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Study of Acoustics

Why is there a need to study the behavior of

sounds?
Fundamentals and Elements
of Acoustics What are the properties of sound?
NATIONAL BROADCASTING NETWORK (NBN-
(NBN-4)
What are the methods used to measure the
properties of sound waves?

ECE-41724 John Achilles Denna-rev2010

Sound Waves Perception of Sound

• “Acoustics” is defined as generation, • The perception of sound was derived from
transmission, and reception of energy in the Psychology;
form of vibrational waves in matter
• Psychoacoustics – deals with the structure and
• Sound mayy be considered in two natures: function of human ear
– Physical disturbance (Acoustical Energy)
– Psychophysical (how we perceived sound)

• It consist of one half-cycle of Compression of

air molecules and one half-cycle of Rarefaction
of air molecules

Anatomy of Human Ear Anatomy of Human Ear

Three Major Parts:
1. Outer ear hammer inner
ear semicircular
• Pinna – Directional encoder of Sound
canals
• Auditory canal or meatus
2 Middle ear – matching network (4000:1)
2. cochlea
outer
ear auditory
• Ossicles or malleus
middle nerves
• Incus
ear eustachian
• stapes
eardrum tube
3. Inner ear –
Note: For 2000 to 3000 Hz speech, the sound pressure at the ear
drum increases by 5dB to 12dB due to the resonance effect of the
ear canal

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Middle Ear Mechanical Representation of Human Ear

hammer
eardrum inner ear
membrane
receptors for
low frequencies
outer
ear

middle receptors auditory

ear for high frequencies nerves

eustachian tube

Electrical Representation of Human Ear Ear Canal Frequency Response

Outer ear = mechanical impedance transformer

high ........middle...............low frequencies

Filter

Filter characteristics Frequency receptors Auditory nerve

of middle ear and inside cochlea signals,
~100 mVpp,
eardrum repetition
(e.g. resonance at 3 kHz) rate up to
1 kHz depending
on audio amplitude

Parameters of Sound Quality Sound Wave Representation

• Pitch 1 cycle
– A subjective term which is a function of frequency ½ cycle
but not linearly related to it +
Amplitude
RESSURE

– Unit: Mel
0

• Timbre
PR

-
– Refers to the tonal quality of sound TIME
Period
DISTANCE
• Loudness Wavelength

– A subjective term used in describing the ear’s

perception of sound
– Unit: Sone or Phon Æ 1 sone = 40 Phon
λ= T= F=
– Phone = 40 + 10(log2(Sone))

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Amplitude Relationships of Sinusoids Electrical Representation of Audio Signal

1 cycle

GAE, CURRENT,
RMS AVE +
+
peak Amplitude
SSURE

SPL
0
0 peak-peak AIR PRESSURE
PRES

VOLTG
-
-
Time
PHASE 0º 90º 180º 270º 360º

PHASE – the time relationship of sound wave to known time reference

Phase Effects (In-phase) Phase Effects (90° Out of phase)

+ +
RRENT, SPL

RRENT, SPL

0 0

- -
VOLTGAE, CUR

VOLTGAE, CUR

AIR PRESSURE AIR PRESSURE

0º 90º 180º 270º 360º 0º 90º 180º 270º 360º

PHASE PHASE

Phase Effects (180° Out of phase) Phase Relationship of Waves

+ +
RRENT, SPL

RENT, SPL

0 0

- -
VOLTGAE, CURR
VOLTGAE, CUR

AIR PRESSURE

0º 90º 180º 270º 360º 0º 90º 180º 270º 360º

PHASE PHASE

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Study of Acoustics Properties of Sound Waves

Why is there a need to study the behavior of

sounds?

What are the properties of sound?

SOUND WAVE

What are the methods used to measure the

properties of sound waves?

MOLECULES

Transmission of Sound Waves Transmission of Sound Waves

+
Compression
PRESSURE

Rarefaction
P

Compression – High-Pressure Region (Low velocity)

Rarefaction – Low-Pressure Region (High velocity)

Reflection of Sound Reflection of Sound

Source

Angle of incident Angle of reflection

Reflecting Surface
SOURCE IMAGE

Image

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Reflection of Sound Reflection of Sound

CONVEX SURFACE CONCAVE SURFACE

SOURCE SOURCE

Reflection of Sound Reflection of Sound

Note:
If the wavelength of sound is small compared with the dimension of
irregularities, the tendency of high frequency to decay is fast

Combining Delayed Sine Waves Combining Delayed Sine Waves

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Refraction of Sound Effect Humidity on Sound Propagation

The change in the density of the medium affects
the direction of sound propagation.

---

D D+x D

Effect of Temperature Gradients Speed of Sound for Different Temperature

Cool air (low SPEED OF SOUND SPEED OF SOUND SPEED OF SPEED OF
• Night time velocity)
TEMP ºc TEMP ºF
(English) (Metric)
TEMP ºc TEMP ºF
SOUND (English) SOUND (Metric)
0 32 1087 ft./sec. 331.402439 m/sec. 26.66667 80 1139.8 ft./sec. 347.5 m/sec.
1.111111 34 1089.2 ft./sec. 332.0731707 m/sec. 27.77778 82 1142 ft./sec. 348.1707 m/sec.
2.222222 36 1091.4 ft./sec. 332.7439024 m/sec. 28.88889 84 1144.2 ft./sec. 348.8415 m/sec.
3.333333 38 1093.6 ft./sec. 333.4146341 m/sec. 30 86 1146.4 ft./sec. 349.5122 m/sec.

Source Warm air (high 4.444444

5.555556
40
42
1095.8
1098
ft./sec.
ft./sec.
334.0853659
334.7560976
m/sec.
m/sec.
31.11111
32.22222
88
90
1148.6
1150.8
ft./sec.
ft./sec.
350.1829
350.8537
m/sec.
m/sec.
velocity) 6.666667 44 1100.2 ft./sec. 335.4268293 m/sec. 33.33333 92 1153 ft./sec. 351.5244 m/sec.
7.777778 46 1102.4 ft./sec. 336.097561 m/sec. 34.44444 94 1155.2 ft./sec. 352.1951 m/sec.
8 888889
8.888889 48 1104 6
1104.6 ft /
ft./sec. 336 7682927
336.7682927 m/sec.
/ 35 55556
35.55556 96 1157 4
1157.4 ft /
ft./sec. 352 8659
352.8659 m/sec.
/
10 50 1106.8 ft./sec. 337.4390244 m/sec. 36.66667 98 1159.6 ft./sec. 353.5366 m/sec.
11.11111 52 1109 ft./sec. 338.1097561 m/sec. 37.77778 100 1161.8 ft./sec. 354.2073 m/sec.
12.22222 54 1111.2 ft./sec. 338.7804878 m/sec. 38.88889 102 1164 ft./sec. 354.878 m/sec.

• Daytime 13.33333
14.44444
56
58
1113.4
1115.6
ft./sec.
ft./sec.
339.4512195
340.1219512
m/sec.
m/sec.
40
41.11111
104
106
1166.2
1168.4
ft./sec.
ft./sec.
355.5488
356.2195
m/sec.
m/sec.
Warm air 15.55556
16.66667
60
62
1117.8
1120
ft./sec.
ft./sec.
340.7926829
341.4634146
m/sec.
m/sec.
42.22222
43.33333
108
110
1170.6
1172.8
ft./sec.
ft./sec.
356.8902
357.561
m/sec.
m/sec.
17.77778 64 1122.2 ft./sec. 342.1341463 m/sec. 44.44444 112 1175 ft./sec. 358.2317 m/sec.
18.88889 66 1124.4 ft./sec. 342.804878 m/sec. 45.55556 114 1177.2 ft./sec. 358.9024 m/sec.
20 68 1126.6 ft./sec. 343.4756098 m/sec. 46.66667 116 1179.4 ft./sec. 359.5732 m/sec.
Source 21.11111 70 1128.8 ft./sec. 344.1463415 m/sec. 47.77778 118 1181.6 ft./sec. 360.2439 m/sec.
48.33333 119 1182.7 ft./sec. 360.5793 m/sec.
Cool air
22.22222 72 1131 ft./sec. 344.8170732 m/sec.
23.33333 74 1133.2 ft./sec. 345.4878049 m/sec. 48.88889 120 1183.8 ft./sec. 360.9146 m/sec.
24.44444 76 1135.4 ft./sec. 346.1585366 m/sec. 50 122 1186 ft./sec. 361.5854 m/sec.
25.55556 78 1137.6 ft./sec. 346.8292683 m/sec.

Speed of Sound in Various Medium Speed of Sound

C = 1130 ft/s or 344 m/s @ 15 degree Celsius

1130 ( ft / s )
λ= = frequency

• Propagation Velocity of Sound is dependent on

Elasticity (or compressibility) and Density of a
medium

Note: Some books used C = 1131 ft/s or 345 m/s

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Speed of Sound Diffraction of Sound

Speed of Sound = 1,087 ft./sec. @ 32 deg. F • Refers to the bending and change of direction of sound
waves as encounter obstacles

For other temperatures :

Speed of Sound = 1
1,087
087 + 1
1.1
1 (T – 32) ft./sec.
ft /sec

Where T = temperature in degrees Fahrenheit

note that ambient pressure is not significant in the measurement of
the speed of sound.

Diffusion Absorption
• How well an environment disperses • Sound waves make inelastic collisions
sound. with surfaces
• Some criterion for good diffusion:
1. Minimal frequency and spatial effects or
• Some of the energy
gy dissipates
p as heat
negligible
2. Decays are perfectly exponential
3. Consistent reverberation time at all points • Different materials absorb certain
4. Character of decay should be applicable at frequencies more efficiently than others
all frequency level
5. Negligible decay beats (fluctuations
due to nearby modes)

Absorption Absorption Coefficient

ITEM NO. MATERIALS ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS (Hz)
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 NRC
A WALLS (Sound Reflecting)
A1 Glass, Heavy (large panels) 0.18 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.05
A2 Glass, ordinary window 0.35 0.25 0.18 0.12 0.07 0.04 0.15
B WALLS (Sound Absorbing)

B1 Fiberglass fabric curtain 18 oz/square yd. 0.09 0.32 0.68 0.83 0.39 0.76 0.55
B2 Shredded wood fiberboard, 2" 2 thick on concrete 0.15 0.26 0.62 0.94 0.64 0.92 0.6
Carpet, heavy, on 5/8" perforated mineral fiberboard
B3 0.37 0.41 0.63 0.85 0.96 0.92 0.7
with airspace behind
Wood 1/2" paneling, perforated 3/16" diameter holes
B4 11% open area, with 2 1/2" glass fiber in airspace 0.4 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.65
behind
B5 Concrete block, coarse 0.36 0.44 0.31 0.29 0.39 0.25 0.35
C FLOORS ( Sound Absorbing)
C1 Carpet heavy on concrete 0.02 0.06 0.14 0.37 0.6 0.65 0.3
C2 carpet heavy on foam rubber 0.08 0.24 0.57 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.55
carpet heavy with impermeable latex backing on foam
C3 0.08 0.27 0.39 0.34 0.48 0.63 0.35
rubber
C4 indoor-outdoor carpet 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.45 0.65 0.2
D CEILING ( Sound Absorbing)
D1 Acoustical board 3/4" thick in suspension system 0.76 0.93 0.83 0.99 0.99 0.94 0.95
D2 Shredded wood fiberboard, 2" on lay-in grid 0.59 0.51 0.53 0.73 0.88 0.74 0.65

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Absorption Coefficient Physical Nature of Sound Waves

ITEM NO. MATERIALS ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS (Hz)
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 NRC
Thin porous sound absorbing material, 2" thick or thin
D3 0.38 0.6 0.78 0.8 0.78 0.7 0.75
material with airspace behind
D4 Sprayed cellulose fibers, 1" thick on concrete 0.08 0.29 0.75 0.98 0.93 0.76 0.75
D5 Glass fiber roof fabric 12 oz/square yd. 0.65 0.71 0.82 0.86 0.76 0.62 0.8
Parallel glass fiberboard panels, 1" thick by 18" deep,
D6 0.07 0.2 0.4 0.52 0.6 0.67 0.45
spaced 18" apart, suspended 12" below ceiling
Parallel glass fiberboard panels, 1" thick by 18" deep,
D7 0.1 0.29 0.62 1.12 1.33 1.38 0.85
spaced 6 1/2" apart, suspended 12" below ceiling
E OTHERS
Fabric well upholstered seats, with perforated seat pans,
E1 0.19 0.37 0.56 0.67 0.61 0.59
unoccupied

E2 leather covered upholstered seats, unoccupied 0.44 0.54 0.6 0.62 0.58 0.5

E3 audience, seated in upholstered seats 0.39 0.57 0.8 0.94 0.92 0.87
E4 chair, metal or wood seat unoccupied 0.15 0.19 0.22 0.39 0.38 0.3
E5 Person, adult 2.5 3.5 4.2 4.6 5 5
F FLOORS (Sound Reflecting)
F1 Linoleum, rubber, or asphalt tile on concrete 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.05
G WALLS (Sound Reflecting)
G1 Wood 1" paneling with airspace behind 0.19 0.14 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.1
H CEILING (Sound Reflecting)
H1 Gypsum board 1/2" thick 0.29 0.1 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.05

Physical Nature of Sound Waves Physical Nature of Sound Waves

Physical Nature Sound Waves Components of Sound in Closed Area

• Reflected Sound
• Direct Sound

RECEIVER
SOURCE

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Mode of Sounds Mode of Sounds

• Deal with resonant frequencies of room
• Constructive interference • Axial Modes
involve
• A mode consists of the fundamental frequency
reflections
and all associated harmonics.
between two
• Also called “eigentones”
eigentones “room
room resonances
resonances,” or parallel
ll l
“natural frequencies.” surfaces.
• Smallest energy
loss

Mode of Sounds Mode of Sounds

• Tangential • Oblique
Modes Modes
involve involve
reflections reflections
between four between six
surfaces surfaces
• Less • These are the
powerful than weakest
Axial Modes modes
but still
significant

Free Field Condition

• A condition wherein a sound wave is free to
propagate “infinitely” away from the source not
being reflected back.

• In e
enclosed
c osed space des
design,
g , free
ee field
e d co
conditions
dto s
only exists in theory, though, it is possible to
come close to that by approximating the
conditions similar to free field. A simulated free
field enclosure is called an “Anechoic room”.

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Free Field Equal Loudness Contours

Reverberation Time Reverberation Time Representation

• The length of time required for a very loud
sound to die away to inaudibility ure Level, dB
100

80
60 dB
• The time required for sound in room to decay 60
60dB
Signal Pressu

40

• Reverberation times might vary depending on 20

the frequency of the sound and on position in RT60
00
the hall.
TIME

Reverberation Time Equation Calculation

Sabine Formula Erying Formula
• Total Room Volume: ~36,280 ft3
0.049VT 0.049VT
RT60 = RT60 =
∑ Sa − S ln (1 − a ) • Total Surface Area: ~9660 ft2
Wood
W d (Sw):
) 542 ft2 Carpet
C t (Sc):
) 1919 ft2
0.161VT 0.161VT
RT60 = RT60 = Drapes (Sd): 350 ft2 Plaster (Sp): 6850 +-
+- 100 ft2

∑ Sa − S ln (1 − a )
• Absorption Coefficients (500 Hz):
V = total volume aw = 0.10 ac = 0.57
S = surface area
ad = 0.49 ap = 0.06
a = absorption coefficient

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Calculation Weighed Sound Pressure Level

• Calculated Reverberation Time (500 Hz):

RT60 = 0.049(36,280 ft3)_____ ~ 1.03 sec

(Sw aw + Sc ac + Sd ad + Sp ap)

Measuring Sound Pressure-Level

Equipment: Sound Level Meter

Techniques:
• For SPL of 20
20-55
55 dB use network A
• For SPL of 55-85 dB use network B
• For SPL of 85-140 dB use network C

A, B, and C Weighing Response Curve Standing Waves

• The formation of stationary patterns in the air
consisting of zones of low pressure (called
nodes), alternating with zones of high pressure
(called antinodes)

• By observation, walking through this standing

wave zone, you can easily identify physical
places where sound is loud and soft.

• Standing waves are also called room and

natural resonance.

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Standing Waves Representation Standing Waves in a Room

PRESSURE
Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min

Boundary

Boundary
y
Boundary
y
Max

Nominal

Min

References
• Yamaha Sound Reinforcement Handbook

• The Master Handbook of Acoustics 4th Edition

• JBL Sound System Design Reference Manual Thank you for your
• Standard Handbook of Audio and Radio Engineers
attention….
• Basic Audio Handbook

• Handbook for Sound Engineers

ECE-41724

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