A

 Brief  Introduction  to

String  Theory

Mariano  Chernicoff  
Facultad  de  Ciencias,  UNAM
 Plan for the mini-course

Motivation

Relativistic bosonic string

Closed string quantization

Quick tour to super string theory

 Motivation
Small things, big problems

One of the greatest problems of theoretical physics is the incompatibility

of Einstein’s General Relativity and the principles of Quantum Mechanics.

We are searching for a quantum theory of gravity

 Motivation
Small things, big problems

One of the greatest problems of theoretical physics is the incompatibility

of Einstein’s General Relativity and the principles of Quantum Mechanics.

We are searching for a quantum theory of gravity

The Standard Model of particle physics, despite its great success,

can not be last word, there are a lot of open questions, e.g.:

Why so many parameters (more than 20)?

Why 26 fields? Why 3 generations?
Hierarchy problem
How do we describe QCD at low energies?
 Big things, also big problems

An important question that needs to be answered is what

is our universe made of?

Dark matter (23%)?

Dark energy (72%)?
 Big things, also big problems

An important question that needs to be answered is what

is our universe made of?

Dark matter (23%)?

Dark energy (72%)?

None of these questions seems to have a simple answer

Fortunately, a lot of people with great ideas and very different

approaches are trying to solve the puzzles…

One of these roads is STRING THEORY

 Why string theory?

(some) Pros:

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ String theory is a promising candidate (at least for some people)
for the long-sought quantum mechanical theory of gravity.

String theory has the potential to unify the four fundamental

forces of nature.

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Interesting new physics (extra dimensions, supersymmetry,

more fields, etc)

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ A new tool to study certain strongly coupled gauge theories:

The AdS/CFT correspondence
 Why string theory?

(some) Cons:

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ No direct experimental evidence

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ It is far from certain that it describes our world

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ String theory has not been able to obtain the Standard Model
(similar theories)

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ The complete theory still unknown. Lack of a non-perturbative

definition

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ 10 dimensions?
 The relativistic point particle
To preserve manifest Lorentz covariance, we use a parameterized
description :

World-line

Parameter
 The relativistic point particle
To preserve manifest Lorentz covariance, we use a parameterized
description :

World-line

Parameter

The action is (Lorentz scalar):

 The relativistic point particle
To preserve manifest Lorentz covariance, we use a parameterized
description :

World-line

Parameter

The action is (Lorentz scalar):

where

and
The symmetries of this action:

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Spacetime reparametrization invariance (if then

Poincaré invariance)

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Worldline reparametrization invariance

The symmetries of this action:

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Spacetime reparametrization invariance (if then

Poincaré invariance)

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Worldline reparametrization invariance

As usual, we define:

and satisfies the condition: (first class const.)

D-1 degrees of freedom.

Can we generalise this to a 1-dimensional object??

 The relativistic bosonic string
Open strings Closed strings

World-sheet World-sheet

The world-sheet is described by the embedding functions:

And in complete analogy with the relativistic point particle:

where

and

where is the fundamental string length

This is known as the Nambu-Goto action

And in complete analogy with the relativistic point particle:

where

and

where is the fundamental string length

What are the symmetries of this action?

 The symmetries of the Nambu-Goto action:

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Spacetime reparametrization invariance (if then

Poincaré invariance)

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Worldsheet reparametrization invariance

 The symmetries of the Nambu-Goto action:

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Spacetime reparametrization invariance (if then

Poincaré invariance)

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Worldsheet reparametrization invariance

For the rest of the talk we will consider , so the NG

action is given by
 The Nambu-Goto action is non-polynomial, so it is convenient to
work with what is known as the Polyakov action

where , and the other elements

are the same as before.
 The Nambu-Goto action is non-polynomial, so it is convenient to
work with what is known as the Polyakov action

where , and the other elements

are the same as before.

Auxiliary variable on the world-sheet

(Lagrange multiplier)

Open string world-sheet

The intrinsic metric is a dynamical field on the string world-sheet.

At the classical level the Polyakov action is equivalent to the NG action.

 The symmetries of the Polyakov action:

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Spacetime reparametrization invariance (if then

Poincaré invariance)

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Worldsheet reparametrization invariance

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Weyl invariance

Before going further, let’s pause and say a few words about symmetries
and anomalies.
Anomalies are symmetries of classical field theories that do not survive
the process of quantization.
Anomalies are symmetries of classical field theories that do not survive
the process of quantization.

Anomalies in global symmetries are interesting:

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Chiral anomaly in QCD (e.g. pion decay).

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Most of the mass of the Universe.
 Anomalies are symmetries of classical field theories that do not survive
the process of quantization.

Anomalies in global symmetries are interesting:

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Chiral anomaly in QCD (e.g. pion decay).

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Most of the mass of the Universe.

Anomalies in gauge symmetries are fatal!

The Weyl symmetry suffers an anomaly and this will play a central role
in string theory.

In particular, “fixing this problem” implies that the theory lives in 26

space-time dimensions! (more on this later).
Now, let’s work the equations of motion (eom).

Notice that now we have to vary with respect to AND .

Now, let’s work the equations of motion (eom).

Notice that now we have to vary with respect to AND .

The equation of motion for :

Now, let’s work the equations of motion (eom).

Notice that now we have to vary with respect to AND .

The equation of motion for :

The equation of motion for :

This last equation can be rewritten as

i.e. the intrinsic metric is proportional to the induced metric!

Remember that , meaning that the variation of the

action with respect to the intrinsic metric is the energy-momentum tensor

on the string world-sheet.

Remember that , meaning that the variation of the

action with respect to the intrinsic metric is the energy-momentum tensor

on the string world-sheet.

And what about the kinetic term for ?

Turns out that gravity in 1+1 dimensions is non-dynamical (due to

diffeos. invariance and Bianchi identities), therefore the LHS of
Einstein’s equations is identically zero.

Let’s see what happens if we choose

Rewriting the Polyakov action with and :
Rewriting the Polyakov action with and :

then the equation of motion for is given by

(wave equation!)

This is massless Klein-Gordon eq. in (1+1)-dim for D scalar fields

Rewriting the Polyakov action with and :

then the equation of motion for is given by

(wave equation!)

This is massless Klein-Gordon eq. in (1+1)-dim for D scalar fields

But we also need to check that is a solution of the eom.

Rewriting the Polyakov action with and :

then the equation of motion for is given by

(wave equation!)

This is massless Klein-Gordon eq. in (1+1)-dim for D scalar fields

But we also need to check that is a solution of the eom.

To sum up, the dynamics of the string is govern by the wave equation
subject to two constraints ( )
To sum up, the dynamics of the string is govern by the wave equation
subject to two constraints ( )

Degrees of freedom?

What is the physical meaning of these constraints?

1. the motion of the string (its velocity) is perpendicular

to the string itself.

2. , do it as an exercise!
 Boundary conditions

Closed string: (Periodic)

Open string:

1- Covariant under Poincaré:

(Neumann: free endpoints)

2- Non covariant under Poincaré

(Dirichlet: fixed endpoints)

This last case has very important implications

(Curso de Oscar)
 Closed string quantization

Before we start getting our hands dirty, let’s say a few words
regarding the process of quantization.

We will do what is call covariant canonical quantization.

 Closed string quantization

Before we start getting our hands dirty, let’s say a few words
regarding the process of quantization.

We will do what is call covariant canonical quantization.

As usual, we will promote our dynamical variables and its

conjugate momenta to operators. Then we will postulate the
commutation rules.
 Closed string quantization

Before we start getting our hands dirty, let’s say a few words
regarding the process of quantization.

We will do what is call covariant canonical quantization.

As usual, we will promote our dynamical variables and its

conjugate momenta to operators. Then we will postulate the
commutation rules.

We will obtain the time evolution operator, a.k.a. the Hamiltonian.

With this at hand (in the Heisenberg picture) we will get the
quantum eom.
 Closed string quantization

Before we start getting our hands dirty, let’s say a few words
regarding the process of quantization.

We will do what is call covariant canonical quantization.

As usual, we will promote our dynamical variables and its

conjugate momenta to operators. Then we will postulate the
commutation rules.

We will obtain the time evolution operator, a.k.a. the Hamiltonian.

With this at hand (in the Heisenberg picture) we will get the
quantum eom.

We will construct the Fock space.

 Closed string quantization

Before we start getting our hands dirty, let’s say a few words
regarding the process of quantization.

We will do what is call covariant canonical quantization.

As usual, we will promote our dynamical variables and its

conjugate momenta to operators. Then we will postulate the
commutation rules.

We will obtain the time evolution operator, a.k.a. the Hamiltonian.

With this at hand (in the Heisenberg picture) we will get the
quantum eom.

We will construct the Fock space.

Following this procedure, we will obtain states with negative

norm (call ghost) and we will have to use the constraints in
order to get the physical spectrum (Gupta-Bleuler method ).
 Closed string quantization

Something to keep in the back of your head:

When we quantize a theory (or a system), it is not always
the case that the quantum equations of motion are the same
as the classical ones. In principle, you should first obtain the time
evolution operator (i.e. the Hamiltonian) and evolve the corresponding
fields using the commutator. E.g.

Luckily, in our case, the classical eom coincide with their quantum
version (we will not prove it) so we don’t have to worry about that.
 Closed string quantization

We want to solve the e.o.m.

subject to periodic boundary conditions
 Closed string quantization

We want to solve the e.o.m.

subject to periodic boundary conditions

It is not difficult to show that the solution is given by

 Closed string quantization

We want to solve the e.o.m.

subject to periodic boundary conditions

It is not difficult to show that the solution is given by

Position of Center of mass String oscillations

Momentum of center of mass

Right-moving mode

Left-moving mode

and , i.e. the zero mode is proportional to the spacetime

momentum of the string.
 Closed string quantization

We want to solve the e.o.m.

subject to periodic boundary conditions

It is not difficult to show that the solution is given by

Discrete momentum:
(circle)
Doing canonical quantization:

and and
Doing canonical quantization:

and and

And we postulate:

(Completely analogous to what you’ve done in Alberto’s lectures)

Plugging our solution into the commutation relation and after doing
some algebra we get

identical to:
Doing canonical quantization:

and and

And we postulate:

(Completely analogous to what you’ve done in Alberto’s lectures)

Plugging our solution into the commutation relation and after doing
some algebra we get

identical to:

And now we can construct the Fock space...

As usual, let’s define the vacuum state such that:
 As usual, let’s define the vacuum state such that:

For example, some of the states are:

Vacuum: no oscillators One left-moving oscillator Two left-moving oscillators

(We’ve made a small change of notation: and )

 As usual, let’s define the vacuum state such that:

For example, some of the states are:

Vacuum: no oscillators One left-moving oscillator Two left-moving oscillators

(We’ve made a small change of notation: and )

We have not used the constraints yet, so, as we mentioned earlier we

should expect to find states with NEGATIVE NORM.
An example:
An example:

In order to get rid of this problem we need to use the constraints.

This means:
(analogue to the Gupta-Bleuler
method for the Maxwell field)

This is just the quantum version of the constraints

First, recall: and (Weyl invariance)

Let’s define: and rewrite :

First, recall: and (Weyl invariance)

Let’s define: and rewrite :

and now, we can expand and in Fourier modes, i.e.,

It is possible to write the Fourier coefficients in terms of the left and
and right-moving modes (working session):

and

These are called the Virasoro operators and you will here a lot about
them if you study string theory or CFT’s.
It is possible to write the Fourier coefficients in terms of the left and
and right-moving modes (working session):

and

At this point, we should remember (or learn) that in quantum mechanics it

is important to consider “ordering” when writing products of operators
(due to the commutation relation). An example of this is the NORMAL
ORDER, which we define in the following way:

(i.e. we put the creation operators to the left)

Then, we redefine

and
Given the definition of , notice that is the only
operator with an ambiguous ordering.

We write (and the same is true for )

Explicitly,
 Explicitly,

The first and second term have the correct order, however the third one
does not. Using the commutation relations:

Then,
 Explicitly,

The first and second term have the correct order, however the third one
does not. Using the commutation relations:

Then,

This is the space-time dimension

 Explicitly,

The first and second term have the correct order, however the third one
does not. Using the commutation relations:

Then,

Have fun, and show that this converges to !!

 Explicitly,

The first and second term have the correct order, however the third one
does not. Using the commutation relations:

Then,

So finally,
Given the definition of , notice that is the only
operator with an ambiguous ordering.

We write (and the same is true for )

When quantizing the classical expression we will need to introduce

a normal ordering constant “ “, then
 Given the definition of , notice that is the only
operator with an ambiguous ordering.

We write (and the same is true for )

When quantizing the classical expression we will need to introduce

a normal ordering constant “ “, then

Turns out that a ghost free spectrum is only possible for certain values
of the constant and the space-time dimension .

If time allows, we will show that the critical values are:

and
Before we use the constraints to find the spectrum of the closed string,
let’s say a few more things about the Virasoro operators.

They satisfy the quantum Virasoro algebra:

Before we use the constraints to find the spectrum of the closed string,
let’s say a few more things about the Virasoro operators.

They satisfy the quantum Virasoro algebra:

is call the central charge and it can be shown that it is given

by the number of space-time dimensions (see GSW pp. 81).

The fact that indicates a quantum anomaly (at the classical

level ).

This is precisely the anomaly that we mentioned before and when

fixing this problem we find the space-time dimension of string theory.
Finally the quantum constraints , can be written in
terms of the Visaroro operators in the following way:

(level matching condition)

Finally the quantum constraints , can be written in
terms of the Visaroro operators in the following way:

(level matching condition)

Remember that we can write,

and
 Finally the quantum constraints , can be written in
terms of the Visaroro operators in the following way:

(level matching condition)

Remember that we can write,

and

and using the mass shell condition (and the above constraints)
we find
 The closed string spectrum

Starting from

1.

State: (No oscillators acting on the ground state).

Scalar field with negative mass squared called TACHYON

(sign of instability because )

 The closed string spectrum

Starting from

2.

States: with

Now, we use the second constraint,

(the same with )

and the result is

physical state
Finally, the most general physical state is given by
Finally, the most general physical state is given by

The matrix can be split into 3 different cases:

1. Trace: spinless particle;

1 state, scalar field called the dilaton

Finally, the most general physical state is given by

The matrix can be split into 3 different cases:

1. Trace: spinless particle;

1 state, scalar field called the dilaton

2. Symmetric (traceless) part: spin 2 particle;

states; the graviton

This is why (some) people say that string theory is a candidate for
quantum gravity!
Finally, the most general physical state is given by

The matrix can be split into 3 different cases:

1. Trace: spinless particle;

1 state, scalar field called the dilaton

2. Symmetric (traceless) part: spin 2 particle;

states; the graviton

3. Antisymmetric part:

states; called Kalb-Ramond field

The first massive state,

Very heavy!!!

… With this, we have finished with the closed string.

What about the open string quantization?

 Open string quantization
Again, want to solve , now with Neumann b.c.

i.e.,

As a consequence of b.c. : (stationary wave)

 Open string quantization
Again, want to solve , now with Neumann b.c.

i.e.,

As a consequence of b.c. : (stationary wave)

The solution to the e.o.m. :

The quantization process is exactly the same as for the closed string

(But just with one set of oscillators)

Let’s jump directly to the spectrum…

The constraints translate into:

Using the first condition:

State:

Open string tachyon field

The constraints translate into:

Using the first condition:

States:

If physical state:

states of a spin 1 particle Massless vector field

 To sum up:
Closed string spectrum: Open string spectrum:

T Tachyon field
ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ T Tachyon field
ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟
ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Dilaton
ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Maxwell field
ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Graviton

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Kalb-Ramond field ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Scalar fields (Dirichlet b.c.)

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Infinite tower of massive ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Infinite tower of massive

fields (very heavy!) fields (very heavy!)

What about interactions?

(Comments on the blackboard)

Before  we  continue,  let  me  say  that  by  studying  how  all  these  fields    
interact  it  is  possible  to  construct  and  effective  action.  
In  particular,  for  the  massless  modes  of  the  closed  superstring:

Note:  don’t  worry  about  the  details…

This  is  known  as  the  supergravity  action  (and  corresponds  to  the  
low  energy                                        limit  of  Type  IIB  string  theory).  
There  is  also  an  affective  action  for  the  massless  modes  of  the  open  
string  (Curso  de  Oscar).  
 To sum up:
Closed string spectrum: Open string spectrum:

T Tachyon field
ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ T Tachyon field
ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟
ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Dilaton
ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Maxwell field
ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Graviton

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Kalb-Ramond field ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Scalar fields (Dirichlet b.c.)

ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Infinite tower of massive ꤰꤱꤲꤳꤴꤵꤶꤷꤸꤹꤺꤻꤼꤽꤾꤿꥀꥁꥂꥃꥄꥅꥆꥇꥈꥉꥊꥋꥌꥍꥎꥏꥐꥑꥒ꥓꥟ Infinite tower of massive

fields (very heavy!) fields (very heavy!)

Notice, that besides having tachyons, the are NO FERMIONS in

the bosonic string!

For that, we need SUPERSTRING THEORY!

 A quick tour to Superstring Theory

We have learnt that the bosonic string theory has at least three
important problems:

1. Tachyons (i.e. scalar fields with negative mass).

2. No fermions in the spectrum.
3. The space-time dimension is 26.
 A quick tour to Superstring Theory

We have learnt that the bosonic string theory has at least three
important problems:

1. Tachyons (i.e. scalar fields with negative mass).

2. No fermions in the spectrum.
3. The space-time dimension is 26.

The situation gets better when we incorporate a new symmetry to the

theory, meaning SUPERSYMMETRY.

Boson Fermions
(Curso Elena)

There are 3 equivalent formalism to describe superstring theory.

 A quick tour to Superstring Theory

1. Green-Schwarz
space-time spinor
We incorporate new variables
worldsheet scalar
Manifestly space-time susy
It can only be quantize in the light cone gauge.
 A quick tour to Superstring Theory

1. Green-Schwarz
space-time spinor
We incorporate new variables
worldsheet scalar
Manifestly space-time susy
It can only be quantize in the light cone gauge.

2. Ramond-Neveu-Schwarz
µ
space-time vector
We incorporate new variables A( )
worldsheet spinor
Not manifestly space-time susy

It can be quantize in a Poincaré covariant way.

 A quick tour to Superstring Theory

1. Green-Schwarz
space-time spinor
We incorporate new variables
worldsheet scalar
Manifestly space-time susy
It can only be quantize in the light cone gauge.

2. Ramond-Neveu-Schwarz
µ
space-time vector
We incorporate new variables A( )
worldsheet spinor
Not manifestly space-time susy

It can be quantize in a Poincaré covariant way.

3. Pure spinor formalism (Berkovitz)

Still under construction
 A quick tour to Superstring Theory

1. Green-Schwarz
space-time spinor
We incorporate new variables
worldsheet scalar
Manifestly space-time susy
It can only be quantize in the light cone gauge.

2. Ramond-Neveu-Schwarz
µ
space-time vector
We incorporate new variables A( )
worldsheet spinor
Not manifestly space-time susy

It can be quantize in a Poincaré covariant way.

3. Pure spinor formalism (Berkovitz)

Still under construction
 Ramond-Neveu-Schwarz formalism

Superstring theory is obtained by adding to the bosonic string, whose

action in flat gauge, we have seen is
Z
SB = T d 2 @ a X µ @ a X µ

with X µ a worldsheet scalar, a sector describing 2-dimensional

worldsheet spinors.
 Ramond-Neveu-Schwarz formalism

Superstring theory is obtained by adding to the bosonic string, whose

action in flat gauge, we have seen is
Z
SB = T d 2 @ a X µ @ a X µ

with X µ a worldsheet scalar, a sector describing 2-dimensional

worldsheet spinors.

Remember (or learn) that a spinor is by definition a representation

of the Clifford algebra. Applied to the 2 dimensional worldsheet with
flat metric, the Clifford algebra is generated by two dimensional
matrices with anti-commutation relations

a b
{ , }AB = 2⌘ ab IAB where a
= a
AB

Here A , B are spinor indices on the worldsheet and a , b are

vector indices ( a , b = 0 , 1 ).
Explicitly, in 2-dimensions the gamma matrices are given by
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
0 0 1 1 0 1
=
1 0 and =
1 0
Explicitly, in 2-dimensions the gamma matrices are given by
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
0 0 1 1 0 1
=
1 0 and =
1 0

A
A spinor transform under Lorentz transformations as
⇥ i A B
⇤
A ! SAB B, SAB = exp(i!ab [ , ])
4
with !ab a Lorentz infinitesimal transformation.
Explicitly, in 2-dimensions the gamma matrices are given by
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
0 0 1 1 0 1
=
1 0 and =
1 0

A
A spinor transform under Lorentz transformations as
⇥ i A B
⇤
A ! SAB B, SAB = exp(i!ab [ , ])
4
with !ab a Lorentz infinitesimal transformation.
A
In view of this, can be taken to be real.
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆⇤ ✓ ◆
+ ⇤ + +
= , = =

This REALITY condition is called Majorana condition and the

corresponding spinor is called Majorana spinor.
 Explicitly, in 2-dimensions the gamma matrices are given by
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
0 0 1 1 0 1
=
1 0 and =
1 0

A
A spinor transform under Lorentz transformations as
⇥ i A B
⇤
A ! SAB B, SAB = exp(i!ab [ , ])
4
with !ab a Lorentz infinitesimal transformation.
A
In view of this, can be taken to be real.
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆⇤ ✓ ◆
+ ⇤ + +
= , = =

0 1
The labelling ± refers to the chirality, i.e. the eigenvalues under =
We can now write the RNS action in flat gauge as the action obtained
by adding the canonical term for free bosons and Majorana fermions
on the worldsheet

Z
S= T d2 @a X µ @ a Xµ + i ¯A
µ a
AB @a µB

✓ µ ◆
µ + µ
where A = µ with ± representing Grassman valued
space-time vectors, and ¯ = † 0
=( , +) .
We can now write the RNS action in flat gauge as the action obtained
by adding the canonical term for free bosons and Majorana fermions
on the worldsheet

Z
S= T d2 @a X µ @ a Xµ + i ¯A
µ a
AB @a µB

✓ µ ◆
µ + µ
where A = µ with ± representing Grassman valued
space-time vectors, and ¯ = † 0
=( , +) .

µ
Ignoring potencial boundary terms (for now), the eom for A is
the DIRAC equation

a
@a =0 or in components @+ = 0, @ + =0
The symmetries of the susy action:

Worldsheet reparametrization invariance.

Space-time diffs.

Weyl invariance.

And we have a new symmetry!

The action SB + SF is invariant under:

s s
2 µ µ 21
2
X = i¯
✏ and µ
= a
@a X µ · ✏
ls ls2 2
✓ ◆
✏+
donde ✏A = es un spinor infinitesimal de Majorana.
✏
The symmetries of the susy action:

Worldsheet reparametrization invariance.

Space-time diffs.

Weyl invariance.

And we have a new symmetry!

The action SB + SF is invariant under:

s s
2 µ µ 21
2
X = i¯
✏ and µ
= a
@a X µ · ✏
ls ls2 2

In order for these to be a symmetry of the full action ✏A must obey

b
a @b ✏ =0
The symmetries of the susy action:

Worldsheet reparametrization invariance.

Space-time diffs.

Weyl invariance.

And we have a new symmetry!

The action SB + SF is invariant under:

s s
2 µ µ 21
2
X = i¯
✏ and µ
= a
@a X µ · ✏
ls ls2 2

This symmetry relates the bosonic and fermionic degrees of freedom.

This is the characteristic property of a supersymmetry (SUSY).
 The symmetries of the susy action:

Worldsheet reparametrization invariance.

Space-time diffs.

Weyl invariance.

And we have a new symmetry!

SUSY is a deep concept that extends (in some sense uniquely) the
Poincare symmetry. While found for the first time in the context of the two-
dimensional RNS theory, it has become an important principle of more
general physical systems.
We can now continue with our analysis of the flat gauge RNS action
and proceed to the boundary conditions and mode expansion of the
worldsheet fields.

The bosonic mode expansion and boundary conditions are

just as in the bosonic string.
We can now continue with our analysis of the flat gauge RNS action
and proceed to the boundary conditions and mode expansion of the
worldsheet fields.

The bosonic mode expansion and boundary conditions are

just as in the bosonic string.

The most general boundary conditions that do not mix + and

and respect the space-time Poincaré symmetry are

µ µ
+( )=± +( + l)

µ µ
( )=± ( + l)

Since is a worldsheet spinor, the minus sign is possible as we go

around the worldsheet once, taking ! + l .
We can now continue with our analysis of the flat gauge RNS action
and proceed to the boundary conditions and mode expansion of the
worldsheet fields.

The bosonic mode expansion and boundary conditions are

just as in the bosonic string.

The most general boundary conditions that do not mix + and

and respect the space-time Poincaré symmetry are

µ µ
+( )=± +( + l)

µ µ
( )=± ( + l)

Notice that there are 4 independent sectors since for ± we can

independently choose either sign.
 In short, the boundary conditions can be written as

2⇡i4±
4=0 Ramond sector
±( + l) = e ±( ) where
1
4= Neveu-Schwarz sector
2

The Ramond sector (R) corresponds to periodic boundary conditions with

integer mode expansion

r
µ
X 2⇡ µ 2⇡
( , ⌧) = bn e l in(⌧ )
l
n✏Z

r
µ
X 2⇡ µ 2⇡
l in(⌧ + )
+( , ⌧) = b̃n e
l
n✏Z
 In short, the boundary conditions can be written as

2⇡i4±
4=0 Ramond sector
±( + l) = e ±( ) where
1
4= Neveu-Schwarz sector
2

The Neveu-Schwarz sector (NS) corresponds to anti-periodic boundary

conditions with half-integer mode expansion

r
µ
X 2⇡ µ 2⇡
( , ⌧) = br e l ir(⌧ )
l
r✏Z+ 12

r
µ
X 2⇡ µ 2⇡
l ir(⌧ + )
+( , ⌧) = b̃ e
l r
r✏Z+ 12
In short, the boundary conditions can be written as

2⇡i4±
4=0 Ramond sector
±( + l) = e ±( ) where
1
4= Neveu-Schwarz sector
2

The four different sectors are therefore

(4+ , 4 ) = (0, 0) R-R

1 1
(4+ , 4 ) = ( , ) NS-NS
2 2
1
(4+ , 4 ) = ( , 0) NS-R
2
1
(4+ , 4 ) = (0, ) R-NS
2
We want to quantize the theory so we postulate (anti) commutations
relations:

The X µ -sector modes continue to enjoy the familiar

commutation relations
µ
The fermions A satisfy the canonical anti-commutation relations

µ ⌫ 0 0
{ + (⌧, ), + (⌧, )} = 2⇡⌘ µ⌫ ( )

µ ⌫ 0 0
{ (⌧, ), (⌧, )} = 2⇡⌘ µ⌫ ( )

µ ⌫ 0
{ + (⌧, ), (⌧, )} = 0

Then

{bµm , b⌫n } = {b̃µm , b̃⌫n } = ⌘ µ⌫ m+n,0

At this point we would’ve construct the Fock space and then use
the corresponding (quantum) constraints to obtain the physical
states.

Due to lack of time (and knowledge) we will jump to the end result!
(this is a huge jump!).

Following similar arguments as we did for the bosonic string, one can
show that consistency of the theory at the quantum level implies:

10 space-time dimensions
 One can show that there are five consistent ways of combining
the different sectors (then we have five “different” theories):

1. Type IIB theory the following four sectors are in the spectrum:

(NS+ ; NS+ ) , B[µ⌫] , G(µ⌫)

(2) (4)
(R+ ; R+ ) C (0) , C[µ1 µ2 ] , C[µ1 µ2 µ3 µ4 ]
µ
(NS+ ; R+ ) a , a

µ
(R+ ; NS+ ) a , a

The theory is chiral because left- and right-movers have the same chirality.
One can show that there are five consistent ways of combining
the different sectors (then we have five “different” theories):

1. Type IIA theory the following four sectors are in the spectrum:

(NS+ ; NS+ ) , B[µ⌫] , G(µ⌫)

(1) (3)
(R+ ; R+ ) C[µ1 , C[µ1 µ2 µ2 ]

(NS+ ; R+ ) ˜ a , ˜µ
a
µ
(R+ ; NS+ ) a , a

Here left- and right-movers have opposite chirality

Type IIA and Type IIB both contain an equal number of bosonic and
fermionic degrees of freedom, e.g. 128 + 128 at the massless level.
This is a necessary condition for space-time supersymmetry , which
exchanges bosonic and fermionic fields.
The 10-dimensional low-energy effective action keeping only the
massless modes for Type IIA and Type IIB theory can be computed
order by order in spacetime and worldsheet perturbation theory, by
generalising the methods we got to know in the bosonic theory.

For example, the action for Type IIB takes the form

114
We will not say anything about the other three cases …
(Just there names: Type I and Heterotic SO(32) and Heterotic E8 ⇥ E8 )

Final remark

Until 1995 it seemed that all these 5 consistent theories in 10

dimensions were independent. However, very smart people
realised that they are related by dualities (Oscar’s lectures).
Thus they should be interpreted as different manifestations of one
underlying theory.