The OSI Model

Based on Computer Networks and

Internets
CompTIA Network+
Todd Lammle

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OSI or ISO
 The layering model is OSI, which stands for
Open System Interconnection.
 The organization that developed the model
is ISO, International Organization for
Standardization.
◼ ANSI (American National Standards Institute) is
a member of ISO.
 ANSI farms out much of the hardware
standardization to the IEEE.

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Communications Layering
 The communication between two (or
more) users on a network similarly is
broken down into layers.
 A reference model is a conceptual
blueprint of how communications
should take place ,it addresses all the
processes into logical grouping called
layers

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What is OSI?
 OSI serves as a "reference model" for how
information is transmitted between any two
points in a network.
 It guides manufacturers (vendors) so they can
create interoperable network devices and
Software in form of protocols or standards ,so
that different vendors networks could become
compatible and work together
 The OSI model is comprised of seven layers
that are involved in communicating between
two nodes of a network.
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OSI’s Purpose
 Even if manufacturers do not restrict
themselves to a particular OSI layer,
they usually think of and describe
their products in relationship to the
OSI model.
 It provides a language and framework
for discussion of networks, so it
persists and continues to be taught.

CSIT 220 (Blum) 5

TCP/IP model
 Another model for understanding
communications networks is the TCP/IP
model.
 It also is broken into layers
◼ It has no equivalent of the OSI model’s physical
layer.
◼ The next three layers of the OSI model and the
TCP/IP model are roughly equivalent.
◼ The top three layers of the OSI model are
combined into one layer in the TCP/IP model.

CSIT 220 (Blum) 6

The main idea
 The communication between computers can
be broken down into layers.
◼ Each layer is characterized by its functions and
how it interfaces with the adjacent layers.
 Within the source’s computer and starting
at the user level, the communication is
passed down through the layers to the
lowest layer where it is sent through some
transmission medium.

CSIT 220 (Blum) 7

The main idea (Cont.)
 The communication travels at the
lowest layer (physical), occasionally
rising up to the second layer (bridge)
or third layer (router) until it reaches
the destination.
 The communication now passes up
through the layers.

CSIT 220 (Blum) 8

CSIT 220 (Blum) 9
 How Does It All Work Together

 Each layer contains a Protocol Data

Unit (PDU)
◼ PDU’s are used for peer-to-peer contact
between corresponding layers.

◼ Data is handled by the top three layers,

then Segmented by the Transport
layer.

◼ The Network layer places it into

packets and the Data Link frames the
packets for transmission.

◼ Physical layer converts it to bits and

sends it out over the media.

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◼ The receiving computer reverses the
process using the information
contained in the PDU.
Layer 1: Physical
 There is no interpretation at this level, a
stream of 1’s and 0’s are put into a form
convenient for transmission.
 This level is the most hardware oriented. It
includes specifications about
◼ NIC card speeds
◼ Types and lengths of cable
◼ Voltage characteristics (range, level or edge)

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Physical layer

The physical layer is responsible

for the movement of individual bits
from one hop (node) to the next.
Physical Layer

 Determines the specs

for all physical
components
◼ Cabling
◼ Interconnect methods
(topology / devices)
◼ Data encoding (bits to
waves)
◼ Electrical properties
 Examples:
◼ Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
◼ Token Ring(FDDI) (IEEE 3
802.5)
◼ Wireless (IEEE 802.11b)
Physical Layer (cont)

 What are the Physical Layer components on

my computer?
 NIC
◼ Network Interface Card
◼ Has a unique 12 character Hexadecimal number
permanently burned into it at the manufacturer.
◼ The number is the MAC Address/Physical address of
a computer
 Cabling
◼ Twister Pair
◼ Fiber Optic
◼ Coax Cable
Transmission Media

Two main categories:

◼ Guided ― wires, cables
◼ Unguided ― wireless transmission, e.g. radio,
microwave, infrared, sound, sonar
We will concentrate on guided media here:
◼ Twisted-Pair cables:
➢ Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) cables
➢ Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) cables
◼ Coaxial cables
◼ Fiber-optic cables
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Coaxial cable

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Copper Media: Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is a
copper-cored cable
surrounded by a heavy
shielding and is used to
connect computers in a
network.
Outer conductor shields
the inner conductor
from picking up stray Category Impedance Use
signal from the air ‫تداخل‬
‫ اإلشارة وتقويتها‬. RG-59 75  Cable TV

High bandwidth but Thin

RG-58 50 
lossy channel. Ethernet
Repeater is used to Thick
RG-11 50 
regenerate the Ethernet
weakened signals.
Coaxial Cables

 In general, coaxial cables, or coax, carry

signals of higher freq (low volt)(100KHz–
500MHz) than UTP cables
 Outer metallic wrapping serves both as a
shield against noise and as the second
conductor that completes the circuit
 Plastic jacket(pvc , Teflon) to avoid noise.
 Used in TV receivers ,radio, telephone
networks

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Figure 7.8 BNC connectors

NDSLab Copyright@2008 19
Male and Female coax cables

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Coaxial Cable Applications
 Most versatile medium
 Television distribution
◼ Ariel to TV
◼ Cable TV
 Long distance telephone transmission
◼ Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
◼ Being replaced by fiber optic
 Short distance computer systems links
Coaxial Cables Advantages

 The cost of coaxial cable is less.

 It is less susceptible to noise or interference
compare to twisted pair cable.
 It supports high bandwidth signal transmission
compare to twisted pair.
 It allows high transfer rates with coaxial cable
having better shielding materials.
 its shielded design, which allows the cable's
copper core to transmit data quickly, without
succumbing to interference or damage from
environment factors.
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Coaxial Cables Disdvantages

 It is expensive to install for longer distances due

to its thickness and stiffness.
 It must be grounded to prevent interference.

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Copper Media: Twisted Pair
Twisted-pair is a type of
cabling that is used for
telephone
communications and most
modern Ethernet
networks.
A pair of wires forms a
circuit that can transmit
data. The pairs are twisted
to provide protection
against
crosstalk(minimize
interference), the noise
generated by adjacent
pairs.
Multiple individually
insulated wires that are
twisted together in pairs .
Twisted-Pair Cables

If the pair of wires are not twisted, electromagnetic

noises from, e.g., motors, will affect the closer wire more
than the further one, thereby causing errors

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Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)

 Typically wrapped inside a plastic cover (for mechanical

protection)
 A sample UTP cable with 5 unshielded twisted pairs of
wires

Insulator Metal
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Physical Media

Unshielded Twisted Pair

(UTP)
Shielded Twisted-Pair
(STP)
 STP cables are similar to UTP cables,
except there is a metal foil or braided-
metal-mesh cover that encases each pair
of insulated wires

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Physical Media

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Twisted Pair (Cat 5/5e,
Cat 6)
Unshielded twisted pairs. Twists in wire keep down
interference (from fluorescent lights, for example). Cat5e
has more twists than Cat5, costs a bit more, works better
for Gigabit, can exceed the 100m limitation for 100Mbit
ethernet. Cat6 even more so.

Cat3 and 4 are older, fewer twists, similar to phone, only

good for 10Mbit. Phones work on Cat5/5e so current
University standard is Cat5e (or Cat6 for special
situations) everywhere. You can mix them, so don’t
worry about buying Cat6 jumpers if you want.

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Twisted Pair (Cat 5/5e,
Cat 6)
Good for up to 100m, we don’t like to go over 80m
when wiring a building though.

Standard connecter: RJ45.

Star topology: each user gets their own path, easy

to troubleshoot, costs more than a shared topology.
Troubleshooting costs so much that bus and ring
(shared) topologies are functionally dead.

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Twisted Pair (continued)
Common Terms: 10BaseT, 100BaseT, 1000BaseT. The “T” is
for Twisted pair, the number is the speed, the base is
“baseband”.
8 strands, 4 pairs. A couple of different standards, but 568A
and 568B are the most common. Stanford uses 568B (for
568A, swap the labels for pairs 2 and 3, but no real
functional difference):
Strands: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

568B:

Pairs: 2 1 4
(orange) (blue) (brown)

3 (green)

10BaseT and 100BaseT only use pairs 2 and 3, so you may see some
cables with only 4 strands, but since 1000T (gigabit) uses all pairs,
don’t keep those cables.
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Categories of UTP Cables

EIA classifies UTP cables according to the quality:

 Category 1 ― ((four twisted wire pairs)(8 wires)
)the lowest quality, only good for voice, mainly
found in very old buildings, not recommended
now
 Category 2 ― ((four twisted wire pairs)(8 wires)
) good for voice and low data rates (up to 4Mbps
for low-speed token ring networks)
 Category 3 ― ((four twisted wire pairs)(8 wires)
at least 3 twists per foot, for up to 10 Mbps
(common in phone networks in residential
buildings) 33
Categories of UTP Cables

 Category 4 ― ((four twisted wire pairs)(8 wires)

up to 16 Mbps (mainly for token rings)
 Category 5 (or 5e) ― ((four twisted wire pairs)(8
wires) up to 100 Mbps (common for networks
targeted for high-speed data communications)
 Category 6 ― ((four twisted wire pairs)(8 wires)
more twists than Cat 5, up to 1 Gbps
 Category 6a ― ((four twisted wire pairs)(8 wires)
more twists than Cat 6, up to 10 Gbps,improve
cross talk
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Connecting UTP

 We use RJ(registered jack) connector .

 RJ11 used with UTP cable for phones that use 4
wires(in home).
 RJ45 used in LANs.

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Fiber-Optic Cables
 Light travels at 3108 ms-1 in free space and
is the fastest possible speed in the Universe
 Light slows down in denser media, e.g. glass
 Refraction occurs at interface, with light
bending away from the normal when it
enters a less dense medium
 Fiber optic cabel transmits digital signals
using light impulses.

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 An optical fiber consists of a core (denser
material glass or plastic) and a cladding
(less dense material)
 Glass travels for long distance but plastic is
cheaper.
 The cabel is either single mode
fiber(SMF)or multimode fiber(MMF)
 Simplest one is a multimode step-index
optical fiber cladding)
 Light bounces back and forth along the core
 Common light sources: LEDs and lasers
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Advantages and Disadvantages

☺ Noise resistance ― external light is blocked by outer jacket

☺ Less signal attenuation ― a signal can run for miles
without regeneration (currently, the lowest measured loss
is about ~4% or 0.16dB per km)
☺ Higher bandwidth ― currently, limits on data rates come
from the signal generation/reception technology, not the
fiber itself
☺ It can transmit up to 40km.
 Cost ― Optical fibers are expensive
 Installation/maintenance ― any crack in the core will
degrade the signal, and all connections must be perfectly
aligned

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Single –Mode Fiber

❑ is a common type of optical fiber that is used to

transmit over longer distances with very high
speed
❑ is a single glass fiber strand used to transmit a
single mode or ray of light.
❑ Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser are light
sources in SMF.
❑ Single-mode fiber provides users with a greater
transmission rate in addition to nearly 50 times
longer distance as opposed to multi-mode fiber.

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Multi –Mode Fiber

❑ Is designed to carry multiple light rays or modes

simultaneously on numerous paths as it travels through
the core and is reflected back, each at a marginally
different reflection angle inside the optical fiber core.
❑ Multi-mode fiber provides users with high bandwidth at
high speeds across moderate distances
❑ Multi-mode fibers may not be suitable for high-speed data
transmission. It is not advisable to mix and match fibers
either. Attempting to connect a single-mode fiber with a
multi-mode fiber may result in a 20-dB loss, which is 99%
of the total power.

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42
Fiber optic connectors

❑ ST (straight tip) was probably still most popular connector

for multimode networks .
❑ SC(square connector) was the connector standardized in
TIA-568-A, but was not widely used at first because it was
twice as expensive as a ST. Now it's only a bit more
expensive and much more common

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Layer 2: The data-link layer
 At this layer one begins to consider bytes
instead of just bits, one examines some of
the information content of the signal (at
least the address and some of the error
detection sequencing)
 Recall that bridges operate at this level
◼ They know where a packet is headed.
◼ They know whether or not it has been involved
in a collision.
◼ Bit stuffing occurs at this level.

CSIT 220 (Blum) 44

 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
• Packages raw bits from the Physical layer into frames (logical,
structured packets for data).
• Provides reliable transmission of frames
• It waits for an acknowledgment from the receiving computer.(use Mac
address to ensure it delivers to right device)
• Retransmits frames for which acknowledgement not received
• It handles synchronization (timing).
• It must know where one bit ends and the next one begins.
• It must know where one byte ends and the next one begins
 Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from

one hop (node) to the next.

Header contain source and destination address

OSI Model

Data Link Layer

Data link layer attempts to provide reliable

communication over the physical layer interface.

Breaks the outgoing data into frames and

reassemble the received frames.
Create and detect frame boundaries.
Handle errors by implementing an
acknowledgement and retransmission scheme.
Implement flow control.
Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast
communication.
Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex
communication.
Data link sublayers
 The data link layer is divided into two
sublayers:
◼ The MAC (Media Access Control)
sublayer: takes the signal from or puts
the signal onto the transmission line
(“touches” physical layer).
◼ The LLC (Logical Link Control) sublayer:
starts to interpret the signal as data,
includes timing (synchronization) and
error checking.
CSIT 220 (Blum) 48
Sub-layers of the Data Link Layer

 MAC (Media Access Control)

◼ Gives data to the NIC
◼ Controls access to the media through:
 CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Detection
 Token passing
 LLC (Logical Link Layer(802.2)
◼ A host receives a frame and looks in the LLC header to
find out where the packet is destined.
◼ Can detect some transmission errors using a Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC). If the packet is bad the LLC
will request the sender to resend that particular packet.
 Network Layer

 Provides network-wide
addressing and a mechanism to
move packets between
networks (routing)

 Responsibilities:
◼ Network addressing
◼ Routing

 Example: 3
◼ IP from TCP/IP
Layer 3: The network layer
 The router acted at this layer.
 One of the main functions of the layer is
routing. Store and forward are network
layer functions.
 Building the routing tables, troubleshooting
the routing tables when there is a lot of
traffic or if a connection goes down.
 The network layer also gathers related
packets (packet sequencing).

CSIT 220 (Blum) 51

 Layer 3: Network Layer
 Manages addressing/routing of data within the
subnet
◼ Addresses messages and translates logical addresses and
names into physical addresses.
◼ Determines the route from the source to the destination
computer
◼ Manages traffic problems, such as switching, routing, and
controlling the congestion of data packets.
 Routing can be:
◼ Based on static tables
◼ determined at start of each session
◼ Individually determined for each packet,
reflecting the current network load.
Network layer

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.
Transport Layer

 Provides reliable data

delivery
 It’s the TCP in TCP/IP

 Receives info from

upper layers and
segments it into
packets

 Can provide error 3

detection and
correction
Transport Layer
Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for the

exchange of data between two processes in different computers.

Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.

Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.

Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.

Provides connectionless or connection oriented service(logical

connection between sending host TCP and destination host TCP)
called virtual circuit.

acknowledgments
Transport layer(cont)

The transport layer is responsible for the

delivery of a message from one process to
another.
Transport layer (cont)

 As stated before, Layer 4 is the dividing line

between inter-computer transactions and
intra-computer transactions.
 Layer 4 manages end-to-end verification.
◼ The lower layers make a “best effort” but if data
is lost so be it. Layer 4 must ensure that the
information was received intact.
 It does a higher-order error-checking.
 The transfer should be “transparent.” The
higher layers do not know the data came
from another computer.
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Transport layer (cont)

 At a node Layer 3 collects associated

packets if one was dropped it may
throw them all away.
 It is the responsibility of the source’s
Layer 4 to look for some
acknowledgement that all packets
arrived. If no acknowledgment is
received, it should retransmit.

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Transport layer (cont)
 Manages transmission packets
◼ Repackages long messages when necessary into small
packets for transmission
◼ Reassembles packets in correct order to get the original
message.
 Handles error recognition and recovery.
◼ Transport layer at receiving acknowledges packet delivery.
◼ Resends missing packets
Session Layer

 Allows applications to
maintain an ongoing
session

 Where is it on my
computer?
◼ Workstation and
Server Service (MS)
◼ Windows Client for
NetWare (NetWare)
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Layer 5: The session layer
 Recall when discussing connection-oriented
schemes, we mentioned the idea of a
“session.”
 It is an agreement between a source and
destination to communicate.
 This layer establishes, manages and
terminates sessions between applications
(they could be on the same computer or on
different computers).

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Session Layer(cont)

Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue

between the two end systems. It defines how to start, control
and end conversations (called sessions) between applications.

This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on

an end-user’s request.
Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by
this layer.
Session Layer(cont)

Session layer is also responsible for terminating the connection.

This layer provides services like dialogue discipline which can be

full duplex or half duplex.

Session layer can also provide check-pointing mechanism such

that if a failure of some sort occurs between checkpoints, all
data can be retransmitted from the last checkpoint.
Transmission Modes

there are three modes of transmission(flow of signal

between two connected devices):-
simplex mode :-the communication is unidirectional

half-duplex mode :-the communication is two directional but the

channel is alternately used by the both the connected device

full duplex mode :-the communication is bi-directional, and the

channel is used by both the connected device simultaneously.
Presentation Layer

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Layer 6: The presentation layer
 This layer provides independence from
differences in data representation (e.g.,
encryption) by translating from application
to network format, and vice versa.
 The presentation layer works to transform
data into the form that the application layer
can accept. This layer formats and encrypts
data to be sent across a network, providing
freedom from compatibility problems. It is
sometimes called the “syntax layer.”

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Presentation Layer(cont)

 Related to representation of transmitted data

◼ Translates different data representations from the
Application layer into uniform standard format
 Providing services for secure efficient data
transmission
◼ e.g. data encryption(cryptography), and data
compression.
 The application layer

 Gives end-user applications

access to network resources

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Layer 7: The application layer

 This layer supports application and

end-user processes.
 Communication partners are
identified, quality of service is
identified, user authentication and
privacy are considered, and any
constraints on data syntax are
identified.
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The application layer(cont)

 Everything at this layer is application-

specific. This layer provides application
services for file transfers, e-mail, and other
network software services. Telnet and FTP
are applications that exist entirely in the
application level.
 These are not applications (like Word and
Excel) but services for such applications!

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Other References

 http://www.whatis.com
 http://www.webopedia.com
 MCSE TCP/IP for Dummies, Brandon
 http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/ISOOnline.fro
ntpage

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