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SEMINAR REPORT 2024 HYBRIDE ELECTRIC VEHICLE

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle that combines a


conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) system with an electric propulsion system
(hybrid vehicle drive train). The presence of the electric power train is intended to achieve
either better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle or better performance. There is a
variety of HEV types and the degree to which each function as an electric vehicle (EV) also
varies. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric
trucks (pickups and tractors), buses, boats and aircraft also exist.

Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative


brakes which convert the vehicle's kinetic energy to electric energy, which is stored in a
battery or super capacitor. Some varieties of HEV use an internal combustion engine to turn
an electrical generator, which either recharges the vehicle's batteries or directly powers its
electric drive motors; this combination is known as a motor–generator. Many HEVs reduce
idle emissions by shutting down the engine at idle and restarting it when needed; this is
known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric produces lower tailpipe emissions than a
comparably sized gasoline car since the hybrid's gasoline engine is usually smaller than that
of a gasoline-powered vehicle. If the engine is not used to drive the car directly, it can be
geared to run at maximum efficiency, further improving fuel economy.

Ferdinand Porsche developed the Lohner–Porsche in 1901. But hybrid electric


vehicles did not become widely available until the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan in
1997, followed by the Honda Insight in 1999. Initially, hybrid seemed unnecessary due to the
low cost of gasoline. Worldwide increases in the price of petroleum caused many automakers
to release hybrids in the late 2000s; they are now perceived as a core segment of the
automotive market of the future.

As of April 2020, over 17 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide
since their inception in 1997. Japan has the world's largest hybrid electric vehicle fleet with
7.5 million hybrids registered as of March 2018. Japan also has the world's highest hybrid
market penetration with hybrids representing 19.0% of all passenger cars on the road as of
March 2018, both figures excluding kei cars. As of December 2020, the U.S. ranked second

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with cumulative sales of 5.8 million units since 1999, and, as of July 2020, Europe listed third
with 3.0 million cars delivered since 2000.

Global sales are led by the Toyota Motor Corporation with more than 15 million
Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold as of January 2020, followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with
cumulative global sales of more than 1.35 million hybrids as of June 2014; [ As of January
2017, worldwide hybrid sales are led by the Toyota Prius lift back, with cumulative sales of
almost 4 million units. The Prius nameplate had sold more than 6 million hybrids up to
January 2017. Global Lexus hybrid sales achieved the 1 million unit milestone in March
2016. As of January 2017, the conventional Prius is the all-time best-selling hybrid car in
both Japan and the U.S., with sales of over 1.8 million in Japan and 1.75 million in the U.S.

Energy storage costs are the single largest long-term obstacle to widespread market
acceptance of hybrid electric vehicles. Although lead-acid batteries are likely to be used
initially in many hybrid vehicles due to their relatively low cost, their limited power density
and the short cycle life will force manufacturers to turn to advanced batteries in the future.

Nickel–metal hydride batteries are the near-term choice, due to their higher power
density, longer cycle life, and better response to high-power pulses. Unfortunately, nickel–
metal hydride batteries are expensive. Although some cost reduction is expected in the future,
costs are likely to remain at high levels because of inherently high material costs. Nickel–
metal hydride batteries also have high cooling requirements, due to high heat generation.

Lithium-ion batteries need improvements in cycle life and cost before they will be
commercially viable for hybrid electric vehicles. However, lithium-ion battery use is rapidly
growing in consumer markets, such as in laptops, and their cycle life and cost are expected to
improve. Eventually, lithium-ion batteries should provide a lighter and slightly lower cost
alternative to nickel–metal hydride, as well as a better performance at low temperatures.
Although the development of lithium-ion batteries will improve the situation, their costs will
likely still be a barrier to the widespread acceptance of hybrid systems. A breakthrough in
energy storage is needed if hybrid electric vehicles are to become universally accepted.

One possible long-term solution might be to combine a small battery pack with an
ultra capacitor. Because of their relatively low power density, battery packs are sized to
handle peak power demands during acceleration and regenerative braking. This leads to more
energy storage than is necessary to support efficient hybrid operation. Ultra capacitors have

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very high power density but can store only a small amount of energy. In theory, combining a
battery pack with an ultra capacitor would allow the ultra capacitor to provide peak power for
short acceleration and regenerative braking events, while the much smaller battery pack could
recharge the ultra capacitor after acceleration and adsorb excess energy after regenerative
braking. In essence, the ultra capacitor would act as a buffer for the battery pack, reducing the
battery size requirements and energy storage system costs. This system is still in the early
stages of development and the savings in battery cost may prove to be less than the additional
complexity and cost of the ultra capacitor.

Another possible technology is the solid-state battery, such as lithium-polymer


batteries. Because they do not rely on liquids as the storage medium, solid-state batteries have
the potential to be much smaller than conventional batteries. However, these batteries are still
in their infancy and currently have a lower energy density, shorter cycle life, and higher
manufacturing cost compared to lithium-ion batteries.

Fig No: 1.1 Hybrid Electric Vehicle

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CHAPTER 2

WHY DO WE NEED HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

Today's hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are powered by an internal combustion


engine in combination with one or more electric motors that use energy stored in batteries.
HEVs combine the benefits of high fuel economy and low tailpipe emissions with the power
and range of conventional vehicles. A wide variety of HEV models are currently available.
Although HEVs are often more expensive than similar conventional vehicles, some costs may
be recovered through fuel savings or state incentives. The tool compares the costs of a
selected HEV with a comparably equipped non-hybrid model from the same manufacturer
and provides fuel cost savings associated with the HEV option.

2.1. HELP FROM AN ELECTRIC MOTOR

In an HEV, the extra power provided by the electric motor may allow for a smaller
combustion engine. The battery can also power auxiliary loads and reduce engine idling when
the vehicle is stopped. Together, these features result in better fuel economy without
sacrificing performance.

2.2. REGENERATIVE BRAKING

An HEV cannot plug into off-board sources of electricity to charge the battery.
Instead, the vehicle uses regenerative braking and the internal combustion engine to charge.
The vehicle captures energy normally lost during braking by using the electric motor as a
generator and storing the captured energy in the battery.

2.3. FUEL-EFFICIENT SYSTEM DESIGN

HEVs can be either mild or full hybrids, and full hybrids can be designed in series or parallel
configurations.

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 Mild hybrids—also called micro hybrids—use a battery and electric motor to help
power the vehicle and can allow the engine to shut off when the vehicle stops (such as
at traffic lights or in stop-and-go traffic), further improving fuel economy. Mild
hybrid systems cannot power the vehicle using electricity alone. These vehicles
generally cost less than full hybrids but provide less fuel economy benefit than full
hybrids.
 Full hybrids have larger batteries and more powerful electric motors, which can
power the vehicle for short distances and at low speeds. These vehicles cost more than
mild hybrids but provide better fuel economy benefits.

2.4. PARTS OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

1. Battery (auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the low-voltage auxiliary battery


provides electricity to start the car before the traction battery is engaged; it also
powers vehicle accessories.
2. DC/DC converter: This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the traction
battery pack to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and
recharge the auxiliary battery.
3. Electric generator: Generates electricity from the rotating wheels while braking,
transferring that energy back to the traction battery pack. Some vehicles use motor
generators that perform both the drive and regeneration functions.
4. Electric traction motor: Using power from the traction battery pack, this motor
drives the vehicle's wheels. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the
drive and regeneration functions.
5. Exhaust system: The exhaust system channels the exhaust gases from the engine out
through the tailpipe. A three-way catalyst is designed to reduce engine-out emissions
within the exhaust system.
6. Fuel filler: A nozzle from a fuel dispenser attaches to the receptacle on the vehicle to
fill the tank.
7. Fuel tank (gasoline): This tank stores gasoline on board the vehicle until it's needed
by the engine.

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8. Internal combustion engine (spark-ignited): In this configuration, fuel is injected


into either the intake manifold or the combustion chamber, where it is combined with
air, and the air/fuel mixture is ignited by the spark from a spark plug.
9. Power electronics controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy
delivered by the traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor
and the torque it produces.
10. Thermal system (cooling): This system maintains a proper operating temperature
range of the engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other components.
11. Traction battery pack: Stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor.
Transmission: The transmission transfers mechanical power from the engine and/or
electric traction motor to drive the wheels.

Fig No: 2.1. Basic Components

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CHAPTER 3

DEMAND ANALYSIS

3.1. DEMAND OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

According to The Business Research Company’s research report on the automotive


wiring harness market, the expanding demand and usage of hybrid and electric vehicles are
significantly contributing to the growth of the automotive wiring harness market. An
automotive wiring harness is used in hybrid vehicles to offer good performance in harsh
environments. These harnesses can transmit high currents even in extreme conditions, thus
being able to handle electrical loads and resist high heat and electromagnetic noise.

In 2021, electric car sales doubled to 6.6 million from 3 million in 2020. Also, sales in
China, the US, and Europe increased by 160% in the first half of 2021 over the previous year.
The increasing demand for electric and hybrid cars is expected to propel the demand for
automotive wiring harnesses, thus driving the market during the forecast period.

The global automotive wiring harness market share is expected to grow from $51.24
billion in 2021 to $53.35 billion in 2022 at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of
4.11%. Global automotive wiring harness market growth is mainly due to the companies'
rearranging their operations and recovering from the COVID-19 impact, which had earlier
led to restrictive containment measures involving social distancing, remote working, and the
closure of commercial activities that resulted in operational challenges. The market is
expected to reach $64.18 billion in 2026 at a CAGR of 4.61%.

Technology advancement is the key trend being followed by the companies operating
in the automotive wiring harness market. Companies are focusing on manufacturing and
deploying more compact wiring harnesses that occupy less space. For instance, in July 2019,
US-based electric vehicle manufacturer, Tesla revealed its revolutionary new wiring
architecture that enables more robot automation in the manufacturing process and uses fewer
materials. The new wiring architecture has subsystems packaged and defined in one or
multiple assemblies in certain embodiments, which helps to reduce the number and length of
wiring and decrease assembly time during general assembly. The company is also working
towards reducing the length of wiring harnesses in its vehicles from 1.5 kilometers to nearly
100 meters.

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Major players in the automotive wiring harness market are Yazaki Corporation,
Sumitomo Electric Industries, Aptiv PLC, Furukawa Electric, Leoni AG, Nexans, DELPHI
AUTOMOTIVE LLP, LEAR CORPORATION, SAMVARDHANA MOTHERSON
GROUP, YURA CORPORATION, Fujikura Automotive, PKC Group Plc, Coroplast Fritz
Muller GmbH & Co. Kg, Motherson Sumi Systems Limited, NEXANS AUTOELECTRIC,
Quingdao Sanyuan Group, Kyungship Corporation, Kromberg & Schubert, Jiangsu
Kyungshin Electronic Co. Ltd, Furukawa Electric Co., Ltd, MOTHERSON SUMI Systems,
Delphi Technologies, Adaptronic Pruftechnik GmbH, Brascabos, Cypress Industries, Czech
Republic Onamba S.R.O., Draxlmaier, United Harness Limited, Fujikura Ltd, Gebauer &
Griller Group, and General Cable Technologies Corporation.

The global automotive wiring harness market research analysis is segmented by


component type into wires, connectors, terminals, others; by material type into copper,
aluminum, others; by harness type into main harness, auxiliary harness, others; by vehicle
type into two wheelers, passenger cars, commercial vehicles.

Asia-Pacific was the largest region in the automotive wiring harness market in 2021
and is expected to be the fastest-growing region in the global automotive wiring harness
market during the forecast period. The regions covered in the global automotive wiring
harness market report are Asia-Pacific, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, North America,
South America, the Middle East, and Africa.

Automotive Wiring Harness Global Market Report 2022 – Market Size, Trends, And
Global Forecast 2022 2026 is one of a series of new reports from The Business Research
Company that provide automotive wiring harness market overviews, analyze and forecast
market size and growth for the whole market, automotive wiring harness market segments
and geographies, automotive wiring harness market trends, automotive wiring harness market
drivers, automotive wiring harness market restraints, automotive wiring harness market
leading competitors’ revenues, profiles and market shares in over 1,000 industry reports,
covering over 2,500 market segments and 60 geographies.

The report also gives in-depth analysis of the impact of COVID-19 on the market.
The reports draw on 150,000 datasets, extensive secondary research, and exclusive insights
from interviews with industry leaders. A highly experienced and expert team of analysts and
modelers provides market analysis and forecasts. The reports identify top countries and

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segments for opportunities and strategies based on market trends and leading competitors’
approaches.

Interested to know more about The Business Research Company?

The Business Research Company is a market intelligence firm that excels in


company, market, and consumer research. Located globally it has specialist consultants in a
wide range of industries including manufacturing, healthcare, financial services, chemicals,
and technology.

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The Business Research Company’s flagship product, Global Market Model, is a


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CHAPTER 4

TYPES OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

In hybrid-electric cars, the drive train’s design determines how the electric motor
works in conjunction with the conventional engine. The drive train affects the vehicle’s
mechanical efficiency, fuel consumption, and purchasing price.

Hybrids that use a series drive train only receive mechanical power from the electric
motor, which is run by either a battery or a gasoline-powered generator. In hybrids with
parallel drive trains, the electric motor and internal combustion engine can provide
mechanical power simultaneously. Series/parallel drive trains enable the engine and electric
motor to provide power independently or in conjunction with one another.

Both conventional hybrids and plug-in hybrids have models with series, parallel, and
series/parallel drive trains. Since battery-electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles don’t have
internal combustion engines, they utilize different drive train assemblies (though some
components are shared).

4.1. SERIES DRIVE TRAINS

Series drive trains are the simplest hybrid configuration. In a series hybrid, the electric
motor is the only means of providing power to the wheels. The motor receives electric power
from either the battery pack or from a generator run by a gasoline engine. A computer
determines how much of the power comes from the battery or the engine/generator. Both the
engine/generator and the use of regenerative braking recharge the battery pack.

Series hybrids perform at their best during stop-and-go traffic, where gasoline and
diesel engines are inefficient. The vehicle’s computer can opt to power the motor with the
battery pack only, saving the engine for situations where it’s more efficient.

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Fig No: 4.1 Series hybrid electric vehicles

The engine is typically smaller in a series drive train because it only has to meet
certain power demands; the battery pack is generally more powerful than the one in parallel
hybrids in order to provide the remaining power needs. This larger battery and motor, along
with the generator, add to the vehicle’s cost, making series hybrids more expensive than
parallel hybrids.

4.2. PARALLEL DRIVE TRAINS

In vehicles with parallel hybrid drive trains, the engine and electric motor work in
tandem to generate the power that drives the wheels. Parallel hybrids tend to use a smaller
battery pack than series drive trains, relying on regenerative braking to keep it recharged.
When power demands are low, parallel hybrids also utilize the motor as a generator for
supplemental recharging, much like an alternator in conventional cars.

Since the engine is connected directly to the wheels in parallel drive trains, the
inefficiency of converting mechanical power to electricity and back is eliminated, increasing
the efficiency of these hybrids on the highway. This reduces, but does not eliminate, the
efficiency benefits of having an electric motor and battery in stop-and-go traffic.

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Fig No: 4.2 Parallel hybrid electric vehicles

4.3. SERIES/PARALLEL DRIVE TRAINS

Series/parallel drive trains merge the advantages and complications of the parallel and
series drive trains. By combining the two designs, the engine can both drive the wheels
directly (as in the parallel drive train), and be effectively disconnected, with only the electric
motor providing power (as in the series drive train). The Toyota Prius helped make
series/parallel drive trains a popular design.

With gas-only and electric-only options, the engine operates at near optimum
efficiency more often. At lower speeds it operates more as a series vehicle, while at high
speeds, where the series drive train is less efficient, the engine takes over and energy loss is
minimized.

This system incurs higher costs than a pure parallel hybrid since it requires a
generator, a larger battery pack, and more computing power to control the dual system. Yet
its efficiencies mean that the series/parallel drive train can perform better—and use less
fuel—than either the series or parallel systems alone.

Hybrid electric vehicles--HEVs--combine a gasoline-powered combustion engine


with an electric motor to offer a more environmentally-friendly driving experience. Hybrid
cars are classified according to the type of drive train or power train they feature, which
determines how the engine and the motor work together to power the car. Parallel hybrids and

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series hybrids represent opposite ends of the spectrum and there are several key differences
between these two types of hybrid drive trains.

4.4. FEATURES

While both parallel and series hybrids feature a gasoline engine, electric motor,
rechargeable battery, inverter and transmission, they are configured in uniquely different
ways. According to Hybrid Center, the engine in a series hybrid is smaller than a parallel
hybrid while the electric motor and battery are larger. Series hybrids feature a separate
generator which is connected to the engine. In a parallel hybrid, the electric motor acts as a
generator. In a series hybrid, the gasoline engine is not coupled directly to the wheels, while
it is in a parallel hybrid.

4.5. PARALLEL HYBRID PROPULSION

In a parallel hybrid, both the electric motor and the combustion engine work together
to power the vehicle. According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), the gasoline
engine and the electric motor are both connected to the transmission. When fuel travels to the
engine or when the electric motor is turned on, the power that is generated propels the car. A
controller in the transmission determines when to operate the electric motor and when to
switch to the gasoline engine.

4.6. SERIES HYBRID PROPULSION

In a series hybrid, the electric motor is solely responsible for turning the vehicle's
wheels. According to Hybrid Center, the electric motor is charged by the battery pack or by
the generator, which is powered by the gasoline engine. The gasoline engine in a series
hybrid is not coupled to the wheels and does not directly power the car. A controller in the
transmission determines how much power is needed to propel the vehicle and whether to pull
it from the battery or the generator.

4.7. REGENERATIVE BRAKING

Both parallel and series hybrids feature a regenerative braking system, which both
slows the car and recharges the battery. In a regenerative braking system, the electric motor
helps to slow the car down as you press the brake, according to the U.S. Department of

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Energy. The energy that is released from the wheels turns the electric motor, which acts as a
generator and sends electricity back to the battery.

4.8. EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of parallel and series hybrids varies according to the conditions under
which they're driven. According to Hybrid Center, the composition of parallel hybrids makes
them more efficient for highway driving at higher, more constant speeds. Conversely, series
hybrids are more efficient for driving in the city because their drive train structure reduces the
strain on the engine in stop-and-go driving situations.

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CHAPTER 5

ADVANTAGES

1. Less fossil fuel, less harmful to the environment:


The reduction of fossil fuel consumption on a hybrid car doesn’t only require less fuel
but also helps emit less carbon dioxide. As a positive result, because more cars are
built hybrid to lessen the dependence on fossil fuels, the money you spend on gasoline
could also be reduced. Besides, researchers found that hybrid cars often have better
mileage because of their power-source switching mechanism. Referring to a broader
perspective, the increase of hybrid cars in numbers will reduce the abusive
exploitation of fossil fuels, thereby helping the planet to speed up its recovery.
2. Light materials used on hybrid cars also help to save energy:
Scientists are trying their best to develop innovative materials which are
tougher but lighter than traditional materials. The first fields that have applied the new
materials include the automotive industry, where hybrid cars are born. Accordingly,
they are made of lighter materials, which help weigh down their total mass of using
traditional material. Therefore, the twin engines don’t have to produce immense
power to run the whole machine. As it turns out, less fuel is required, less carbon
dioxide emission, and, once again, less harmful to the environment. Remember that
Indian has a large population and many vehicles on its roads. Therefore, the use of
electric vehicles and hybrid cars can help the country reduce carbon dioxide emission.
Combining with other green projects, the reduction of fossil fuel consumption will
ease the air pollution in India.
3. Financial benefits:
Another great advantage of hybrid cars is its high resale value. Because
gasoline has the tendency of increasing, people are looking for fuel-efficient vehicles,
and, of course, hybrid cars are among the best choices in India. Averagely, hybrid cars
have higher resale values compared to other cars. Therefore, you can sell your hybrid
car at a very high price to anyone who is eager to buy.
4. Tons of helpful mechanism and systems:
One of the most interesting advantages of hybrid cars is that you can have a lot
of handy systems and mechanisms. First of all, the regenerative braking system will
recharge the car battery a bit every time you hit the brake. Secondly, the engines

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automatically stop when the hybrid car is idle, and they will start when you press the
accelerator pedal. Thirdly, many hybrid cars can go completely fuel-less. This
happens when you drive the car at a slow speed, or when you let the car idle. Lastly,
both the electric motor and the internal combustion take part in climbing a slope or
accelerating.

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CHAPTER 6

DISADVANTAGES

1. Hybrid cars can be expensive without tax exemptions:


Because hybrid cars come with many excellent characteristics compared to
ordinary cars, they are often costlier. Luckily, many countries provide promotions and
tax exemptions that help reduce the price; however, the Indian government hasn’t
taken much concern about this matter. Besides, speaking of long-term use, hybrid cars
save you a lot of running cost, especially on fuel. Briefly, the high price of hybrid cars
is reasonable as they have amazing features and decent fuel-efficiency. In terms of
long use, you will find that hybrid cars are actually cheaper than traditional cars.
2. Hybrids cars many increase maintenance cost:
The brilliant technologies used in hybrid cars are relatively new, which
requires special treatment, especially the batteries. As a consequence, to repair or to
maintain the car will basically cost more than traditional cars. Besides, you may have
hard times finding a mechanic who can fix hybrid cars properly if you are out of the
cities. However, with such advanced technologies, the cars can be used for quite a
long time before needing maintenance, but you should follow the maintenance guide
from hybrid cars’ manufacturers.
3. Batteries of hybrid cars can cause you a few troubles:
Hybrid cars use higher voltage batteries than normal cars do. That is to say,
when the batteries are damaged in an accident, it may electrocute the driver and
prevent other people from helping from outside. Although it seems to be dangerous
with the high voltage battery, manufacturers have been researching a lot to apply
practical safety features on hybrid cars to reduce the risk. Therefore, on modern
hybrid cars, such unexpected events are hardly seen.

Fig No: 6.1 Hybrid Vehicle Battery

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The risk of getting electrocuted and the high replacement cost of the batteries on
hybrid cars due to their rarity are not the only things you have to notice. Another thing you
need to concern is the disposal and recycling of hybrid cars’ batteries. To be specific, you
need to take the used battery to recycling centres or any places accepting old car batteries.
Otherwise, if you throw away the batteries, they will pollute the environment, and under
certain circumstances, they can explode.

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CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

Hybrid Electric Vehicles play a vital role in bridging the gap between EVs and
conventional vehicles. With better battery technology, they could be more efficient and
provide an engaging driving experience. Also, expect HEVs to be more environmentally-
friendly with advanced electric power trains and efficient IC engines. At the turn of the 21st
century, the idea that automobiles, a new technology at the time, had to be powered by
gasoline wasn’t a given. Inventors of these vehicles experimented with various ways in which
cars could be powered including electricity, fossil fuels, steam, and/or combinations of these
power sources. In 1898 Jacob Lohner, a coach builder, teamed up with Ferdinand Porsche
who had recently invented the electric wheel-hub motor. The motor fit inside the wheel’s hub
and was powered by lead-acid batteries. Using one of Lohner’s coaches, at the time a more
common term than “car,” Porsche fitted two wheel-hub motors and a battery to create an all-
electric vehicle It suffered from the same problem that electric cars face today — limited
range due to battery technology. Porsche added a gasoline-fueled, internal combustion engine
that ran a generator to charge the battery making the Elektromobil the first vehicle to
combine these power sources and thus the first hybrid. With the batteries fully charged it
could reach the blistering speed of 38 miles per hour. This early hybrid was shown to the
public at the 1900 Exposition Universelle, held in Paris, which showcased innovations like
the Ferris wheel, diesel engines, talking films, and escalators. Within a few decades, other
hybrid vehicles came into existence—one traveled on land and the other underwater.
Invented in the 1930s, diesel/electric locomotives used a diesel engine to drive a generator
that provided power for an electric motor connected to the locomotive’s wheels. This
technology led to an early form of regenerative braking, called rheostatic braking where the
electric motors reversed their function and became generators driven by the weight of the
train slowing down. The electricity produced was connected to onboard resistors (braking
grid) that dissipated the braking energy as heat. This process is similar to regenerative
braking used on modern hybrid cars to charge the battery.

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REFERENCE

 https://studymafia.org/
 https://afdc.energy.gov/
 www.idlerun.com
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle

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