energies

Article
An Assessment of the Possibility of Using Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles to Identify and Map Air Pollution from
Infrastructure Emissions
Agata Jaroń 1, *, Anna Borucka 2 , Paulina Deliś 3 and Aleksandra Sekrecka 3

1 Doctoral School, Military University of Technology, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland

2 Faculty of Security, Logistics and Management, Military University of Technology, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland;
[email protected]
3 Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Military University of Technology, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland;
[email protected] (P.D.); [email protected] (A.S.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Sustainable development and the creation of smart, green cities requires cooperation
in many scientific fields, including those related to ecology, mobility, or sustainable management,
among others. Environmental protection is a particularly important element here. Atmospheric
pollution, due to air movements, spreads over very large areas; therefore, air quality monitoring is
crucial to ensure protection from harmful substances. One of the most severe sources of air pollution,
accounting for as much as approximately 25% of total annual emissions within the EU, is road
transport. Therefore, the European Union has set an ambitious target to reduce total emissions to
55% for cars and 50% for vans by 2030. In recent years, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have
become increasingly popular in many scientific fields, including environmental protection and
photogrammetry. The use of UAVs to identify harmful pollutants allows them to gain an advantage
over conventional detection methods, due to the possibility of remote (therefore safe for humans),
faster, and area-based measurements. Given the ever-expanding scale of the use of this technology,
this paper presents the possibilities of using UAVs to identify and visualize (map) pollution. The
examples presented in the foreign literature, as well as our own research, in imaging the altitude
Citation: Jaroń, A.; Borucka, A.; Deliś, distribution of air pollutants; gaseous pollutants: C6 H6 , HCHO, SO2 ; and particulate matter: PM1 ,
P.; Sekrecka, A. An Assessment of the PM2.5 , PM10 demonstrate the validity of such measures. This research was carried out in the area
Possibility of Using Unmanned Aerial
of one of Poland’s key A4 highways. The maps obtained allow for an area-wise and altitude-wise
Vehicles to Identify and Map Air
presentation of one of the significant air pollutants in the EU. In addition, they can be a valuable source
Pollution from Infrastructure
of information for the implementation of future projects and the improvement of road infrastructure,
Emissions. Energies 2024, 17, 577.
thus contributing to the reduction of air pollution and the creation of so-called “green cities”.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en17030577

Academic Editors: Antonio Zuorro Keywords: intelligent air pollution measurement; air pollution mapping; drones in environmental
and João Fernando Pereira Gomes
protection; sustainable development; environmental protection
Received: 20 November 2023
Revised: 17 December 2023
Accepted: 8 January 2024
Published: 25 January 2024 1. Introduction
Air pollution in large urban agglomerations is currently causing great concern. The
ease of diffusion in air compared to water or soil means that the sources of air pollution
are global. Suspended dust is the most dangerous due to its very small size and easy
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
penetration through the lung alveoli and then into the bloodstream. The penetration of
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
these air pollutants into the bloodstream is associated with causing numerous diseases
This article is an open access article
of the circulatory system, respiratory system and allergies, and in extreme cases it also
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
contributes to earlier deaths. In the EU, as much as 25% of the total annual air pollution
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
emissions come from transport, of which as much as 71% from road transport. By 2030 year,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ the European Union has decided to reduce exhaust emissions to 55% for passenger cars
4.0/). and 50% for delivery vehicles [1]. Therefore, it is extremely important to illustrate how air

Energies 2024, 17, 577. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17030577 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2024, 17, 577 2 of 15

pollution spreads for one of the key sources of pollution in the European Union. Recently,
due to their small size, great freedom of movement, ease of use, ability to reach hard-
to-reach places and receive real-time results for air quality monitoring, unmanned aerial
vehicles have become very popular
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), are defined as objects capable of performing flight
without a pilot-commander on board and in an autonomous or controlled manner from
another location within its range [2]. Such technology is widely used in the aspect of
military operations but also in the civilian area. Solutions in the field of unmanned aviation
are constantly being developed. This determines the possibility of implementing drones in
a wide range of activities. Unmanned aerial vehicles are used, among others, in agriculture,
transport and logistics services, medical rescue [3], media services [3], air quality research,
etc. [2]. Unmanned aerial vehicles are increasingly being used for environmental protection
activities [2]. Unmanned platforms have also gained popularity in social areas. In the
world, the number of passenger cars increases year after year, and, as a result, the level
of air pollution from road infrastructure emissions grows and becomes an environmental
nuisance. Using the functionality of unmanned aerial vehicles for monitoring or imaging a
given area should contribute to maintaining an appropriate environmental safety level [4].
The literature review conducted shows several main areas of application in this aspect.

1.1. The Use of UAVs to Identify Air Pollution

Devices equipped with specialized sensors, software, and optical equipment are used
for the identification of air contamination. There are several ways to use them. UAVs are
capable, among others, of effectively mitigating environmental risks [5]. Their small size,
combined with appropriate equipment, allows them to easily reach places that are difficult
for a human to reach. In a very short time, they can move over very large areas. After
lowering their altitude, they are able to take precise photos of a given area, taking into
account details such as vegetation and terrain relief or conducting necessary measurements.
All of this results in the fact that UAVs can prove to be extremely useful in terms of
the identification and mapping of air pollution from, among others, road infrastructure
emissions [6,7].

1.2. The Use of UAVs for Pollution Mapping

Drones are also used for pollution mapping, studying air quality in a designated area.
The sensor installed is designed to detect the air pollution level. In addition, the devices can
be upgraded with sensors to detect substances, the source of which is road infrastructure.
An unmanned aerial vehicle is capable of recording the area in which air pollution concen-
tration is the highest, collecting a sample and analyzing it. The results are then transmitted
by a mobile outdoor unit [8]. Exceeded levels of gaseous air pollutants, such as CO2 , SO2 ,
NxOy, and particulate matter, such as PM1 , PM2.5 , and PM10 , demonstrate the validity of
such measures and provide important information for environmental protection services.
In addition, a special drone equipped with a sensor can create a smog map showing the
most polluted areas [8–11].
The air in Poland is among the most polluted in Europe; the number of premature
deaths related to this problem is estimated at nearly 45,000 per year. Air pollution mainly
contributes to diseases of the upper respiratory tract, such as chronic bronchitis, respiratory
failure, and allergic diseases, and it can also lead to the development of cardiovascular
diseases [12].
Based on the measurements conducted, maps and reports on air quality were created,
showing the concentration of individual chemical compounds. This allows for an identifi-
cation of the sources of emissions and the effective carrying out of corrective actions. This
study was carried out semi-automatically, with supervision by trained operators experi-
enced in acquiring air quality data. The study results were available online in real time, on
a geoportal. By using UAVs, air quality maps can be created even in hard-to-reach areas. By
taking measurements at different altitudes, it was possible to indicate how pollutants prop-
Energies 2024, 17, 577 3 of 15

agate through air corridors. The result of such activity was an air quality map, combined
with a descriptive report on the work carried out. It contains technical data on the tests
performed, the time of their implementation, the measured parameters, and the recorded
values of chemical compound concentrations. In addition, the conclusions include the most
important information-noticed irregularities, analysis of the map, and a summary [13,14].

1.3. The Use of UAVs for Pollution Mapping, the Source of Which Is Road Infrastructure
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), thanks to their mounted sensors and air sampling
containers, can provide accurate information on pollution distribution, the source of which
is exhaust emissions from road infrastructure, which can allow for an in-depth analysis
of air composition in specific layers of the atmosphere. Air sampling can take place in
any area, including over highways and national and local roads [15,16]. It is common
knowledge that the source of harmful pollutants from vehicles includes gases generated
in the engine system [17]. A harmful waste caused by burning oil or gasoline is CO2 , a
greenhouse gas that is particularly dangerous to the Earth [18]. Other pollutants that are
harmful to health are SO2 gases; NxOy; formaldehyde (CH2 O); volatile organic compounds
(C6 H6 ); ozone (O3 ); and particulate matter PM1 , PM2.5 , and PM10 .
An apparatus mounted on a drone can be used to collect samples for further analysis
in a stationary laboratory or can be adapted for a real-time analysis of the samples. The
example set described in [2] for sampling was built with a mini vacuum air pump, a
microcontroller, a relay, a DC–DC converter (powered by a 12 V LiPo battery), and an
atmospheric pressure sensor. The housing contained a sample tube and a suspended
sample bag. The communication and control of the mini vacuum pump was via a radio
signal from a transmitter, the function of which was provided by a tablet/smartphone with
a preloaded app.
The second type of apparatus, which allowed for the real-time measurement of con-
taminants, was additionally equipped with a set of electro-chemical sensors or detectors
using visible and infrared light (VIS and IR) radiation technologies. With their help, the
air was analyzed at regular intervals, while information on specific compounds was sent
in real time to the operator on the ground. The collected data could also be recorded in
memory for further analysis or for the mapping of particularly polluted zones. The types
of chemical compounds to be monitored depended on the chosen set of sensors [19,20].
Current knowledge shows that rotorcraft, including hexacopters and octocopters [2],
which have the ability to conduct pollution surveys in close proximity over the source-
emitter, are the most practical for measuring airborne emissions and also do not require a
runway, because the drone takes off and lands vertically [21].
An example of such a UAV is the air contamination platform. It is used to measure air
pollution at altitudes of up to 500 m. For this purpose, the device is additionally equipped
with a battery that allows it to fly at high altitudes. The entire structure of the drone is made
of aluminum, and selected parts of the casing are printed on a 3D printer; its weight is only
3 kg [2]. The pollution measurements obtained can be transferred by various mapping
interpolation techniques to the terrain, thus obtaining pollution maps [16].
One example of cartometric products onto which the results of air pollution measure-
ments can be plotted is an orthophotomap, created in the results of processing low-altitude
aerial photographs or satellite imagery. It differs from traditional photos in its projection.
As a result of orthorectification, the process of developing an orthophotomap from terrain
photos includes aerotriangulation (the determination of projection center coordinates and
camera angles), orthorectification, and tessellation [22,23].
Another example is the paper described in [24] where a research group conducted
a survey campaign near an elevated highway in China. The UAV used was a DJI Matric
600 UAV Hexacopter, which was equipped with portable sensors which was equipped
with portable sensors from Kprosystem company from South Korea (DustTrak TMMonitor
aerosols DRX 8534 TSI, AE51 aethalometer (AethLabs) and Onset HOBO U12-013 data
logger (Onset Computer, Bourne, MA, USA)) to monitor PM, BC, relative humidity, and air
Energies 2024, 17, 577 4 of 15

temperature. The flight route was in a horizontal plane, in two perpendicular directions to
the road. During the experimental campaigns, the intensity and type of traffic recorded with
a high-resolution visible-range imaging camera and an infrared camera mounted on the
drone were studied and manually calculated. Based on the results, the road configuration
was found to have a significant impact on the spread of the pollutants measured.
The use of sensors placed on UAVs for air quality monitoring is steadily growing. The
technique used is increasingly adopted around the world. The authors of the paper in [24]
presented a mobile sensor node for monitoring air pollution and noise; in practice, the
developed system was installed on an RC drone, which quickly monitored large areas. The
use of UAVs for mapping is presented by Scheller et al. in [25], where they mapped the
concentration of methane emitted from peatlands in the Zackenberg Valley in Northeastern
Greenland. In [26], the authors studied the vertical distribution of particulate matter from a
cemetery in Poland using sensors placed on a UAV.
Based on the literature review, it is possible to conclude that the UAV is a fairly
common platform, effectively used in the measurement of air pollutants, including those
from road infrastructure emissions. There are a small number of papers devoted to UAVs
and the mapping of pollution from the exhaust emissions of road infrastructure. Therefore,
the following research problem was defined:
Q1: What are the possibilities of using drones for mapping pollution emitted by road
infrastructure?
An attempt to answer this research question was given based on the author’s research
presented further in the paper.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Measurement Device
In order to answer the research question posed, a Yuneec Typhoon H Plus drone
was used. The drone is equipped with six motors with a total weight of 1645 g. The
drone is capable of reaching a maximum flight speed of 13.5 m/s with a data transmission
range of 1.6 km. A sensor is mounted on the drone. The sensor used in this study is a
laser particle sensor for PM1.0 , PM2.5 , and PM10 , with semiconductor sensors for other
substances from Winsen, Gravity, SGX Sensortech. The value of all the pollutants detected
by the Mapair sensor is modified by a normalization parameter, which causes the pollutants
to be presented for their respective atmosphere (288.15 K and 1013.25 hPa), which then
allows for a direct comparison of pollutants from the sensors regardless of atmospheric
conditions. This is done by taking data from the weather station that is closest to the sensor.
This data are used to calculate the normalizing parameter. This parameter is refreshed
every 5 min to ensure its accuracy and to maximize sensor responsiveness. The sensor
allows for a real-time reading of measurement data on both mobile and stationary devices.
Appropriately defined parameters allow for the automatic indication of points in the area
where a significant exceedance of permissible air pollution emission standards occurs. Data
recording takes place both on the internal memory card and on the server. The sensor is
capable of quantifying and qualitatively determining the following gaseous pollutants:
sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) [ppm]; nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) [ppm]; formaldehyde (CH2 O) [ppm];
volatile organic compounds (C6 H6 ) [ppm]; ozone (O3 ) [ppm]; and particulate matter: PM1 ,
PM2.5 , and PM10 [µg/m3 ]. The sensor records a measurement every 4 s during a raid. It is
equipped with a GPS system that allows it to determine the exact measurement location,
i.e., altitude, latitude, and height above sea level. A photo of the measuring station is
shown in Figures 1 and 2.
 Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16
ulate matter: PM1, PM2.5, and PM10 [μg/m3]. The sensor records a measurement every 4 s
during a raid. It is equipped with a GPS system that allows it to determine the exact
Energies 2024, 17, 577 5 of 15
measurement
ulate matter: PMlocation, i.e.,PM
1, PM2.5, and altitude,
10 [μg/mlatitude, and records
3]. The sensor height aabove sea level.
measurement A photo
every 4 s of the
measuring
during station
a raid. is shown with
It is equipped in Figures
a GPS 1system
and 2.that allows it to determine the exact
measurement location, i.e., altitude, latitude, and height above sea level. A photo of the
measuring station is shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Drone
Drone used
used for
for pollution
pollution mapping.
mapping. Source:
Source: Own
Own elaboration.
elaboration.
Figure 1. Drone used for pollution mapping. Source: Own elaboration.

Figure 2.
Figure 2.Drone
Dronetaking measurements.
taking Source:
measurements. OwnOwn
Source: elaboration.
elaboration.
Figure 2. Drone taking measurements. Source: Own elaboration.
2.2. Test
2.2. TestSite
Site
As
As shown
shown bybythetheEuropean
European Environment
Environment Agency, about about
Agency, 25% of25%the total emissions
of the total emissions
2.2. Test Site
of harmful substances come from transportation, of which 71.7% comes
of harmful substances come from transportation, of which 71.7% comes from automobile from automobile
As shown
transport. by the European
AAhealth-harmful phenomenonEnvironment
related to Agency,
emissions about 25% of combustion
from internal the total emissions
transport. health-harmful phenomenon related to emissions from internal combustion
of harmful
engines substances
in vehicles come fromsmog,
is photochemical transportation, of whichsmog.
or Los Angeles-type 71.7% comes
It is formed from
on dryautomobile
engines in vehicles is photochemical smog, or Los Angeles-type smog. It is formed on dry
transport.
hot days withA health-harmful
heavy traffic. Onephenomenon
of the roads withrelated to emissions
the highest volume from internal
of traffic in Polandcombustion
hot days with heavy traffic. One of the roads with the highest volume of traffic in Poland
is the highway
engines located
in vehicles is in the south of the
photochemical country
smog, connecting
or Los the east smog.
Angeles-type and west,It isi.e., the on dry
formed
is
A4 the highway
highway. located
Every day, in the south
200,000 vehiclesof pass
the country
through connecting
this section, the east
which is and
locatedwest,inin i.e., the
hothighway.
A4 days withEveryheavyday, traffic. One of
200,000 the roads
vehicles passwith the highest
through this volumewhich
section, of traffic
is Poland
located in
Katowice. Due tolocated
is the highway the key in importance
the southofofthis
thehighway
country and the high volume
connecting the eastofand
traffic,
west, a i.e., the
Katowice. Due to the key importance of this highway and the high
section of the A4 highway in Katowice and the adjacent area were selected. The study 6 of 16
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW
volume of traffic, a
A4 highway.
section of theisEvery
A4 day, 200,000
highway vehicles
in Katowice pass
and thethrough
adjacentthis areasection, which is The
were selected. located
study in
area’s location shown in Figure 3.
Katowice.
area’s Dueistoshown
location the key importance
in Figure 3. of this highway and the high volume of traffic, a
section of the A4 highway in Katowice and the adjacent area were selected. The study
area’s location is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Photo
Photo of
of the
the surveyed
surveyed area
area [27].
[27]. Source:
Source: https://maps.google.com
google.maps.pl.

2.3. Study Methodology

This study was conducted on 5 July 2023. The air temperature was 31 °C, the relative
humidity was 45%, and wind speed was 4.5 [m/s]. This study covered an area of about 1
hectare near a key road in Silesia Province. The drone raid was carried out at five alti-
 Energies 2024, 17, 577 6 of 15

2.3. Study Methodology

This study was conducted on 5 July 2023. The air temperature was 31 ◦ C, the relative
humidity was 45%, and wind speed was 4.5 [m/s]. This study covered an area of about
1 hectare near a key road in Silesia Province. The drone raid was carried out at five altitudes:
10 m, 20 m, 30 m, 40 m, and 50 m from the ground surface. The raid was carried out in
a so-called carpet manner, i.e., perpendicular and parallel to the highway. Taking into
account the speed of flight and recording the results, the measurement was conducted
every 1 m. The identification of particulate matter was studied for PM1 , PM2.5 , and PM10 ,
and harmful gases such as benzene (C6 H6 ), formaldehyde (HCHO), sulfur dioxide (SO2 ),
ozone (O3 ), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) were studied. The values of the last two pollutants
(O3 and NO2 ) were not found. A summary of the measurement results and maps of the
pollutant distribution are presented in Section 3.

3. Study Results
The average values for individual heights and pollutants are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Values of pollutant concentrations at particular heights.

Altitude in
PM1 PM10 PM2.5 C6 H6 HCHO SO2
[m] above the
[µg/m3 ] [µg/m3 ] [µg/m3 ] [ppm] [ppm] [ppm]
Ground
10 13.77 21.65 16.73 0.003 0.03 0.098
20 12.79 19.68 17.71 0.025 0.02 0.098
30 11.81 18.69 16.73 0 0.014 0.098
40 10.825 15.74 14.76 0.005 0.0196 0.098
50 9.84 14.76 13.77 0 0.027 0.098

The concentration values for ozone and nitrogen oxide are 0. The values obtained
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW
from the measurements were plotted on the relief using ArcGIS Pro software. Maps for 7 of
individual pollutants were thus obtained. The maps for each pollutant are shown in
Figures 4–9.

3 ] dust.
Figure4.4.Pollution
Figure Pollutionmap for for
map PM1PM
[µg/m
1 [μg/m Source:
3] dust. Own Own
Source: elaboration.
elaboration.
 Figure 4. Pollution map for PM1 [μg/m3] dust. Source: Own elaboration.
Energies 2024, 17, 577 7 of 15
Figure 4. Pollution map for PM1 [μg/m3] dust. Source: Own elaboration.

Figure 5. Pollution
Pollutionmap
Figure5.5. Pollution
Figure mapfor
mapfor
for
PMPM 10 [μg/m
10 [µg/m
PM10
] dust.
3
3 dust.
[μg/m3] ]dust.
Source:
Source:
Source:
Own
Own
Own
elaboration.
elaboration.
elaboration.

Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

Figure 6. Pollution map for PM2.5 [μg/m ]3 dust. Source: Own elaboration.
3

Figure6.6.Pollution
Figure Pollutionmap
mapforfor
PMPM [µg/m
2.5 2.5 [μg/m]3dust.
] dust.Source: Own
Source: elaboration.
Own elaboration.

Figure 7. Pollution
Figure 7. Pollution map
map for
for C
C66H6 [ppm]. Source:
Source: Own
Own elaboration.
elaboration.
 Energies 2024, 17, 577 8 of 15
Figure 7. Pollution map for C6H6 [ppm]. Source: Own elaboration.

Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 1

Figure8.8.Pollution
Figure Pollutionmap for for
map HCHO [ppm].
HCHO Source:
[ppm]. Own elaboration.
Source: Own elaboration.

Figure9.9.Pollution
Figure Pollutionmap
mapforfor
SO2SO
[ppm]. Source:
2 [ppm]. OwnOwn
Source: elaboration.
elaboration.
After the cartographic interpolation of the measurement points on the ground, it
After the
was possible cartographic
to cut interpolation
a 3D cross-section of the
and drop theimage
measurement points
into altitude. Theon the ground, i
pollution
distribution as a function of altitude in meters above sea level was thus obtained.The
was possible to cut a 3D cross-section and drop the image into altitude. Thepollution
distribution
collected as a function
projections are shownofinaltitude in meters above sea level was thus obtained. The
Figures 10–15.
collected projections are shown in Figures 10–15.
 After the cartographic interpolation of the measurement points on the ground, it
was possible to cut a 3D cross-section and drop the image into altitude. The pollution
distribution as a function of altitude in meters above sea level was thus obtained. The
Energies 2024, 17, 577 9 of 15
collected projections are shown in Figures 10–15.

Energies 2024,
Energies 2024,17,
17,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 10 of 1610 of 16

Figure DistributionofofPM1
PM1concentration
concentration [µg/m 3
3] as] aas a function of altitude. Source: Own
Figure 10.
10. Distribution [μg/m function of altitude. Source: Own elabo-
elaboration.
ration.

Figure 11. Distribution of PM10 concentration [μg/m3] as a function of altitude. Source: Own elab-
oration. 3
Figure
Figure11.11. Distribution
DistributionofofPM10 concentration
PM10 concentration[µg/m
[μg/m] 3as
] asa afunction of of
function altitude. Source:
altitude. Own
Source: Own elab-
elaboration.
oration.

DistributionofofPM
PM2.52.5 concentration [µg/m 3
3] as]aas a function of altitude. Source:
Figure 12. Distribution
Figure 12. concentration [μg/m function of altitude. Source: Own Own
elab-
elaboration.
oration.

Figure 12. Distribution of PM2.5 concentration [μg/m3] as a function of altitude. Source: Own elab-
oration.
 Figure 12. Distribution of PM2.5 concentration [μg/m3] as a function of altitude. Source: Own elab-
Energies 2024, 17, 577 10 of 15
oration.

Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16
Figure 13. Distribution
Figure13. DistributionofofCC6 6HH66 concentration
concentration[ppm]
[ppm]asasa afunction
functionofofaltitude.
altitude.Source:
Source:Own
Own elabo-
elaboration.
ration.

Figure 14. Distribution of HCHO concentration [ppm] as a function of altitude. Source: Own elab-
Figure
Figure 14.
oration. DistributionofofHCHO
14. Distribution HCHOconcentration
concentration [ppm]
[ppm] as aasfunction
a function of altitude.
of altitude. Source:
Source: Own
Own elab-
elaboration.
oration.

Figure 15.Distribution
Figure15. DistributionofofSO
SO2 concentration [ppm]
2 concentration as as
[ppm] a function of altitude.
a function Source:
of altitude. Own
Source: elaboration.
Own elabora-
Figure 15. Distribution of SO2 concentration [ppm] as a function of altitude. Source: Own elabora-
tion.
4. Discussion of the Results
tion.
Due to theofvery
4. Discussion small size of the particles and their ability to penetrate the alveoli,
the Results
suspended
4. Discussionparticulate
ofvery matter is the most dangerous to health. Both in Poland and around
the Results
Due to the small size of the particles and their ability to penetrate the alveoli,
the world, there are recommended concentration limits for individual pollutants. The
Due toparticulate
suspended the very small size
matter of the
is the mostparticles and to
dangerous their ability
health. Bothtoin
penetrate the around
Poland and alveoli,
World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the following daily standards. The World
suspended particulate matter is the most dangerous to health. Both in Poland
the world, there are recommended concentration limits for individual pollutants. The and around
Health Organization (WHO) recommends the following daily standards. Including data in
the world,
World there
Health are recommended
Organization (WHO)concentration
recommends limits for individual
the following pollutants. The
daily standards.
Table 2.
Health Organization
World Health Organization(WHO)
(WHO)recommends
recommendsthethe following
following daily
daily standards.
standards. The
Includ-
Relating the obtained averaged results to WHO recommendations, it can be concluded
World
ing dataHealth
in Organization
Table 2. (WHO) recommends the following daily standards. Includ-
that on the day of measurements there was no exceedance of concentrations of any of the
ing data in Table 2.
tested pollutants. Additionally, in the measurement area there is a station of the National
Table 2. The WHO’s acceptable concentrations of individual air pollutants [28].
Pollution Register.
Table 2. The WHO’s acceptable concentrations of individual air pollutants [28].
Pollution Acceptable Concentration [µg/m3]
Pollution
PM2.5 Acceptable Concentration
25 [µg/m3]
PM
PM2.5
10 25
50
PM
SO210 50
20
SO
NO2 2 20
40
Energies 2024, 17, 577 11 of 15

Table 2. The WHO’s acceptable concentrations of individual air pollutants [28].

Pollution Acceptable Concentration [µg/m3 ]

PM2.5 25
PM10 50
SO2 20
NO2 40
O3 100

The air quality monitoring stations used are stationary. The results obtained are
averaged into an hourly measurement and made available to the public. The stations work
based on two methods. The first method is automatic, where sensors are used to measure
selected pollutants. Another method for measuring suspended dust is the gravimetric
method. It involves measuring the mass of a clean filter flake placed in a special measuring
tube and the mass of the flake with absorbed suspended dust. The disadvantage of this
method is the measurement time, which lasts seven days. In the testing area there is a
station operating based on the automatic method. Averaging time of measurements up to
one hour.
The average values of concentrations of individual pollutants obtained from the UAV
and the results from the national pollutant register are presented in the Table 3.

Table 3. Comparison of pollutant concentration results [29].

Type of Contamination Averaged Results Results from National Pollution

[µg/m3 ] from UAV Monitoring
PM10 25.1 29.1
PM2.5 15.94 15.6
PM1 11.8 It was not subject to measurement
NO2 - 71.5
SO2 0.098 It was not subject to measurement
C6 H6 0.007 It was not subject to measurement
HCHO 0.022 It was not subject to measurement

The standard deviation values are presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Standard deviation values for individual pollutants.

Pollution Standard Deviation Value

PM1 2.24
PM2.5 3.07
PM10 3.64
SO2 0.03
NO2 0.03
O3 0.04

The standard deviation values obtained are low, which means a small amount spread
around the average value. Moreover, it was noticed that, for the laser sensor, the suspended
particles were larger than the total; for semiconductor sensors, the deviation values were
less than those combined. By comparing our own measurements with those of the national
pollution monitoring, absolute and relative errors were determined for the average values
of PM2.5 dust pollution concentrations.
Absolute error for PM2.5 :
∆x = | x − x0 | (1)
∆xPM2.5 = 0.34
Energies 2024, 17, 577 12 of 15

Relative error for PM2.5 :

| x − x0 |
δ= ·100% (2)
x
δ = 2.17%
The results obtained from a flying measurement platform, unlike those obtained by
a stationary point test station, allow for spatial reflection as well as a depiction of the
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW
air pollution problem. An example of this, for such research results, is the 3D imaging 13 of 16
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16
of the diversity of atmospheric concentrations of particulate matter over a given area
(Figures 16–18). Such an approach to the research problem allows for broader knowledge
horizontal
and
horizontal profiles
an understanding
profiles over
of the
over the ground
problem
ground using aa UAV
concerning
using UAVtheplatform
spread ofprovides
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pollution.
provides overview
Obtaining
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terial
terial for
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distribution of
of pollutants
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atmosphere.
material for studying the distribution of pollutants in the atmosphere.

Figure
Figure 16.
16. A
A 3D
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of PM
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spread. Source:
Source: Own
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elaboration.
Figure 16. A 3D image of PM2.5
2.5 spread.
spread. Source:
Source: Own
Own elaboration.
elaboration.

Figure 17.
Figure 17. A
A 3D
3D image
image of
of PM
PM22..55 spread—“In
spread—“In front
spread—“In front of
of””
of view.
” view. Source:
view.Source: Own
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Ownelaboration.
elaboration.
Figure 17. A 3D image of PM2.5
2.5 spread—“In front of ” view. Source: Own elaboration.

Figure
Figure 18. A 3D image of PM spread—“top” view.
view. Source:
Source: Own
Own elaboration.
elaboration.
Figure 18.
18. A
A 3D
3D image
image of
of PM 2.5 spread—“top”
PM2.5
2.5 spread—“top” view. Source: Own elaboration.
Figure 18. A 3D image of PM2.5 spread—“top” view. Source: Own elaboration.
An
An additional
additional advantage
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that results obtained
results obtainedwill will
allow for the
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ment An additional
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An model advantage
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at individual,
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isolated
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obtained will allow
concentrations;
will allow for the
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fordirection
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velopment
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the occurrence
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at individual,
individual, isolated
isolated heights;
heights; concentrations;
concentrations;
of translocation;
velopment
direction ofof and
model the precipitation
of
translocation; andthe occurrence
the of pollutants
at
precipitation to
individual,
of the adjacent
isolated
pollutants to area,
heights;
the in addition to
concentrations;
adjacent area, in the
ad-
direction
development
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of translocation;
of a model of and
translocation; the
and the
impact
the precipitation
ofofthe of
of pollutants
variables
precipitation of the
existing
pollutants to the
the adjacent
tometeorological
adjacent area, in
in ad-
conditions
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dition
dition to
to the
the development
development of
of a model
aa model the impact of variables of existing meteoro-
on research
dition to the results, thus answering
development of modelthe of
of the
question
the impact
of how
impact of
of the
these
the variables
variables of
independent
of existing meteoro-
variables
existing affect
meteoro-
logical
logical conditions
conditions on
on research
research results,
results, thus
thus answering
answering the
the question
question of
of how
how these
these inde-
inde-
logical
pendent conditions
variables on research
affect the results,
results thus
obtained. answering
Therefore, the
it question
should be of how
assumed these
that, inde-
with
pendent
pendent variables
variables affect
affect the
the results
results obtained.
obtained. Therefore,
Therefore, it
it should
should be
be assumed
assumed that,
that, with
with
unfavorable
unfavorable meteorological
meteorological conditions
conditions or
or an
an upward
upward trend
trend in
in traffic
traffic volume,
volume, studies
studies will
will
unfavorable
indicate areasmeteorological
that pose a conditions
potential or
threat an upward
to human trend in traffic
organisms, volume,
and the studies
knowledge will
indicate
indicate areas
areas that
that pose
pose a
a potential
potential threat
threat to
to human
human organisms,
organisms, and
and the
the knowledge
knowledge
gained
gained from
from the
the measurements
measurements will
will allow
allow for
for interventions
interventions that
that affect
affect the state of re-
gained
sponse from the measurements will allow for the
interventions that affect the state
state of
thetemporary of re-
re-
sponse in the face of hazards and will allow for the introduction of possible temporary or
in the face of hazards and will allow for introduction of possible or
Energies 2024, 17, 577 13 of 15

the results obtained. Therefore, it should be assumed that, with unfavorable meteorological
conditions or an upward trend in traffic volume, studies will indicate areas that pose a
potential threat to human organisms, and the knowledge gained from the measurements
will allow for interventions that affect the state of response in the face of hazards and will
allow for the introduction of possible temporary or permanent measures.
Practical research results obtained under field conditions, by assumption, will allow,
in a basic form, for a determination of the time at which the ratio of traffic volume to
pollutant emissions will reach a critical point, after which the area surrounding the traffic
route can be considered potentially hazardous or permanently contaminated. At this point,
the undoubted advantage of this research method is that it could illustrate the problem
posed by emissions from one of the key sources of air pollution in the European Union.

5. Conclusions
A significant percentage of residual air is emitted from urban sources in these traffic
routes. It is extremely important to study, understand and image the air from road infras-
tructure. Traditional measurement methods used in national air monitoring are based on
commercially available measurement stations that are available. However, the measure-
ment result is averaged and, above all, it is a point measurement, not an area measurement.
The literature review shows that due to a number of advantages related to high
mobility, small size, ease of use and obtaining results in real time, there is great interest in
UAVs for air quality monitoring. UAVs are widely used to identify and control various
sources of air pollution. The review also showed that by arming UAVs with appropriate
GPS/INS systems, it is possible to develop maps of air pollution from all sources, including
linear sources such as road transport routes.
The UAV platform presented in this study, developed for air quality monitoring,
was based on a six-engine carrier platform with high performance flight characteristics,
equipped with lightweight and precise sensors. Experience has shown that such an aircraft
is safe and does not put human health and life at risk; it is easy to operate, and it is capable
of performing area-based measurements, taking into account the metrological conditions
found. Another advantage of such a measurement station is its mobility, i.e., it can be
easily assembled and disassembled, which facilitates transportation to measurement sites
and reduces setup time, therefore making it a practical and cost-effective instrument for
monitoring air quality near the source of pollution. However, the use of UAVs to create
pollution maps also has limitations. Not always and not everywhere does residential
infrastructure allow for drone flights. Tall trees also limit the operation of drones. Drones
cannot be used within airports or military facilities. Air pollution is measured only during
the flight, not 24 h a day, as is the case with national pollution monitoring. The relative
error of measuring PM2.5 concentration values from UAV and from the national register
is 2.17%. This value is small, which indicates that the averaged values are similar to each
other, and this is additionally confirmed by the low value of the standard deviation.
With regard to the research question “What are the possibilities of using drones to map
pollution, the source of which is road infrastructure?”, both the literature review conducted
and the author’s attempts show that the possibilities of the graphical representation of air
pollution in the form of maps, with the source being road infrastructure, are very good.
Using UAVs, it is possible to conduct measurements area-wise rather than point-wise, as is
currently the case with the national pollution monitoring system. It is assumed that the
samples presented can be extended by studying the influence of atmospheric conditions,
as well as by a statistical study to find (demonstrate) correlations as a function of altitude
as well as distance from a linear pollution source, such as road infrastructure. Obtaining
the results of such studies in the future will allow for recommendations for protecting the
population from harmful chemicals in the form of, for example, building protective screens,
as is the case with noise levels. Eventually, it will be possible to conclude that the UAV is
suitable for mapping air pollution while providing substantive information on air quality
near the ground up to a certain altitude.
Energies 2024, 17, 577 14 of 15

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.J., A.B. and P.D.; methodology, A.J. and P.D.; software,
P.D. and A.S.; validation, A.J., A.S., A.B. and P.D.; formal analysis, A.B.; investigation, A.J.; resources,
P.D.; data curation, A.J. and P.D.; writing—original draft preparation, A.J. and P.D.; writing—review
and editing, A.B. and A.S.; visualization, A.B. and A.S.; supervision, A.B.; project administration, P.D.;
funding acquisition, P.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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