p)
∝4π p 2 exp(−p 2 / 2mkT )
dp
Normalization comes from requiring that the total
density of particles per cm3 be n, i.e., for C a constant
∞

n = C 4π ∫ p 2 exp(−p 2 / 2mkT )dp

0
∞
p
= C 4π (2mkT )3/2 ∫ q 2 e −q dq
2
q≡
0 2mkT
π
= C (2π mkT ) 3/2
(the integral is equal to )
4
n
So C =
( 2π mkT )
3/2
This is the Maxwell
Boltzmann distribution
and
dn(p) 4π n
= (
p 2 exp(−p 2 / 2mkT ) )
( )
3/2
dp 2π mkT
Putting it all together:

⎡ ∞ ⎤
1 ⎢ 4n /(2mkT ) ⎥ p
P= ∫
2
2 −p
p e p dp
(
3 0 ⎢ π 1/2 2mkT ) ⎥ m
3/2

⎣ ⎦
∞
4n p
= (2mkT ) ∫ q e dq
4 −q 2
q=
3π m
1/2
0 2mkT
4n ⎛3 π ⎞
= (2mkT ) ⎜ ⎟ = nkT = Pideal
3π m
1/2
⎝ 8 ⎠
Ingredients:
1) Pressure integral
2) Distribution function – e-E/kT
3) Phase space - 4p2dp
4) Normalization - number of particles conserved
 What is n in P = nkT?
The hard part in practice to evaluating ideal
gas pressure actually comes from counting
the number of particles, n.

Electrons and ions must be counted separately.

If the gas is fully ionized, as is generally the case
deep in the stellar interior (kT >> ionization energy),
then charge neutrality requires that the number
of electrons (freely moving) equals the number of
protons (bound in nuclei).

It is more problematic what to do when the gas is

partly ionized as it frequently is near the stellar
surface. Then a Saha equation (or set of Saha
equations) must be solved.
 Example: What is the pressure of a fully ionized gas composed of
75% H and 25% He at a temperature of 107 K and a density
of 100 g cm-3 (similar to solar center when the sun was born)?

In each cm3 of gas there are 75 gm of hydrogen and 25 gram

of helium.

In 75 gm of hydrogen there are

75 gm
= 75 N A = 75 × 6.02 ×10 23 = 4.52 ×10 25 protons
m proton

In 25 gram of helium there are (the helium nucleus weighs approximately 4 mproton)

25 gm
= 6.25 N A = 6.25 × 6.02 ×10 23 = 3.76 ×10 24 helium nuclei
4m proton
In addition, each hydrogen contributes to the ionized plasma 1 electron
and each helium contributes two electrons
electrons
n = 4.52 × 10 25 + 4.52 × 10 25 + 3.76 × 10 24 + 2(3.76 × 10 24 )
= 1.02 × 10 26 particles per cm 3
continued…

⎛ 1.02 × 10 26 ⎞ ⎛ 1.38 × 10-16 erg ⎞

P = nk T =⎜
⎝ cm 3 ⎟
⎠⎝
⎜ K
(
⎟
⎠
10 7
K )
= 1.40 × 1017 dyne cm −2

But there are easier ways to do the counting

algebraically
 ρi
Xi =
ρ
Actually the dimensions
of Y are Mole/gm and
NA has dimensions
particles per Mole.
 Xi
Yi =
Ai

ρNAkT
If P=
µ

ne = ρNAYe = ∑n ion
Zion = ρNA ∑Yi Zi
Xi
So Ye = ∑Yi Zi = ∑ Zi and
Ai
1
=∑
(
Zi + 1 X i )
µ i Ai
 ρNAkT 1
Pideal = µ≈
µ 3 1
2X (H) + X (He) + Z
4 2
with Z the mass
fraction of heavy elements.

Some examples:
1) Pure ionized H
1
Ye =1(1)= 1 µ = (1+ 1)−1 =
2
−1
⎛ 1⎞
Pideal = ⎜ ⎟ ρNAkT = 2 ρNAkT
⎝ 2⎠
b) 75% H, 25% He by mass
These examples all assume complete ionization.
If the ions are partly ionized then a Saha equation
must be solved to get the electron abundance.
The internal energy per gram, u, is given by a
similar integral to the pressure integral.
∞
1 dn(p)
u= ∫ ε (p)dp
ρ 0 dp
∞
1 4π np 2 p 2
= ∫
2
− p /(2mkT )
e dp non-relativistic
ρ 0 (2π mkT ) 3/2
2m
Recall the ideal gas pressure integral
∞
1 4π np 2 p
Pideal = ∫ e − p 2 /(2mkT )
p dp
3 0 (2π mkT ) 3/2
m
So that the internal energy for an ideal non-relativistic
gas is just
3 Pideal 3
uideal = i.e., kT per particle
2 ρ 2
At relativistic energies:
mv mc 2
p= Etot =
2 2
1`−v / c 1`−v 2 / c 2

p 2v 2 p2
p − 2 = m2v 2
2
so v (m + 2 )= p 2
2 2

c c
1/2
⎛ ⎞
⎜ p2 ⎟ p/m will use this later
v=⎜ 2 ⎟
= =v
(1+ p )
1/2
p
⎜ m2 + ⎟ 2
/ (m2c 2 )
⎝ c2 ⎠
( )
1/2
2 2 2 2
pc pc 1+ p / (m c )
2
Ekin = Etot − mc = − mc =
2 2
− mc 2
v p/m

( )
1/2
= mc 1+ p / (m c )
2 2 2 2
− mc 2

(
Ekin = mc ⎡ 1+ p 2 / (m2c 2 ) ) − 1⎤
1/2
2
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
 It is common to consider the limiting cases of
Newtonian and extreme relativistic motion.

⎡⎛ p 2
⎞
1/2
⎤
ε = mc 2 ⎢⎜ 1+ 2 2 ⎟ − 1⎥
⎢⎝ m c ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
For small p this gives the usual classical result
⎡⎛ p 2
⎞
1/2
⎤ ⎛ 1 p 2
⎞ p 2
ε = mc 2 ⎢⎜ 1+ 2 2 ⎟ − 1⎥ ≈ mc 2 ⎜ 1+ + ... − 1⎟ =
⎢⎝ m c ⎠ ⎥ ⎝ 2m c
2 2
⎠ 2m
⎣ ⎦
For large p >> mc, it gives
⎡⎛ p ⎞
2
1/2
⎤ ⎛ p ⎞
2
1/2

ε = mc ⎢⎜ 1+ 2 2 ⎟ − 1⎥ ≈ mc ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ = pc
2 2

⎢⎝ m c ⎠ ⎥ ⎝mc ⎠
⎣ ⎦
A different expression is obtained for the internal energy
density for an extremely relativistic gas,
∞
1 dn(p)
u= ∫ ε (p)dp
ρ 0 dp
∞
1 dn(p)
= ∫ pc dp
ρ 0 dp
and pressure
∞
1 dn(p)
Pideal = ∫ p c dp
3 0 dp
So that the internal energy for a relativistic gas is
Prel
urel = 3
ρ
This happens because in the energy integral pc is the
energy of a particle while in the pressure integral it is
also the product of momentum and speed. As one
consquence, the Virial theorem is altered.
 Radiation Pressure
Radiation is a strictly relativistic, quantum mechanical
phenomenon. The photon is a spin 1 particle. The
Bose-Einstein distribution is used to describe the particles.

dn(p) 2 1
= 3 pc /kT 4π p 2 and since pc = hν
dp h e −1
8π ν 2dν
dn(ν ) = 3 hν /kT
c e −1

This is just the Ud we discussed in lecture 2

divided by h, that is it is the number density of
photons (cm-3 Hz-1), not energy density (erg cm-3
Hz-1)
 ∞ ∞
1 dn(p) 1 hυ dn(υ )
P = ∫ vp dp = ∫ c dυ
3 0 dp 3 0 c dυ
∞
1 hυ 8πν 2 1
= ∫c hυ /kT
dυ
30 c c e 3
−1
hυ kT
Substitute =x dυ = dx
kT h
So that
∞ 2
1 kTx 8π ⎛ xkT ⎞ 1 kT
P = ∫c 3 ⎜ ⎟ dx
30 c c ⎝ h ⎠ e −1 h
x

∞
1 8π k 4 4 x3
= 3
3c h 3
T ∫
0 e −1
x
dx
and since
∞
x3 π4
∫0 e x − 1dx = 15
1 8π k 4 4 ⎛ π 4 ⎞ 1
Prad = T =
⎜⎝ 15 ⎟⎠ 3 aT 4

3 c 3 h3
Where
8π 5k 4 4σ −15 −4
a ≡ = = 7.5658 ×10 erg cm-3
K
15c 3 h3 c
The energy density is just 3 times this
aT 4 k4 ⎛ π 5 ⎞
urad = erg g −1 σ ≡2 3 2⎜ ⎟
ρ h c ⎝ 15 ⎠
what is the number density of photons as a function of T?
dn(p) 2 1
= 3 pc /kT 4π p 2
dp h e −1
∞
2 4π p 2 hυ hυ
n = 3 ∫ pc /kT dp p= q=
h 0e −1 c kT

( )
2 3 ∞
∞
4π hν 8π ⎛ kT ⎞
∫ q (e )
2 h −1
∫ (e dν = 3 ⎜ − 1 dq
2 q

h3 0
hν /kT
)
−1 c c
2
c ⎝ h ⎟⎠ 0

3
⎛ kT ⎞ ξ (3)
= 16π ⎜ ⎟ ξ (3) where ξ is the RiemannΓ(3)
zeta function
⎝ hc ⎠
and ξ (3) = 1.202 = " Avery 's number "

n = 20.3 T 3 cm−3

−3
E.g. the CMBR n = 20.3 * (2.7)3 = 399 cm
Average photon energy for blackbody radiation

What is the average photon energy in BB radiation?

The total energy density per unit volume is
⎛ 8π k ⎞ 4
5 4
urad ρ =aT = ⎜
4
T erg cm −3

⎝ 15h c ⎟⎠
3 3

The number density of photons per unit volume is

3
⎛ kT ⎞
n = 16π ⎜ ξ (3) cm −3

⎝ hc ⎟⎠
So the average energy per photon is
⎛ π4 ⎞
εγ = ⎜ ⎟ kT = 2.70 kT
⎝ (1.202)(30) ⎠
 Electron Degeneracy Pressure
So long as the electrons are “ideal”, not crowded to the
extent that their quantum mechanical wavelengths
become an issue (i.e. h/p negligible compared with
average electron spacing), the electrons can also be
treated as an ideal gas. At high density and low
temperature however, this assumption breaks down.

Consider the low temperature limit where the momentum

of the electrons is entirely due to their quantum
mechanical motion. Then quantum statistics apply not
MB. The same argument applies to neutrons or protons,
any particle with spin ½ (Fermions). There is a general
solution that includes a mixture of degenerate and
thermal motion but it involves “Fermi Integrals” and
is more complicated
 Electron Degeneracy Pressure
According to the Fermi-Dirac distribution function, the mean
occupancy for a single particle state is
1
ns = (ε − µ )/kT
e +1
At T ≈ 0 this takes on a value of either 0 or 1 depending upon
whether ε > µ or ε < µ. A plot looks like

1
ns

ε
µ
µ here is the chemical potential, or for electrons,
the “Fermi energy”. It is a function of density and gives
the last energy state into which electrons are forced if
all the states below are as full as the uncertainty principle allows"
 Electron Degeneracy Pressure
In this fully degenerate limit
2 p02
n(p)dp = 3 4π p 2 dp p < p0 (NR = µ = εF )
h 2m
=0 p > p0
p0
2 8π 3
ne = ∫ 3 4π p dp = 3 p0
2

0 h 3h
1/3
⎛ 3h ne ⎞
3

p0 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8π ⎠

This is the “Fermi momentum” for electron density

ne. It is the maximum energy of the degenerate electrons.
The Fermi energy µ = F = p02/2me.
 The pressure is given by the pressure integral:

1) Non-relativistic case (fully degenerate):

∞
1 dn(p)
NR
Pdeg = ∫ v p dp
3 0 dp
1
p0
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ 8π ⎞
p0
⎛ 8π ⎞ ⎛ p 5
⎞
= ∫ ⎜⎝ h3 4 π p ⎟⎠ p ⎜⎝ m ⎟⎠ dp = ⎜⎝ 3mh3 ⎟⎠ ∫ p dp = ⎜⎝ 3mh3 ⎟⎠ ⎜ 5 ⎟
2 4 0
3 0 0 ⎝ ⎠
5/3 2/3
⎛ 8π ⎞ ⎛ 3h ne ⎞ 3
⎛ 3⎞ h 2 5/3
=⎜ =⎜ ⎟ ne
⎝ 15mh3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 8π ⎟⎠ ⎝π⎠ 20m
2/3
⎛ 3⎞ h2
( ) ( ρY )
5/3 5/3
=⎜ ⎟ ρNAYe = 1.0036 × 10 13
dyne cm−2
⎝π⎠ 20m e

Xi 1
Ye = ∑ Zi = ∑ Zi Yi ≡ is typically 1/2 after H burning
Ai µe
As ne goes up the speed of each electron rises

1/3
⎛ 3 3⎞
p0 = me v = ⎜ ne h ⎟
⎝ 8π ⎠
1/3
1 ⎛ ⎛ 3h 3
⎞⎞ 1 for elements
v = ⎜ ne ⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎟ ne ≈ ρ N A other than H
me ⎝ ⎝ 8π ⎠ 2
1/3 1/3
⎛ 3ρ N A h ⎞ 3
10 ⎛ ρ ⎞
v=⎜ 3 ⎟
≈ 2 x 10 ⎜⎝ 106 gm cm -3 ⎟⎠ cm s -1

⎝ 16 π m e ⎠

At around 107 gm cm-3 the electrons will move close to

the speed of light.
2) And so for the relativistic case:
∞
1 dn(p)
R
Pdeg = ∫ v p dp
3 0 dp
1
p0
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 8π c ⎞
p0
⎛ 8π c ⎞ ⎛ p 4
⎞
= ∫ ⎜⎝ h3 4 π p ⎟⎠ p c dp = ⎜⎝ 3h3 ⎟⎠ ∫ p dp = ⎜⎝ 3h3 ⎟⎠ ⎜ 4 ⎟
2 3 0
3 0 0 ⎝ ⎠
4/3 1/3
⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 3h3ne ⎞ 1⎛ 3⎞
=⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ = ⎜ ⎟ (hc)ne4/3
⎝ 3h ⎠ ⎝ 8π ⎟⎠ 8⎝π ⎠
1/3
1⎛ 3⎞
( )
4/3
= ⎜ ⎟ (hc) ρNAYe = 1.2435 × 1015 (ρ Ye )4/3 dyne cm−2
8⎝π ⎠
The gas becomes relativistic when (approximately)
1/3
h ⎛ 3ne ⎞
2
p F
= pF c or pF = 2mec = 2mec
2me 2 ⎜⎝ π ⎟⎠
3
64π ⎛ mec ⎞
ne = ρNA Ye = ⎜ ⎟ = 4.69 × 1030 gm cm−3
3 ⎝ h ⎠
or ρ Ye = 7.80 ×10 6 g cm−3
It becomes degenerate when (approximately)
ρNAYe kT
( )
4/3
≈ 1.24 ×10 ρYe
15
RD
µ
or
ρNAYe kT
( )
5/3
≈ 1.00 × 1013 ρYe NRD
µ
T
This corresponds to 2/3 = 1.21× 105 µYe5/3 for RD
ρ
(but ρYe > few × 10 6 )
T
and = 1.50 × 10 7
µY 4/3
g cm −3
for NRD
ρ 1/3 e
Summary figure EOS regimes – Pols Fig 3.4

See Pols p 31 for discussion

 Fermi energy (extreme limits of degeneracy and relativity)
The Fermi energy is p02 / 2me for the non-relativistic case
2/3 1/3
h ⎛ 3ne ⎞
2
h ⎛ 3ne ⎞
That is ε F = since p0 = ⎜
8m ⎜⎝ π ⎟⎠ 2 ⎝ π ⎟⎠
2/3 2/3
h ⎛ 3ne ⎞
2
h ⎛ 3 ρNAYe ⎞
2
= =
8m ⎜⎝ π ⎟⎠ 8m ⎜⎝ π ⎟
⎠

( ρY ) ( )
2/3 2/3
= 4.16 ×10 −11
e
erg =26 ρYe eV

For relativistic Fermi energy, the momentum is simply multiplied by c

1/3 1/3
hc ⎛ 3ne ⎞ ⎛ 3h c ρNAYe ⎞
3 3

ε F = pc = =⎜ ⎟ = 8.26 × 10 −7 ( ρ6Ye )1/3 erg

2 ⎜⎝ π ⎟⎠ ⎝ 8π ⎠
⎛ ρ ⎞
= 0.516 MeV ( ρ6Ye ) 1/3
[for electrons] ρ6 = ⎜ 6
⎝ 10 g cm−3 ⎟⎠
For the general case of total degeneracy and arbitrary relativity
p0
1 8π p/m
Pdeg = ∫ v p dp v=
2
p
3 h3 ⎡1+ p / (m c ) ⎤
2 2 2
1/2
0
⎣ ⎦
p0
8π c p / (mc)
= ∫
3
p dp
3h3 ⎡1+ p 2 / (m2c 2 ) ⎤
1/2
0
⎣ ⎦
x
8π c 5m4 ξ 4d ξ
= ∫ ξ = p / mc x = p0 / mc
3h3
( ) ( )
1/2 1/3
0 1+ ξ 2 = 1.009 × 10 −2 ρYe
x
ξ 4d ξ 1
(
= ⎡ x 2x 2 − 3 1+ x 2 )( ) + 3 sinh−1 x ⎤ =
f (x)
1/2
∫
(1+ ξ ) 8 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
1/2
0
2 8

π c 5m 4
Pdeg = 3
f (x)
3h
−1 x 3 3x 5 15x 7
sinh (x) ≈ x − + − +....
6 40 336
for large x f(x)=2x 4 − 2x 2 + ...
4/3 1/3
2π c m ⎛ 3h ne ⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
5 4 3
hc 4/3
Pdeg = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ ne
3h3 ⎝ 8π m3c 3 ⎠ ⎝π⎠ 8
8 5 4 7
for small x f(x)= x − x + ...
5 7
5/3 2/3
8 π c m ⎛ 3h ne ⎞ 1 ⎛ 3⎞
5 4 3
h 2 5/3
Pdeg = = ne
5 3h3 ⎜⎝ 8π m3c 3 ⎟⎠ 20 ⎜⎝ π ⎟⎠ m
which are the extreme relativistic and non-relativistic limits
found before. 1/3
1/3
p0 h ⎛ 3ne ⎞ ⎛ 3h ne ⎞
3

= ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ 3 3⎟
mc 2mc ⎝ π ⎠ ⎝ 8π m c ⎠
Non-relativistic degeneneracy pressure
at finite temperature
 In general, for non-relativistic electrons of arbitrary
degeneracy
∞
8π p 2dp µ
ne = 3
h ∫0 exp(α + p 2 / 2mkT ) + 1 α≡−
kT
(Clayton 2-69)
∞ use ne to get "
8π p 4dp
Pe = 3 ∫
3h m 0 exp(α + p 2 / 2mkT ) + 1
p2
define u = and separate out the integrals
2mkT
4π 8π
( ) ( )
3/2 3/2
ne = 3 2mkT F1/2 (α ) Pe = 3 2mkT kT F3/2 (α )
h 3h
∞ ∞
u1/2du u 3/2du
F1/2 (α )= ∫ F3/2 (α )= ∫
0
exp(α + u)+1 0
exp(α + u)+1
 ⎛ 2F3/2 (α ) ⎞
Pe = ne kT ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3F1/2 (α ) ⎠ Clayton Fig 2.6
empirically the factor in parenthesis
becomes substantially different
from unity when α < - 2

For the case of arbitrary relativity and degeneracy

all modern codes use tables or expansion formulae
good in various regions of temperature and density,
A commonly used set of tables is the “Helmholz
equation of state” by Frank Timmes.

http://cococubed.asu.edu/code_pages/eos.shtml

Please check out this site there is an enormous amount

of useful interesting information there.
Pols. p 31

n(p)
 Adiabatic exponents

The first law of thermodynamics (from last time) is

du d ⎛ 1⎞ dF
+P ⎜ ⎟ = ε −
dt dt ⎝ ρ ⎠ dm
If no heat is being generated internally and no flux flowing
in or out we have a adiabatic condition (dq = TdS =0) and
⎛ 1⎞
du + P d ⎜ ⎟ = 0
⎝ ρ⎠
But we have just seen u can typically be written as
P
u=ϕ with 1.5<ϕ < 3.0
ρ
for a mixture of radiation and ideal gas
So
⎛ 1⎞ 1 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ 1
ρ ⎝ ρ⎠ ⎝ ρ⎠
( ρ
)
ϕPd ⎜ ⎟ + ϕ dP + Pd ⎜ ⎟ = ϕ + 1 Pd ⎜ ⎟ + ϕ dP = 0
⎝ ρ⎠
⎛ dρ ⎞ 1 ρ
( ⎝ρ ⎠
)
− ϕ + 1 P ⎜ 2 ⎟ + ϕ dP = 0
ρ
multiply by
P
⎛ dρ ⎞ dP
(
− ϕ +1 ⎜
⎝ ρ
)
⎟
⎠
+ ϕ
P
=0 x = elog x
dx = d log x elog x = d log x x
φ
d log ρ = d logP dx
φ +1 = d log x
ϕ +1 x
P ∝ ρ ϕ

The power in d ln P/d ln ρ is the adiabatic exponent

ϕ +1
γa=
ϕ
which ranges from 5/3 to 4/3 for non-relativistic and
relatvistic cases

γa
P = Ka ρ
 Prialnik p. 45 spends some time discussing the
effect of ionization on the adiabatic exponent. This is
partly because as we shall see later,  > 4/3 is
hydrodynamically stable, but  < 4/3 is not.

Prialnik shows that for a degree of ionization for an ideal gas

n+
x=
n0 + n+
the adiabatic exponent is χ = ionization potential
2
⎛5 χ ⎞
5+⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 3 kT ⎠
(
x 1− x )
γa=
⎡3 ⎛ 3 χ ⎞ 2 ⎤
3 + ⎢ +⎜ + ⎟ ⎥ x(1− x)
⎢⎣ 2 ⎝ 2 kT ⎠ ⎥⎦

which varies from 5/3 for either x = 0 or 1 but down to

values as low as 1.21 if the ionization potential, χ ,
is 10 kT
See Glatzmaier and Krumholz Notes 6 - B
The reason is the heat capacity. Like water approaching
a phase transition there comes a temperature where most
of the added energy goes into ionization (boiling) rather
than raising the temperature.