ALTERNATING CURRENT

AC Generator
An AC generator is used to produce high AC voltages. It works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.

B cos 

 P Q
B

N S
T R
S2
S1
B2
B1

It consists of a rectangular coil PQRT the ends of which are connected to two slip rings S1 and S 2 .The

coil can be rotated by some mechanical means. As the coil rotates, the slip rings also rotate. A magnetic
field is applied on the coil by using a powerful magnet having pole pieces N and S . There are two
carbon brushes B1 and B2 which provide the connecting links to the external circuit.

Working of AC Generator
Let the coil be rotated with a constant angular speed  . Let  be the angle between the magnetic field
r r
vector B and the area vector A of the coil. (The direction of the area vector is always perpendicular to
the plane of the coil). To start with, at t  0 ,   0 i.e., the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the field
lines passing through the coil.
As the coil is rotated, the effective area exposed to the field lines goes on changing with time. The
magnetic flux at any instant of time is given by
r r
  B. A  BA cos 

Now   t
 Magnetic flux passing through one turn of the coil at any instant of time t is

  BAcost
For N turns of the coil,
  BAN cost
From Faraday’s II law, induced emf
d
E
dt
d
  BAN cos t 
dt
 d
  BAN .  cost 
dt
  BAN  sint 

E  BAN sint  (1 )

The maximum emf induced is called peak value of emf  E0 


When  t = , sin t 1 . In this case the plane of the coil is parallel to the lines of force of the magnetic
2
field.
Substituting in …(1)
E0  BAN  … (2)

Substituting this in (1), we get

E  E0 sin t …(3)

Graphical Representation of Induced Emf

If a graph of induced emf is drawn against time, we get a curve as shown in the figure.

voltage

E0

3T / 4
O time
T T T
4 2
 E0
 E0   t
  3 2

0 2 2

Let T be the time period of rotation of the coil

When t  0 ,   0, E  0, the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

T 
When t  ,   , E  E0 . the plane of the coil is parallel to the field lines.
4 2
T
When t  ,    , E  0 the plane of the coil is rotated through 180. The plane of the coil is
2
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
3T 3
When t  ,  , E   E0 . The plane of the coil is parallel to the field lines and current is flowing
4 2
in the opposite direction.
When t  T ,   2 , E  0 the plane of the coil is the same as that of the initial position corresponding

to
t 0.
Since both magnitude and direction of the induced emf are varying from instant to instant, this is called
an alternating voltage.
 3
At   or , change in magnetic flux is maximum and hence the induced emf is maximum.
2 2
AC VALUES
1. Instantaneous Value: It is the value of an alternating quantity defined at any instant of time. In
the equation 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 and 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡, V is instantaneous voltage and I is instantaneous
current.
2. Peak Value. It is the maximum value of the alternating quantity in a cycle. V 0 is peak voltage
and I0 is peak current.
3. Mean Value: It is the average value of the instantaneous value of AC taken over a half cycle.
2
We can show that 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝜋

4. rms Value: It is the square root of the average of the squares of instantaneous values taken. We
1
can show that over one full cycle 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
√2

A. C. Voltage applied to a Pure Resistor R

Consider an alternating voltage represented by V  V0 sin t where

V0 is the maximum voltage or of the peak voltage. R is a resistor

having resistance R connected to the source of ac voltage. Let I be

V  V0 sin t
the current in the circuit
Applying Kirchhoff’s law IR  V
IR  V0 sin t

V 
I   0  sin  t
R

 V0 
 R   I0 is called the peak value of the current
 
 I  I 0 sin t This is an expression for alternating current.
Relation between Voltage and Current

voltage and current V  V0 sin t

I  I 0 sin t

Vm voltage

Im current


0
2
2
t

2

If we draw a graph of voltage and current against  t, we get two curves as shown in the figure.
When  t  t = 0, V  0 , I  0


When t  , V  Vo , I  I m  both V and I attain their respective maximum values.
2
When t   , V  0, I  0 . Both V and I reverse their directions simultaneously.

3
When t  , V  V0 , I  I m  both V and I attain their maximum values in the –ve direction
2
When t  2 , V  0 , I  0

T
To start with, at t  0 , both voltage and current are zero. At t  , both attain their respective
2
maximum value simultaneously.
Hence we say that voltage and current are in phase in an ac circuit containing a pure resistance.

Phase diagram of a circuit having resistor

VR  voltage across resistor

VR
I

A.C. Circuit Containing an Inductance

Consider an a. c. circuit containing a coil of inductance L. The
E
varying current passing through the coil self-induces a voltage L

V such that
E  V … (1)
 dI
But V   L  … (2)
dt
From (1) and (2)
dI
EL
dt
dI
E0 sin t  L
dt
E0
dI  sin  t dt
L
Integrating
E0
dI   L
sin  t dt

E  cos t 
I  0 
L   
 E0 E  
 cos t  0 sin   t 
L L  2 
E0  
I sin t  
 L  2

E0  
put I  I  I 0 sin  t  
L 0  2

This is an expression for current in an A.C circuit containing an inductance.

Graphical representation of voltage and current in an A.C circuit containing an inductance

Voltage and current are plotted as a function of t . We get two curves as shown in the figure.
voltage and current
(I0 )
E0

3
2
o 2
t
  voltage current
2

 E0
 I0 
When
t  0, E  0, I   I 0

E  E0 sin t

 
I  I 0 sin  t  
 2


When t  , E  E0 , I  0
2
When t   , E  0, I  I 0
We observe that when voltage is maximum, current is zero. When the voltage is zero, current is
maximum. Thus voltage and current are out of phase.
Since voltage has reached its peak value earlier than current, we say that

Voltage leads the current by in an A.C circuit containing an inductance OR
2

Current lags behind the voltage by .
2

Phasor Diagram for an A.C. Circuit containing an Inductance

VL  voltage across resistor

VL

Inductive Reactance ( X L )

E0 E 
We know that I  L   0 
L 0  I0 

 E0 
  is the ratio which determines the measure of opposition to the flow of alternating current
 I0 
through
the inductor. It is called inductive reactance of the inductor.  X L 

X L  L

If f is the frequency of the circuit,   2 f

XL
X L  2 f L

We find that the value of X L depends on the frequency of the circuit.

XL  f
f
It is similar to resistance. It has the same unit as that of resistance. (ohm)
Power consumed in an A.C Circuit containing an Inductance is Zero

A.C. Circuit Containing a Capacitor

C E  E0 sin t
Consider an ideal capacitor having capacitance C connected to a source of alternating voltage given
by
E  E0sint  1

When the alternating current flows through the capacitor, the plates get charged. The charge on the
plates varies sinusoidally with time. The electric field between the two plates also varies accordingly.
At any instant of time, the p.d between the plates of the capacitor will be equal to the applied emf at
that instant.
Q
 E
C
Q
 E0 sint
C
Q  CE0 sint

dQ
On differentiating this, we get  I which is the instantaneous current.
dt
dQ d
 CE0 .  sint 
dt dt
E0
I  CE0  cost   cost
 1 
 
 C 

E0
Put  I0
 1 
 
 C 
 I  I 0 cost

 
I  I 0 sin   t 
2 

 
I  I 0 sin  t  
 2

This is an expression for alternating current in an AC circuit containing a capacitance.

Graphical representation of voltage and current in an A.C. circuit containing a capacitance

voltage and current

E0
I0 Current
3 Voltage
O  
2 t
2
2
 
At t  0, E  0, I  I 0 ; t  , E  E0 , I  0
2
Thus when the voltage is zero, current is maximum. When the voltage is maximum, current is zero.
Since current has reached its peak value earlier than voltage, we say that current leads the voltage by
 
in an A.C. circuit containing a capacitance. OR Voltage lags behind the current by
2 2

Phasor diagram for an A.C. circuit containing a capacitor

I
VC

Capacitive Reactance

E0 E  1
We know that I 0   0 
 1   I 0  C
 
 C 

E 
The ratio.  0  determines the measure of opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by the
 I0 

capacitor. It is called capacitive reactance of the capacitor  X C  .

1 1 1
 XC    , XC 
C 2 f C f

As the frequency of the circuit is increased, X C goes on decreasing. Capacitive reactance is similar to

resistance. It has the same unit as resistance (ohm)

Power consumed in a purely capacitive A.C. circuit is zero

LCR Series Circuit

VL VC VR

C R B
L
~
E  E0 sin t
Consider an inductance L , a capacitance C and a resistance R connected in series with a source of
alternating voltage given by E  E0sint. The same current I flows through all the elements of the circuit

since they are connected in series. We know that an inductance L offers inductive reactance X L to the

current in A.C. Circuits. A capacitance C offers a capacitive reactance X C to the flow of alternating

current. Let VL , VC and VR denote the voltages across L , C and R respectively .The voltage across


the inductance VL leads the current by . The voltage across the capacitance VC lags behind the
2

current by . The voltage across the resistance is in phase with the current. Because of the different
2
phase relations between voltage and current in the different elements of the circuit, we have to construct
a phasor diagram to find the effective voltage.

Phasor diagram of LCR series circuit

In the phasor diagram, voltage is plotted on the y-axis and current on the x-axis. Since VR is in phase


with the current, it is shown along the x-axis. It is shown by OA. Since VL is leading the current by ,
2
it is shown along the +y-axis. Since VC along the -ve y-axis, it is shown by OF. Now VL and VC act in

the same line in opposite directions.

If VL > VC , then their resultant is ( VL - VC ) . This is represented by OD V

. The parallelogram OAGD is completed. The diagonal OG represents VL

the effective voltage Ve .
VL  VC 
The parallelogram OAGD is completed. The diagonal OG represents D G

the effective voltage Ve . O

VR A
I

Put VR  IR VL  IX L and VC = IX C VC

Ve is written as Ve = IZ where Z is the measure of effective opposition

to the flow of alternating current offered by L , C and R combined F

together. It is called Impedance of the circuit.

Substituting all these in (1)

 IZ 2   IR 2   IX L  IX C 2
Simplifying this, we get Z 2  R 2   X L  X C 
2

Z  R2   X L  X C 
2

Phase Angle
The phase angle  of an A.C. circuit is the angle
Voltage
between the effective voltage phasor Ve and the
VL
direction of the current.
In OAG D G
VL  VC  Ve
cos 
OA  A
O Current
OG VR
VR IR
cos   VC
Ve IZ

R
 cos  
Z
cos is called the power factor of the circuit

GA VL  VC IX L  IX C
tan   
OA VR IR

X L  XC
tan 
R

Special Cases of Phase Angle

Case (1): When X L  X C , Z  R. In this case the LCR circuit behaves like a pure resistive circuit. The

impedance in this case is independent of frequency. The current in the circuit is maximum. This
condition is called Resonance.
Case (2): When X L  X C ,  is +ve. The effect of inductance dominates i.e. The voltage leads the current

by an angle  .

Case (3): When X L  X C ,  is –ve. The effect of capacitance dominates i.e. voltage lags behind the

current by an angle  .

Important Points
 The ohmic resistance R is due to the material of the resistance wire.
 X L is the inductive reactance due to induced emf which is due to the changing current.

 X C is the capacitive reactance offered by the capacitor which is due to the flow of alternating

current through it.

 Z is the impedance. This is the total effective reactance offered to the alternating current due to L,
C and R.
Resonance in A.C. Circuits I
The condition of resonance is said to exist in an A.C. circuit when the current
Im
in the circuit is maximum. Resonance occurs when inductive reactance
becomes equal to the capacitive reactance X L  X C . This can happen only at a

particular frequency of the A.C. source. This frequency is called resonance

f
fr
frequency
The amplitude of an alternating current in a series circuit is given by
V0
I0  where Z  R 2   X L  X C 
2

Z
At resonance, X L  X C  Z min  R . The impedance is least in this case.

V0
I0 
R
In this case the circuit behaves like a pure resistive circuit though X L and X C are present.

The frequency of the source of alternating current in an A.C. circuit at which resonance occurs i.e.

maximum current is produced is called Resonant frequency of the circuit  f R  .

At resonance, X L  XC

1
X L  0 L ; XC 
0C

1 1
0 L  ; 02 
0C LC

1
0 
LC
But 0  2 f R

1
 2 f R 
LC
1
fR 
2 LC

Variation of Current with Frequency in LCR Series Circuit

 Current

I0

I0
2

f1 fR f2 Frequency

If a graph of current against frequency is drawn we get a curve as shown in the figure. From the graph
we observe that the current has maximum value I 0 at a particular frequency called Resonant frequency

1
 f R  . At two particular frequencies f1 and f 2 , it is observed that the current is reduced to times
2
its peak value. These are called half power frequencies. Because at these frequencies power will be
reduced to half the peak value of power as can be seen in the discussion given below.
Peak value of power  P0  V0 I 0
 V  I  V I P
rms value of power  Prms   0  0   0 0  0
 2  2  2 2

Thus the rms value of power is half the peak value of power.

Band width  f 2  f1  is called the band width of the circuit.

The band width of a circuit is defined as the difference between the half power frequencies.
Quality factor (Q): It is defined as the ratio of the resonant frequency to band width of the circuit.

 1 
 fR    L
Q    LC  1 L
  Q 
 f 2  f1  R R C

Current
R1  R2
R1
I 01
R2
I0
2
I 02

f1 fR f2 Frequency

Sharpness of Resonance
The frequency of the applied A.C. source can be varied. The values of current for different values of
frequency are found keeping the resistance R1 of the circuit constant. The experiment is repeated for a

different constant value of resistance R2 .We observe that Io1  Io2 when R1  R2

i.e., the current amplitude is directly proportional to the resistance of the circuit.

Applications of Resonant Circuits

In the tuning mechanism of a radio or TV set, the antenna of a radio accepts signals from many
broadcasting stations. The signals picked up act as a source in the turning circuit of the radio. Thus the
circuit can be driven at different frequencies. But to tune to one particular radio station, we vary the
frequency using the capacitor of the tuning circuit. Thus when the frequency of the tuning circuit
becomes equal to the radio frequency of the signal, then the frequency of the signal of that particular
radio station will be maximum.

Is resonance possible in a LR or a CR circuit?

 Resonance is exhibited only when both L and C are present in the circuit.
 For resonance voltages across L and C must cancel each other and only VR will be present.

Power in LCR Circuits

Average power for a complete cycle is given by Pav  V0 I 0 cos where V0 = voltage amplitude and

I 0 = current amplitude

cos is called power factor of the circuit.

R
cos  
Z
V0 I 0 R
 Pav 
Z

Note
(1) In a circuit of pure resistance   0 ,cos  1

V02
Pav  V0 I 0 
R
(2) In a circuit having inductance or capacitance

 and cos  0
2
 Pav  0

Introduction
We know that a capacitor can store electric energy. An inductor can also store magnetic energy. When
a charged capacitor and an inductor are connected it is possible to generate electrical oscillations. This
is very much similar to mechanical oscillations of a suspended spring.

LC Oscillations (Theory)
Let a capacitor C fully charged to q0 initially be connected to an
A
inductor of inductance L as shown in the figure. 
The moment, the circuit is completed, the capacitor goes on discharging. C L

(i.e. its charge goes on decreasing). This gives rise to a current in the
B
circuit. Let q and I be the current in the circuit at any instant of time t .

q
p.d. across the capacitor 
C
dI
p.d. across the inductor   L 
dt
q dI
Using Kirchhoff's law, we get  L  0 … (1)
C dt
dq
But I  (Q induced current is opposed to the applied current)
dt
Differentiating

dI d 2 q
 
dt dt 2

q d 2q
  L 0
C dt 2
Multiply throughout by C

d 2q
 q  LC  0
dt 2

d 2q q
 0 …(2)
2 LC
dt

Let us compare this with the differential equation representing the mechanical oscillations of a spring

d2x
 2 x  0 …(3)
2
dt
1
Comparing (2) and (3) we get  2 
LC
1

LC
Put 0  2  f 0 where f0 is the natural frequency of oscillations.

1
 2 f 0 
LC
 1
 f0 
2 LC

Expression instantaneous charge

1 1
LC  
2 f0 0

1
 LC 
02

1 d 2q
q 0
02 dt 2

 multiply throughout by  02

d 2q d 2q
 02 q   0 or  2 q  0 … (4)
2 2
dt dt
This is the differential equation for the LC circuit.
A solution for this equation can be represented by

q  q0 .cos t    … (5)

Where q0  maximum charge which the capacitor had initially.

 is a constant which determines the phase of the current at the instant of time t.

At t  0, q  q0

Substituting in (5)
q0  q0  cos

 cos   1 or   0  q  q0 cos t

Expression for instantaneous current

dq
Now I  I   q0  sint
dt
I  I m sint

where I m   q0

Eight Stages in a Single Cycle Oscillator UE

Stage 1:
This is the initial stage of the circuit. The capacitor has maximum charge.
There is no current in the circuit.
1 L
The electric field of the capacitor has maximum energy U E  CV 2 .
2
The magnetic field has no energy. U M  0
Stage 2:
UM UE
The capacitor is discharging current. So the energy stored in the capacitor
is also getting reduced. This energy is transferred to the magnetic field I

that surrounds the inductor. This is because of the current I that is

L C
building up there. The energy of the electric field of the capacitor is
decreasing gradually. Simultaneously the energy of the magnetic field of
the inductor is increasing gradually.

UM
Stage 3:
The capacitor has discharged current. The electric field of the capacitor
has zero energy. The energy is then transferred to magnetic field of the I

inductor. The magnetic field U M has maximum energy. L

1 2
UM  LI ; U E  0
2
Stage 4:
UM UE
Although the charge on the capacitor is now zero the counterclockwise
current must continue because the inductor does not allow it to change
I

suddenly to zero. The current continues to transfer positive charge from

L
the top plate to the bottom plate through the inductor and back to the C

capacitor as the electric field within the capacitor builds up again. The
current gradually decreases during this energy transfer. The capacitor is now getting charged. But the
polarity is reversed.
UE

Stage 5:
The capacitor is now fully charged. The current is zero momentarily. This is I

similar to the initial stage, except that the polarity is reversed. L C

UM UE
Stage 6:
The capacitor is now discharging current in the clockwise direction. Current

The direction of the current is opposite to that in stage 2.

L C

UM

Stage 7:
I
The capacitor has fully discharged current. The current is maximum.
L C
 UM UE

Stage 8: Current

Capacitor is getting charged. Current is decreasing.

L C

Transformers
A transformer is a device used either to increase an
applied voltage or to decrease it. It works on the
P S
principle of mutual induction which requires a
varying current. Since the working of a transformer
involves a.c., it is of no use in d.c. circuits
A transformer consists of a laminated core made of soft iron. On one side of the core, a coil of wire P
is wound. It is called the primary coil through which the input voltage is fed into the coil. On the
opposite end, there is another coil of wire S wound. It is called the secondary coil.
dIp
When a current varying at the rate of is passed through the primary coil, a magnetic flux is
dt
induced in the secondary coil. i.e., an emf Vs is induced in it.

dIp
Vs  
dt
Vs depends on the magnetic flux which depends on the number of turns in it.

Transformer Turns Ratio

Vs  N s where N s is the number of turns in it.

Similarly the induced emf in the primary due to the variation of current in the secondary
d Is
Vp   , Vp  N p
dt
Vs N
dividing  s
Vp N p

This is called ‘Turns ratio’ of the transformer.

Power in a Transformer
The power in a transformer is defined as the ratio of the output power to the input power.
Input power  Pp  V p I p ; Output power  Ps  Vs I s

Efficiency of a Transformer
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the output power to the input power. An ideal
transformer has efficiency 1 or 100%. For an ideal transformer output power is equal to the input power.
Ps
There are no energy losses in an ideal transformer.  
Pp

Vs I s

Vp I p

Step up Transformers
A step up transformer is one in which the output voltage is greater than the input voltage.
In a step up transformer Vs  V p . This implies that N s  N p i.e., the secondary has a greater number of

turns than the primary. I s  I p i.e., the output current is less than the input current.

Step down Transformers

A step down transformer is one in which the output voltage is less than the input voltage. In a step
down transformer Vs  V p . This implies that N s  N p i.e., the secondary has less number of turns than

the primary. I s  I p the output current is greater than the input current.

Energy Losses in a Transformer

The efficiency of a transformer is always less than 1 or less than 100%. This is because of the energy
losses of a transformer.
(i) Flux leakage loss, Heat loss, Eddy current loss, Hysteresis loss are some of the energy losses
(ii) Flux leakage loss: This arises due to improper winding. It should be ensured that all the flux
produced by the primary must pass through the secondary. The loss due to flux leakage can be
minimised by proper winding taking care to see that there is no air gap in the windings.
(iii) Eddy currents: If the core of a transformer is a thick block, eddy currents are produced resulting in
a loss of energy. This loss can be minimised by laminating the core. Thin sheets are welded at the
corners to form the core instead of having a solid core.
(iv) Joule’s heat loss: This arises due to the resistance of the primary and secondary coils. Hence the
coils must be thick (so that the resistance is low). A coolant is used inside the core to reduce the
heat loss.
(v) Hysteresis loss: This is due to loss of energy when the core undergoes several cycles of
magnetization. This loss can be minimised by selecting a material having low hysteresis loss like
soft iron.

Choke Coil
A choke coil is a device used to restrict current in A.C. circuits. A choke is a pure inductive coil. Power

  
dissipated in a pure inductance is zero.  P  VIcos ,   n an inductance  . A choke can restrict the
 2 
flow of an alternating current by virtue of its inductive reactance while at the same time power is not
lost. An air core choke is a coil of wire wound inductively with air as the core, It is used in high
frequency A.C. circuits. A soft-iron core choke is a coil of wire wound inductively over a bundle of soft
iron wires. It is used in low frequency A.C. circuits.