1

TIME AND FREQUENCY ANALYSIS

Machinery vibration analysis techniques
Time domain analysis
Frequency analysis
Demodulation
TIME DOMAIN ANALYSIS
Use of time domain analysis
Signal processing and presentation
Phase measurement
Instrument setup
Time waveform shape analysis
Synchronous vs nonsynchronous data
Random noise and vibration
Conclusions
USE OF TIME DOMAIN ANALYSIS
A graphic description of the overall physical behavior of a
vibration structure as a function of time
Clarification of FFT processed data
The position of the measurement point at each instant of
time relative to the position at rest
Overall peak amplitude
Phase and amplitude relationships of different
frequencies and different positions
The nature of amplitude modulation or frequency content
USE OF TIME DOMAIN ANALYSIS
(cont.)
The symmetry of a signal; this relates to the
linearity of the vibrating system, the nature of the
forcing function, and the severity of the vibration
A measure of damping in the system
Direction of the initial exciting force
SIGNAL PROCESSING and
PRESENTATION
Instrumentation
Presentation
Presentation setup
Differential time
Waveform Characteristics
Objectives
Describe five waveform characteristics.
Identify waveform symmetry using APD.
Discuss waveform modulation and how it translates
to the FFT.
12-1
2
Waveform Characteristics
12-1
A number of different displays "averaging modes" use the time
domain. Displays such as synchronous time averaged data is
averaged in the time domain.
APD (Amplitude Problability Distribution) this is a function of
Wavepak, displays the symmetry and skewness of the waveform
signal.
Each defect type has a characteristic waveform, which
subsequently translates to the frequency domain.
There are characteristics and specific events that do not
translate to the frequency domain as discrete peaks. In order to
truly understand this limitation, the analyst must first understand
how the time domain data is gathered and transformed into a
spectrum through the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) process.
Waveform Characteristics
12-2
Time domain data, raw transducer output, signal voltage and
many other terms refer to waveforms.
Waveform or time domain data is comprised of amplitude with
respect to time. Signals with an amplitude, whether vibration,
current, voltage changes, or other signal types, change with time.
Waveform Characteristics
12-2
There are certain things to look for when conducting waveform
analysis, the waveform provides specific characteristics for
defects of a single or multiple nature.
BAL - C-20 FLOAT ROLL FAN
C-20 FLOAT-FIH FAN BEARING INBOARD HORIZONTAL
WaveformDisplay
25-APR-96 09:36
RMS = 1.28
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 3550.
RPS = 59.17
PK(+) = 6.94
PK(-) = 5.84
CRESTF= 5.40
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
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6
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Time in mSecs
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Time:
Ampl:
135.09
.00000
Waveform Characteristics
12-3
Note: The waveform is only as good as its definition. If the
resolution of your waveform lacks definition, the data can be
worthless, or poor at best.
Once the characteristics have been properly identified, the
analyst can rule out certain fault types.
For example:
If a waveform is periodic (sinusoidal)
looseness
cracks
resonance
antifriction bearings
Could probably be ruled out. You may not know what the problem
is, but you know what it is not.
Waveform Characteristics
12-3
Listed below are waveform characteristics an analyst should look
for when analyzing the waveform:
Amplitude
Asymmetry
Electrical vs Mechanical
Distortions
Periodic
Spikes/Impacts
Non-Periodic
Modulation
Complexity
Discontinuities
Low Frequency Events
Truncation/Restrictions
to Motion
Amplitude
12-4
When diagnosing machinery faults using the time
waveform, similar to spectral data, we are concerned with
the amplitude of the waveform.
When we are discussing bearing and gear waveforms,
we use the peak to peak amplitude of the waveform. This is
often referred to as g swing.
The g swing is the sum of the absolute value of the
maximum positive and negative amplitude in that period.
MasterTrend calculates this value and gives us the ability
to trend and alarm based on this and other waveform
values.
3
Amplitude
C-20 - C-20 FLOAT ROLL FAN
C-20 FLOAT-FIH FANBEARINGINBOARDHORIZONTAL
WaveformDisplay
25-APR-96 09:36
RMS = 1.28
LOAD= 100.0
RPM= 3550.
RPS = 59.17
PK(+) = 6.94
PK(-) = 5.84
CRESTF= 5.40
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
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6
8
Time in mSecs
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ALERT
ALERT
FAULT
FAULT
Time:
Ampl:
76.72
-.109
12-4
Periodic
12-5
Sometimes referred to as a deterministic simple
signal, this is an ideal signal which repeats itself
exactly after a fixed period.
This is not possible in the real world. However,
there are some machinery faults which have this
characteristic.
A single plane balance problem will have a very
periodic waveform due to the mass rotational center
and the rotor shaft of other component center line
differences.
Periodic
12-5
BAL - ZONE 6 EXHAUST
C-30 Z6X -FOH FANBEARINGOUTBOARDHORIZONTAL
WaveformDisplay
13-JUN-95 14:52
RMS = .1390
LOAD= 100.0
RPM= 1000.
RPS = 16.67
PK(+) = .3672
PK(-) = .4322
CRESTF= 3.11
0 100 200 300 400 500
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
-0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Time in mSecs
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Complexity
12-6
To determine the complexity of the waveform,
establish whether the signal is:
periodic in nature
estimate the harmonic content
determine if the signal is synchronous
non-synchronous
identify whether the waveform correlates
directly to the spectral data.
Complexity
12-6
C-20 - C-20 FLOAT ROLL FAN
C-20 FLOAT-FOH FANBEARINGOUTBOARDHORIZONTAL
Label: LOOSE, OUT OF BALANCE
WaveformDisplay
25-APR-96 09:37
RMS = 1.59
LOAD= 100.0
RPM= 3508.
RPS = 58.47
PK(+) = 4.88
PK(-) = 5.25
CRESTF= 3.30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
Time in mSecs
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Impacts/Spikes
12-7
Impacts or Spikes may or may not be repetitive in nature.
The non repetitive spikes generate white noise.
Repetitive impacts or spikes, such as those produced by rolling
element bearing defects or broken gear teeth, may excite discrete
frequencies and therefore show up well in the spectrum.
This characteristic is best detected by defining a waveform
amplitude type in acceleration. Acceleration data is proportional
to force.
The crest factor, which is equal to the maximum peak (positive
or negative) divided by the RMS of the waveform, is a good
indicator of the impacting. This value can be setup as an analysis
parameter and trended in MasterTrend.
4
Impacts/Spikes
12-7
Repetitive Spikes
Discontinuities
12-8
This characteristic is usually associated with faulty
equipment due to the discontinuous nature of the
data.
Data with this characteristic has breaks in the data
where there appears to be a loss of input signal or a
significant increase/decrease in amplitude.
This is not a uniform change such as resonance,
load changes, or even sudden component failures.
Discontinuous data is typically unpredictable, and
very distinct.
If you see this type of waveform pattern
( YOU HAVE A PROBLEM )
Discontinuities
12-8
Asymmetry
12-9
Asymmetry refers to the relationship between the
positive and negative energy.
A waveform is asymmetric when there is more energy in
the positive plane than the negative or vice versa.
Asymmetry refers to the direction of movement relative to
the transducer mounting with a positive signal
representing energy into ( towards ) the accelerometer and
a negative signal representing away.
A tool which is designed to check this type of
characteristic is the APD, Amplitude Probability
Distribution.
Asymmetry
12-9
MISC- #1 H2OBOOSTER
4661 -MIV MOTORINBOARDVERTICAL
Label: LOOSE BASE
WaveformDisplay
16-NOV-95 10:18
RMS = .5155
LOAD= 100.0
RPM= 1789.
RPS = 29.82
PK(+) = 2.24
PK(-) = 1.43
CRESTF= 4.35
0 60 120 180 240 300
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Time in mSecs
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Asymmetry
12-10
Select the Analyze Data feature in Diagnostics Plotting when in
Waveform Analysis.
5
APD
12-10
APD
12-11
Amplitude Probability Distribution
An APD or Amplitude Probability Distribution is similar to a
Hystorgram.
The signal is broken down into amplitude percentages, and then
the amplitude is plotted.
The X-Axis is the amplitude and the Y-Axis is the percentage of
the signal that falls into that amplitude range.
The APD is typically used for acoustical analysis.
It can also be used for machine vibration analysis to find the
balance of the signal (asymmetries), the direction, and possibly
the location of a specific defect especially those that may not
stand out in the waveform or the spectrum.
Sinewaves
Sinewaves are very symmetrical, which means
there is a balance of energy in the positive and
negative planes.
If most of the vibration signal is evenly distributed
and sinusoidal, there is a strong possibility it is due to
a synchronous component such as imbalance,
misalignment, gears, blades, etc.
The waveform and APD show the shape of a
sinewave and the probability related to this type of
signal.
12-11
Sinewaves
12-11
Notice that the APD at the bottom of the above display shows a
set of peaks at the maximum and minimum amplitude locations.
This could also be called a Hysteresis display. The probability of
the signal being in the 10 volt location is much more probable
that the signal being at the zero location of the display.
Triangle Wave
12-13
With a triangle wave, we see the relationship of the
waveform and a different type of APD display.
Note that the data is skewed to the negative plane.
Again, this provides the analyst with the direction of
motion.
The following illustration displays the direct relationship
between the waveform and the APD. Bear in mind that
the APD provides another tool to determine location,
direction, and asymmetry.
Triangle Wave
12-13
6
Squarewave
12-14
The squarewave on the next slide provides some insight
into the use of the APD for checking asymmetries.
Remember that symmetry refers to the balance of energy.
Therefore, with a slightly more complex signal, this becomes
more important especially when performing Root Cause
Failure Analysis(RCFA).
In the next illustration, the signal is asymmetric, and there
is more energy in the positive plane than the negative.
The energy in the positive plane shows movement toward
the transducer, and the negative plane is obviously the
opposite.
Squarewave
12-14
Truncation/Restrictions to Motion
12-15
Truncation means to abruptly shorten, or to appear to
terminate.
In waveform analysis, this characteristic indicates restrictive
motion.
Modulation
12-15
All the waveform characteristics up to this point have
dealt with signals of a constant amplitude.
A varying signal will cause the waveform to become
modulated. The type of modulation occurring
determines its classification. Commonly referred to as
Beat frequencies, these may be broken into three
specific categories.
Amplitude
Beating
Frequency
Amplitude
12-16
The spectrum will have a peak at the signal's
frequency with one peak on each side spaced at the
frequency of the amplitude change. These peaks are
referred to as sidebands.
Amplitude modulation is common when analyzing
inner race bearing defects. This occurs when the
defective bearing component passes in and out of the
bearing load zone. The middle of the load zone is
typically where the highest amplitudes in the
waveform show up.
Amplitude
12-16
The spectrum and waveform show slot pass frequency from an
AC induction motor. The primary signal at 34xTS is marked with
a vertical line. The sideband cursors mark the amplitude change
at 120 Hz.
7
Beating
12-17
A beat is comprised of two unrelated single
frequency signals, closely spaced in frequency.
Beating is often found in two pole induction AC
motors. The close proximity of two times line
frequency and the second harmonic of turning speed
cause this beat.
An example of beating is shown next. The 2x RPM
and 2x line frequency are separated by less than .5
Hz. The waveform shows the amplitude modulation
associated with beating.
Beating
12-17
WAVEFORMDISPLAY
06-DEC-94 10:15
RMS = .0678
PK(+) = .1300
PK(-) = .1790
CRESTF= 2.64
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
-0.20
-0.15
-0.10
-0.05
-0.00
0.05
0.10
Time in Seconds
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AMGL - CENTAC3 STAGE COMPRESSOR
#1 CENTAC-1BA MOTOROUTBDAXIAL TO200 Hz
REFERENCE SPECTRUM
06-DEC-94 10:15
OVRALL= .0581 V-DG
PK = .0380
LOAD= 100.0
RPM= 3575.
RPS = 59.58
60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
Frequency in Hz
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Freq:
Ordr:
Spec:
Dfrq:
119.00
1.997
.02520
1.000
Frequency
12-18
Rarely seen in a routine environment, this is a change in
frequency without a change in the signal amplitude.
Frequency modulation typically occurs in gearmeshing
vibration, due to the small speed fluctuations caused by
tooth spacing errors and faults as they develop. A very wide
spread of sidebands in the spectrum is usually an indication
that significant frequency modulation is present.
On our example shown next. The vertical line in the
spectrum marks gearmesh frequency at 24xTS. The
sideband cursors mark the output shaft speed with labels
identifying sidebands spaced at input shaft speed. The
waveform has been expanded to show the frequency
modulation occurring. A good illustration is shown between
170 and 180 msecs.
Frequency
12-18
Frequency modulation
Low Frequency Events
12-19
When performing detailed analysis, you need to be
able to collect and analyze data in excess of one
minute for low frequency problems. This is extremely
important when the machine in question has an
operational speed below 200 RPM. The challenge in
identifying low frequency defects is having sufficient
time in the waveform. A low frequency event may only
appear once in the collected time domain. As
discussed earlier, this event will not be transformed
into the spectrum.
Low Frequency Events
12-20
8
Electrical vs. Mechanical
12-20
Determining if the source of energy is mechanical
or electrical is sometimes difficult.
Appropriately set up waveforms can be a great
help. Setting up for a long enough time to capture
the operational conditions and the machine shutoff
point can identify the source.
The advantage of using the time domain as
opposed to the frequency domain is there is no need
to worry about the screen update time or sampling
rate.
Electrical vs. Mechanical
12-20
Waveform and Spectrum
Relationships
12-21
Each spectrum has an associated waveform. The
spectrum is made of this waveform. As discussed earlier in
this section, some of the characteristics in the waveform do
not translate to the FFT due to the way the calculations are
made. The assumption is that there is a repetitive cycle of
events made up of sines and cosines. However, this is not
actually the case.
If an event happens only once, then this event has no
frequency; therefore, the spectral representation is a
continuous spectrum.
In the waveform shown next, there is no repetition in the
event; therefore, there is no frequency.
Waveform and Spectrum
Relationships
12-21
Modulated Waveforms
12-22
Finally, when modulation is involved, there is a direct
relationship between the waveform and the spectrum
depending on the differential time (t).
Knowledge of the modulation t helps determine the
resolution required for detailed spectral analysis. Also,
from our previous discussion on modulation, we know
there is a carrier frequency that the modulation must
follow.
Gears, bearings, and electrical defects each have
carrier frequencies. For gears the carrier is the
frequency where the gears mesh. However, a carrier
frequency for an electrical defect could be the line
frequency (F
L
) or 2 * F
L
.
Modulated Waveforms
12-22
9
Waveform Analysis As Confirmation
12-23
Every fault condition has a corresponding waveform
characteristic.
Unbalance, for example, has a sinusoidal pattern with
one major event per revolution.
Misalignment, which is primarily offset, typically has
harmonic activity with the waveform having the same
number of events per cycle as the spectral data has peaks.
A misalignment condition generating a second and possibly
a third order peak shows two or three sinewaves per
revolution.
Looseness will have a complex waveform with many
peaks within one revolution. This will confirm the spectral
characteristics of multiple harmonics of turning speed.
Vertical Turbine Pump
Unbalance Example
12-24
MOH
MIH
MOV
MIV
Vertical Turbine Pump
Unbalance Example
The multiple point spectrum plot below shows radial and axial
measurements taken from the top of the vertical motor.
FWEL - FRESHWATERBOOSTERPUMP 1
131-546-03 - PTS=MOHMOV MOA
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Frequency in Order
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
Max Amp
.65
Plot
Scale
0
0.7
09-FEB-96 09:22
131-546-03-MOH
09-FEB-96 09:22
131-546-03-MOV
09-FEB-96 09:22
131-546-03-MOA
12-25
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Vertical Turbine Pump
Unbalance Example
12-26
The sharpness of the peak indicates that it has been created
from a waveform dominated by a single frequency.
FWEL - FRESH WATER BOOSTER PUMP 1
131-546-03-MOV MOTOR OUTBOARD VERTICAL
Route Spectrum
09-FEB-96 09:22
OVRALL= .6466 V-DG
PK = .6464
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 1776.
RPS = 29.60
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Frequency in Order
Ordr:
Freq:
Spec:
1.000
1776.2
.646
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Vertical Turbine Pump
Unbalance Example
12-27
Approximately 270 milliseconds of time (8 shaft revolutions)
shows the clear one per revolution signal generated by the
unbalance condition.
FWEL - FRESHWATERBOOSTERPUMP 1
131-546-03-MOV MOTOROUTBOARDVERTICAL
WaveformDisplay
09-FEB-96 09:22
RMS = .2679
LOAD= 100.0
RPM= 1776.
RPS = 29.60
PK(+) = .5932
PK(-) = .6215
CRESTF= 2.32
0 60 120 180 240 300
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
-0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Time in mSecs
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Fan Bearing
Looseness Example
12-28
The fan bearing looseness data provides the initial spectral data
for diagnostics and the waveform data to confirm the looseness
fault diagnosis.
The fan ran in an out of balance condition for two years. The
bearings now have excess clearance, allowing the shaft to move
around.
Direct Driven Overhung Fan
10
Fan Bearing
Looseness Example
12-29
Note the small amounts of harmonic activity and axial data
amplitude.
C-20 - C-20 FLOAT ROLL FAN
C-20 FLOAT - PTS=FIH FIVFIA FOH FOVFOA
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Frequency in Order
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Max Amp
.46
Plot
Scale
0
1.0
14-JUN-95 08:08
C-20 FLOAT-FIH
14-JUN-95 08:09
C-20 FLOAT-FIV
14-JUN-95 08:09
C-20 FLOAT-FIA
14-JUN-95 08:09
C-20 FLOAT-FOH
14-JUN-95 08:10
C-20 FLOAT-FOV
14-JUN-95 08:10
C-20 FLOAT-FOA
Ordr:
Freq:
Sp 1:
1.000
3499.0
.395
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Fan Bearing
Looseness Example
12-30
The spectral plot below shows vibration in the
horizontal direction on the fan outboard bearing.
C-20 - C-20 FLOAT ROLL FAN
C-20 FLOAT-FIH FAN BEARINGINBOARD HORIZONTAL
Label: HARMONICS-BALANCE/LOOSENESS
Route Spectrum
14-JUN-95 08:08
OVRALL= .5095 V-DG
PK = .5065
LOAD = 100.0
RPM= 3498.
RPS = 58.30
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Frequency in Order
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Ordr:
Freq:
Spec:
1.000
3499.0
.395
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Fan Bearing
Looseness Example
12-30
The cursor markers note the locations of harmonics
of running speed.
Virtually all the vibration energy in this spectrum is
caused by turning speed and harmonics. The sides, or
skirts, of this peak are also very narrow.
The number of harmonics tells us that the spectrum
is derived from a complex, repetitive time waveform.
Fan Bearing
Looseness Example
12-31
C-20 - C-20 FLOAT ROLL FAN
C-20 FLOAT-FIH FANBEARINGINBOARDHORIZONTAL
Label: HARMONICS-BALANCE/LOOSENESS
WaveformDisplay
14-JUN-95 08:08
RMS = 1.06
LOAD= 100.0
RPM= 3498.
RPS = 58.30
PK(+) = 3.08
PK(-) = 3.01
CRESTF= 2.88
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
Time in mSecs
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Fan Bearing
Looseness Example
12-31
A clear and repeatable waveform occurs once per
shaft revolution, 1 x RPM.
There is also multiple peaks within one revolution
The waveform shows the acceleration created on the
bearing housing by the looseness.
The repeatability of the waveform in time with
respect to the shaft turning speed and amplitude
means that the vibration force is tied to the shaft
running speed.
Motor to Pump
Misalignment Example
12-32
The pump has had high vibration since installation and
numerous seal/packing and bearing failures. The maintenance
personnel stated that the alignment was difficult because the
base was drilled incorrectly at the manufacturers facility.
M1H
M1V
M1A
M2H
M2V
P1H
P1V
P2H
P2V
P2A
P1A
M2A
11
Motor to Pump
Misalignment Example
12-33
At first glance, the problem might appear to be unbalance. If
we take a closer look we see that 2X running speed peaks
are present in all directions. #1 - TIMBERLINEBOOSTER(PROSPECT
TIMBSTRPRO- PTS=MOHMOVMIHMIVMIA
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Frequency in Order
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Max Amp
.43
Plot
Scale
0
0.5
21-JUN-95 16:11
TIMBSTRPRO-MOH
21-JUN-95 16:11
TIMBSTRPRO-MOV
21-JUN-95 16:11
TIMBSTRPRO-MIH
21-JUN-95 16:11
TIMBSTRPRO-MIV
21-JUN-95 16:12
TIMBSTRPRO-MIA
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Motor to Pump
Misalignment Example
12-34
Harmonics of running speed are denoted by the fault
frequency markers (dashed lines).
The first through sixth orders of running speed are visible
with the 2X T.S. predominant.
#1 - TIMBERLINE BOOSTER(PROSPECT
TIMBSTRPRO-MIV MOTORINBOARDVERTICAL
Reference Spectrum
21-JUN-95 16:11
OVRALL= .1780 V-DG
PK = .1771
LOAD= 100.0
RPM= 1768.
RPS = 29.47
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
0
0.03
0.06
0.09
0.12
0.15
0.18
0.21
0.24
Frequency in Order
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c
ity
in
In
/S
e
c
Ordr:
Freq:
Spec:
1.004
1774.9
.01562
A=MOTORHARMONIC
: 1.00
A A A A A
S
i
n
g
l
e

S
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

-
2
x
T
S
Motor to Pump
Misalignment Example
12-35
The waveform is repetitive for each revolution with two distinct
peaks for each period.
#1 - TIMBERLINE BOOSTER(PROSPECT
TIMBSTRPRO-MIV MOTORINBOARDVERTICAL
WaveformDisplay
21-JUN-95 16:11
RMS = .1784
LOAD= 100.0
RPM= 1768.
RPS = 29.47
PK(+) = .5682
PK(-) = .5457
CRESTF= 3.19
0 60 120 180 240 300
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
-0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Time in mSecs
A
c
c
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le
r
a
tio
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in
G
-s
1
2
T
im
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W
a
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f
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m

-
T
w
ic
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p
e
r

R
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v
o
lu
t
i
o
n
Pump Bearing
Looseness Example
12-36
The diagram above shows a centerhung pump with bearing
housing dimensions worn oversize .
The worn housings makes the pump very loose .
Typical of many looseness problems, this has grown worse over
time. A small dimension problem has gradually made itself worse.
Speed 1775 RPM
H.p. 150
Pump Bearing
Looseness Example
12-37
Many harmonics of running speed are visible on all measurement
positions. Baseline or floor energy is also very visible.
CWTR- COOLINGWATERPUMP 1
341-545-01 - PTS=PIV PIHPOV POHPOA
P
K
V
e
lo
c
ity
in
In
/S
e
c
Frequency in Hz
0 400 800 1200 1600
Max Amp
.14
Plot
Scale
0
0.14
18-APR-96 08:46
341-545-01-PIV
18-APR-96 08:46
341-545-01-PIH
18-APR-96 08:46
341-545-01-POV
18-APR-96 08:47
341-545-01-POH
18-APR-96 08:47
341-545-01-POA
M
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B
r
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a
d
b
a
n
d
Pump Bearing
Looseness Example
12-38
CWTR- COOLINGWATERPUMP 1
341-545-01-POA PUMP OUTBOARDAXIAL
Route Spectrum
18-APR-96 08:47
OVRALL= .3663 V-DG
PK = .3675
LOAD= 100.0
RPM= 1775.
RPS = 29.58
0 400 800 1200 1600
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
Frequency in Hz
P
K
V
e
lo
c
it
y
in
In
/S
e
c
Freq:
Ordr:
Spec:
29.58
1.000
.03901
S
i
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g
l
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S
p
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c
t
r
a
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-
9
-
1
5
x
T
S

a
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d

B
r
o
a
d
b
a
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d
12
Pump Bearing
Looseness Example
12-38
A cursor is positioned at 1x running speed and on the
harmonics of running speed.
The peaks are broad and have wide skirts.
Notice, no individual peak exceeds .1 in/sec, but the
overall energy is .3663 in/sec.
This is common with looseness. Broad humps of energy
show up in the 9X to 15x running speed range.
This indicates that the time waveform cannot be cleanly
transformed into a spectrum. Therefore, the waveform
must have random, non-periodic energy present.
Pump Bearing
Looseness Example
12-39
There is no similarity in its pattern from
revolution to revolution. Non-periodic, random
patterns do not convert well in the FFT process.
It is very difficult to assign specific frequencies
and amplitudes to patterns in waveforms like
the one on the next page.
This difficulty leads to the broadband energy
humps in the spectrum. Broader humps
indicate more random energy. Higher humps
indicate more impacting in the waveform.
Pump Bearing
Looseness Example
12-39
CWTR- COOLINGWATERPUMP 1
341-545-01-POA PUMP OUTBOARDAXIAL
WaveformDisplay
18-APR-96 08:47
RMS = 2.12
LOAD= 100.0
RPM= 1775.
RPS = 29.58
PK(+) = 7.68
PK(-) = 6.42
CRESTF= 3.63
0 60 120 180 240 300
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
Time in mSecs
A
c
c
e
le
r
a
t
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in
G
-
s
T
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W
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f
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m

-
R
a
n
d
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E
n
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g
y
Rolling Element Bearing Example
12-40
Maintenance personnel reported vibration from the back end
of the motor after only 200 hours operating time on a newly
installed drive.
The analyst investigated and found visible flakes of a bronze
colored material near the back end of the motor. The motor
manufacturer was contacted to determine if the 6330 bearings
had a bronze retainer and the reply given was no.
Ski Lift Motor
850 HP DC Motor Right Angle Gearbox
6330 Bearings
Rolling Element Bearing Example
12-41
All the levels appear very low in amplitude, but notice the location of the
dominant peaks.
There appears to be groups of many peaks closely spaced in the mid to
higher frequency range. These mounds of energy can indicate bearing
defects.
NSTR- BACKSIDE QUAD
BACKSIDEQD - PTS=MOV MOAMOH
P
K
V
e
lo
c
ity
in
In
/S
e
c
Frequency in Hz
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Max Amp
.19
Plot
Scale
0
0.20
05-JAN-96 08:46
BACKSIDEQD-MOV
05-JAN-96 08:57
BACKSIDEQD-MOA
05-JAN-96 08:56
BACKSIDEQD-MOH
M
u
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t
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s
p
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-
N
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-
S
y
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r
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E
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g
y
Rolling Element Bearing Example
12-42
The fault frequencies for the 6330 bearing ball pass frequency outer race
are marked. Notice the number of peaks surrounding the higher frequency
defect harmonics.
The large number of harmonics and sidebands will be created from a
complex waveform.
NSTR- BACKSIDE QUAD
BACKSIDEQD-MOH MOTOROUTBOARD HORIZONTAL
Label: OUTERRACE FREQUENCIES W/CAGE SB
Analyze Spectrum
05-JAN-96 08:56
PK = .3611
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 1298.
RPS = 21.64
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
0
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.24
0.30
Frequency in Hz
P
K
V
e
lo
c
ity
in
In
/S
e
c
Freq:
Ordr:
Spec:
77.50
3.582
.03297
>SKF 6330
C=BPFO : 77.64
C C C C C C C C C C
S
i
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B
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B
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13
Rolling Element Bearing Example
12-43
NSTR- BACKSIDE QUAD
BACKSIDEQD-MOH MOTOROUTBOARDHORIZONTAL
Label: OUTERRACE FREQUENCIES W/CAGE SB
WaveformDisplay
05-JAN-96 08:56
RMS = 1.75
LOAD= 100.0
RPM= 1298.
RPS = 21.64
PK(+) = 5.81
PK(-) = 5.13
CRESTF= 3.32
0 40 80 120 160 200
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
Time in mSecs
A
c
c
e
le
r
a
t
io
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in
G
-
s
T
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W
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f
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-
B
a
d

B
e
a
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i
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g
Rolling Element Bearing Example
12-43
The number and height of the spikes in the time
waveform confirm the presence of severe impacting.
The waveform shape is random and complex. This
shape cannot be transformed into a clean spectrum,
so the spectrum on the previous page with broad
humps of energy is created.
The bearing cage turned out to be bronze! It was
deteriorating and did not have much life left. The outer
race had major spalls from impacting balls. The
bearing was replaced.
12-44
This is an example of Unbalance.
12-44
This is an example of Unbalance.
The cursor on the previous slide is marking 1xTS
(1 Order) at 59.34 Hz in the Spectrum.
How does that frequency relate in the Waveform.
The discussions on waveform analysis are not
intended for the analyst to discard the Spectral
analysis.
The Spectrum is Amplitude vs. Frequency. The
Time Waveform is Amplitude vs. Time.
12-45
Now let us look at the Waveform in Time.
This is an example of Unbalance.
12-45
This is an example of Unbalance.
The cursors are marking the harmonics of
the turning speed frequency, harmonic
cursors was selected. The frequency at
59.34 Hz 0r 59.35 Hz. = (1 Order).
The time is 16.85 msec. 16.85 msec
divided by 1000 = .01685 sec, this is the Time
to complete 1 revolution.
Frequency = 1 divided by the Time
1 divided by .01685 = 59.347 Hz = turning
speed of the rotor.
14
This is an example of Unbalance.
12-46
Change the display to Revolutions of the shaft.
Notice the time is now 1.000 that is (1 Order).
Viewing the Waveform in Revolutions can often make
analyzing a little simpler.
Misalignment Example
12-47
Now look at a Misalignment example.
The cursors are marking harmonics of turning speed. The
peak at 2x turning speed is the highest amplitude. We have 3
or 4 peaks per revolution of the shaft in the Time Waveform.
Misalignment Example
12-48
Take a closer look at the misalignment waveform pattern.
Harmonic cursors are marking the harmonics of what frequency?
From this display you still do not really know! You only know
that these marked peaks are harmonic.
Misalignment Example
12-49
From this display the same frequency was marked and the
Set Mark enabled, and the Difference cursors was
selected.
Misalignment Example
Look at the time, it is 13.05 msec.
13.05 msec divided by 1000 = .01305 sec
1 divided by .01305 sec = 76.63 Hz
76.63 Hz x 60 = 4598 rpm
When we look at the freq: 76.65 in the display at
lower right hand corner we can see the frequency
has already been calculated for us. The
harmonics displayed are harmonics of 76.63 Hz.
This the frequency of 1xTS.
12-49
Misalignment Example
12-50
Change the display to Revolutions of the shaft.
Mark the same frequency, Set Mark select Difference
cursors.
15
Misalignment Example
12-51
We can control the cursor and look at the time.
The time is in Orders .999 orders.
We must remember it is very difficult marking exact
frequencies in the Time Waveform.
Misalignment Example
12-52
1x turnining speed is at 76.63 Hz. 76.63 Hz x 60 = 4598 rpm.
We can see two events occurring in 1 revolution of the shaft.
How often is the second event occurring in the Time Waveform
We will mark the 1
st
event, select Set Mark, select
Difference cursors
Misalignment Example
12-52
Move cursor to the peak representing the 2
nd
event in
one revolution.
Look at the time between these two frequencies. It is
6.523 msec. 6.523 divided by 1000 = .006523 sec.
1 divided by .006523 sec = 153.3 Hz
153.3 Hz x 60 = 9,196 rpm
The 1x TS was 4,598 rpm, 4,598 x 2 = 9,196 rpm
Now, it is easy now to see that this frequency is
occurring at 2 x TS of the rotor. It is repeated every
revolution of the shaft.
Bearing Problem
12-53
On the following slide the cursor is marking
1xTS, we have peaks at the bearing defect
frequencies.
Also displayed on the following slide is the
Spectrum with Fault Frequencies for the BPFI .
The Primary calculated defect frequency for the
BPFI is 5.91 orders. There are about 10
harmonics of 5.91 orders in the spectral data.
Bearing Problem
12-53
Bearing Problem
12-54
How do the bearing frequencies relate in the Time Waveform?
This display shows the Fault Frequencies for the BPFI displayed.
We must realize that the dotted lines do not automatically fall on
the defect frequency we may want to mark. Just any frequency
was selected. Notice where the fault lines are now.
16
Bearing Problem
12-55
In the plot displayed below the cursor was placed on a different
frequency before the fault lines where brought up. We can see
that the fault lines will fall where we place the cursor.
Bearing Problem
Our main concern is knowing the spacing of the defect
frequencies. This is what is displayed when we bring
up the fault frequencies in the Time Waveform, the
Spacing.
Let us examine the Waveform further:
The Primary calculated defect frequency for the
BPFI = 134.4 HZ, so the repetition rate of the
impacts would calculate to 134.4 Hz.
We still have to find the impacts that are occurring at
that spacing. This will take some time for the analyst
to develop this ability to spot the equal spacing.
12-55
Bearing Problem
12-56
When initially viewing the Waveform we look for events that are
repeated, we also look for events that are equally spaced. In this
plot there are several events that are repeated and equally
spaced.
Bearing Problem
12-56
We know from the Spectral display that we have an inner race
defect. Lets display the fault frequency for the BPFI, first without
a cursor marking any event.
Bearing Problem
12-57
All we are trying to do with this display at this point is to look for
impacts that may represent the BPFI. There could be BPFOs,
BSFs also. We will focus on the BPFIs.
Bearing Problem
12-57
After placing the cursor on a peak we suspect is an impact from
a BPFI, then displaying the fault frequency for the BPFI, we can
see we have several peaks that match up.
17
Bearing Problem
12-58
We can view an expanded plot to see this a little clearer.
Bearing Problem
12-58
Place the cursor on an impact that matches up with a fault
line. Select the Set Mark option. Select Difference
cursor. Move the cursor to the next fault line, now look at the
Freq: at lower right hand corner. This should be very close to
the Primary Calculated Freq. for the BPFI.
In this example it is very close.
Bearing Problem
12-59
Alarms can also be utilized in Waveform analysis.Select Set-Up
from Tool Bar and you can set the Alarms and display them in the
Waveform.
Bearing Problem
12-59
Bearing Problem
12-60
The value for the Crest-Factor has been set to Peak 1.5 for the
display seen below.
Bearing Problem
12-60
18
pumps, fans, steam flow, late life bearings random vibration and noise
nonsynchronous frequencies cause moving, non stationary waveform synchronous vs
nonsynchronous
truncation of signal by bearings, supports, foundations or couplings nonlinear behavior truncated beats
bearings, gears, rolls natural frequencies or forcing frequency modulated by low frequency that is generated by the
fault
modulated pulses
motor faults, gears, bearings a forcing frequency is modulated by a fault frequency modulated frequencies
bearings, recips, flat spots, gear teeth (broken) some functional; some fault based pulses
grinders, motor driven fans, pumps where two forcing frequencies are close beats
generators (slot passing), gears, vane pass, bearings, naturally generated harmonics superimposed on 1x multiple harmonics
heavy 1x behavior can excite order located natural frequencies order excited natural
frequencies
misalignment, looseness, generator faults orders
rubs, oil whirl, resonance, trapped fluid hysteresis, looseness subharmonics
gear mesh, blade pass, natural frequencies, nonlinear behavior truncated harmonics
excessive mass unbalance, thermal growth, bearing clearance problems, pedestal nonlinearity, rubs truncated 1x
mass unbalance, resonance, eccentricity, misalignment, bow, blade/diffuser interaction harmonic
MECHANISM SHAPE
TABLE 4.5. TIME WAVEFORMSHAPE ANALYSIS
Part 1 - Summary
12-61
Waveform data may be used for much more than what
is typically seen in industry. The ability to check for
specific characteristics such as periodicity and
modulation, helps the analysis process.
Energy balance (asymmetry) may be checked for
direction of signal and for the predominant traits of the
signal.
Overall waveform is much more understandable and
useful than most would lead us to believe. However,
this section enhances your analysis abilities using the
time waveform.
DIGITIZED TIME DOMAIN
TRENDS
What is this spectrum Lines?
DIGITIZED TIME DOMAIN
DETAILS
What is this spectrum Lines?
PRESENTATION OF TIME
WAVEFORM
TIME (sec.) DISPLAY PURPOSE
T/100 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - DETAILS OF
T/80 HIGHER FREQUENCY
T/20
T/10 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -TRENDS OF
T/3 HIGHER FREQUENCY
T/2
T - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - BALANCING/PHASE
2T
3T
10 T- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - PHASE TRENDS
20T
80T
100T - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - LONG TERM TIME TRENDS
Table 4.4. An Approach to the Presentation of a Standardized Time Waveform
4.1
TIME DOMAIN WAVEFORM TREND
4000 HP Induction Motor with 200T Display
19
TIME DOMAIN WAVEFORM SHORT
TERM
4000 HP Electric Motor with 20T Display
TIME DOMAIN WAVEFORM BALANCING
4000 HP Electric Motor with T Display
TIME DISPLAY SMALL MOTOR
400T
Small Motor with a 400T Display
SMALL MOTOR 100T
Small Motor with a 100T Display
GEARBOX 10T
Gearbox with 10T Display
GEARBOX 1T ON MESH
Gearbox with T Display Shows Gearmeshing Effects
20
PRESENTATION SETUP
Visual process
Setup to accommodate visual analysis
to evaluate
periodicity
to evaluate amplitude changes
Processing types
dual processing
expansion
STANDARD SETUP
Standard Time Waveform Display from an FFT Analyzer
DUAL PROCESSING
Dual Processing to Enhance the Time Waveform
SPECTRUM:
10x operating speed
f
max
= 250 Hz
TIME WAVEFORM:
Period = = 0.0421
Display = 8 cycles x 0.0421 0.336 sec
Use 0.4 sec then
DUAL PROCESSING
cycle
sec
75 . 23
1
cycle
sec
Hz 000 , 1
sec + . 0
lines +00
F
NAX
= =
Dual Processing means:the capability to produce each
Spectrum and Time waveform data independently
(spectrum Fmax not equal to waveform Fmax)
PHASE MEASUREMENT
Use of Cursor to Measure Period and Amplitude
TRUNCATED 1X
Single Frequency Due to Mass Unbalance with
Clipping Due to Excessive Amplitude
21
TRUNCATED HARMONIC
Clipped Vane Pass Signal from Hull of a Ship
SUBHARMONIC
Loose Bearing Housing Orders and Multiples
ORDERS
Nonlinear Generator Pedestal Response to Differing Vertical
Stiffness
FAR REMOVED ORDER
Slot Passing Frequency, 36X, Generated by Air Gap Variation (120
Hz)
BEATS
Beats Caused by Two Adjacent Cavitated Vacuum Pumps
PULSES
Pulses from a Bearing Defect
22
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Sidebands Caused by Amplitude Modulation Broken Rotor Bar
PULSE INDUCED NATURAL
FREQUENCIES
Pulse Induced Natural Frequencies in Printing Roll
TRUNCATED BEATS
Truncated Beat Waveform from a Motor Driven Fan
SYNCHRONOUS ORDERS
Exciter to Generator Misalignment Causing 1x and 2x
RANDOM NOISE and VIBRATION RMS
AVERAGING
Excessive Flow Noise Caused by
Pump Operating Off the Curve-Recirculation
CONCLUSIONS
True physical behavior
Determine origin of frequencies
Determine severity
23
NONSYNCHRONOUS MULTIPLE
FREQUENCIES
Boiler Feed Pump Drive Nonsynchronous Second Order and
Multiples
SINUSOIDAL AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
Amplitude Modulation by a Single Frequency
NONSINUSOIDAL AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
Amplitude Modulation in a Gearbox Nonsinusoidal
MACHINE RESPONSE TO IMPACT
EXCITATION
Response of a Machine to Impulse Excitation
IMPACT INDUCED NATURAL
FREQUENCIES
Broken Gear Tooth Yielding Pulse Induced Natural Frequencies and
Abrupt Pulse Loading in Time Domain
LIGHT IMPACT
INDUCED ORDERS
Gradual Entering Pulse Caused by Misalignment, Eccentricity, or
Tooth Profile Wear in a Gearbox
24
FREQUENCY MODULATION
Torsional Vibration a Form of Frequency Modulation
DIFFERENCE FREQUENCIES
Two Lobed Blower Generated Difference Frequencies Pressure
Pulsations Generated by Lobes Passing Discharge Port
MECHANISMS FOR
ORDER GENERATION
Natural excitation
Nonlinear parameters
Signal truncation
BEAT MECHANISM
Figure 4.50. Beat Mechanism
TRUNCATED BEATS
Hypothetical Vibration Response Exhibiting Beat Frequency
SUM and DIFFERENCE
FREQUENCY TABLE
25
SUM and DIFFERENCE
FREQUENCY MECHANISMS
Rotating Machinery Fault Diagnosis Using Sum and Difference
Frequencies (Sidebands) (After Eshleman 4.2)
SUM and DIFFERENCE FREQUENCIES
PISTON PUMP/ENGINE
Pulsating Torque from an Engine-Pump Unit
SUM and DIFFERENCE
FREQUENCIES
TURBINE PIPING
Frequency Domain Record of Line Shaft
Turbine Piping Vibration
SPECTRUM SHAPE
Misalignment Induced Air Gap Vibration
DEMODULATION
Mechanism
Rolling element bearings
Techniques
MODULATION MECHANISM
High frequency vibration amplitude is altered due
to mechanical defects
Low frequency modulator points to problem area
Used extensively for gears and bearings
26
GEARBOX MODULATION
Amplitude Modulation in a Gearbox Nonsinusoidal
IMPACT INDUCED MODULATION
Pulse Induced Natural Frequencies in Printing Roll
DEMODULATION
Figure 4.58. Spectrum of a Demodulated Signal
BEARING DEFECT
Outer Race Defect on Rolling Element Bearing Pulsation Effect
BEARING DEFECT FREQUENCY
ZONES
Machine Vibration Response to Bearing Faults
DEMODULATION
OF A SIGNAL
Demodulation of a Signal

Copyright 2002 by Ronald L. Eshleman. All rights reserved. This figure may not be reproduced without permission of
Ronald L. Eshleman.