Interview Questions

What is the function of fan in machine?

Fans used to cool electrical equipment or in engines or other machines do cool the equipment directly by exhausting hot air into the cooler environment outside of the machine
so that cooler air flows in.
FAN, if it’s stopped how to solve this
Symptoms of Fan Failure
System continuously reboots and doesn't start unless the power button is pressed to reboot the system.
System occasionally reboots or crashes.
System stops booting completely.
Temperature of the system (chassis) is warm to hot
Noisy fan (grinding noises when fan spins, knocking, ticking, like a fan blade is hitting something).
Troubleshooting Fan Failure: These tips might help in the case of fan failure:
Check the power cord that is connected from the fan to the motherboard. Processor’s fan might be incorrectly installed.
Try plugging the fan heatsink cable into a different header on the motherboard.
Clean up the dust. When the system is used for a long time, sometimes in dry and hot conditions, the fan can accumulate dust.
Check to see if the fan stopped working. Fans do have lifespans that may end when used for a long time. Poor quality fans can also stop working.
Check to see if the fan is drawing air in the same direction as the overall system airflow.
Check to ensure the processor is properly installed in the system. The fan will start but will shut down shortly, causing the system to shut down to protect the processors from
the heat damage.
Check the hotspots of the chassis that are significantly warmer than the rest of the chassis air. Such areas can be created by improper positioning of the exhaust fan, adapter
cards, cables, or chassis brackets and subassemblies. These can block the airflow within the system. To avoid hotspots:
Place exhaust fans as needed.
Re-position full-length adapter cards or use half-length cards.
Reroute and tie cables.
Ensure space is provided around and over the processor
Try using another working fan if you have one.

BIOS (BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT SYSTEM)

BIOS (basic input/output system) is the program a computer's microprocessor uses to start the computer system after it is powered on. It also manages data flow between the
computer's operating system (OS) and attached devices, such as the hard disk, video adapter, keyboard, mouse and printer.
Uses of BIOS: The main use of BIOS is to act as a middleman between OSes and the hardware they run on. BIOS is theoretically always the intermediary between the
microprocessor and I/O device control information and data flow. Although, in some cases, BIOS can arrange for data to flow directly to memory from devices, such as video
cards, that require faster data flow to be effective.

How does BIOS work? BIOS comes included with computers, as firmware on a chip on the motherboard. In contrast, an OS like Windows or iOS can either be pre-
installed by the manufacturer or vendor or installed by the user. BIOS is a program that is made accessible to the microprocessor on an erasable programmable read-only
memory (EPROM) chip. When users turn on their computer, the microprocessor passes control to the BIOS program, which is always located at the same place on EPROM.
When BIOS boots up a computer, it first determines whether all of the necessary attachments are in place and operational. Any piece of hardware containing files the computer
needs to start is called a boot device. After testing and ensuring boot devices are functioning, BIOS loads the OS -- or key parts of it -- into the computer's random access
memory (RAM) from a hard disk or diskette drive (the boot device).
The 4 functions of BIOS
BIOS identifies, configures, tests and connects computer hardware to the OS immediately after a computer is turned on. The combination of these steps is called the boot
process. These tasks are each carried out by BIOS' four main functions:
Power-on self-test (POST). This tests the hardware of the computer before loading the OS.
Bootstrap loader. This locates the OS.
Software/drivers. This locates the software and drivers that interface with the OS once running.
Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (See-mos) setup. This is a configuration program that enable users to alter hardware and system settings. CMOS is
the name of BIOS' non-volatile memory.

Accessing BIOS
With BIOS, the OS and its applications are freed from having to understand exact details, such as computer hardware addresses, about the attached I/O devices. When device
details change, only the BIOS program needs to be changed. Sometimes, this change can be made during system setup.
Users can access BIOS and configure it through BIOS Setup Utility. Accessing BIOS Setup Utility varies somewhat depending on the computer being used. However, the following
steps generally enable users to access and configure BIOS through Setup Utility:
Reset or power off the computer.
When the computer turns back on, look for a message that says "entering setup" or something similar. Accompanying that message will be a key that the user should press to
enter system configuration. Here's an example message a user might see: "Press [key] to enter BIOS setup." Some keys often used as prompts are Del, Tab, Esc and any of the
function keys (F1-F12).
Upon seeing the prompt, quickly press the key specified.
Once in BIOS Setup Utility, users can change hardware settings, manage memory settings, change the boot order or boot device, and reset the BIOS password, among other
configuration tasks.
BIOS security
BIOS security is a somewhat overlooked component of cybersecurity; however, it should still be managed to prevent hackers from executing malicious code on the OS. Security
group Cylance, in 2017, showed how modern BIOS security flaws could enable ransomware programs inside a motherboard's UEFI and exploit other PC BIOS vulnerabilities.
Another unique exploit involving the manipulation of BIOS was Plundervolt. Plundervolt could be used to mess with a computer's power supply at the time data was being
written to memory, causing errors that lead to security gaps. Intel released a BIOS patch to defend against it.
CMOS- complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor
What Is See-MOSS and What Is It For?
See-moss (short for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) is the term usually used to describe the small amount of memory on a computer motherboard that stores the
BIOS settings. Some of these BIOS settings include the system time and date as well as hardware settings.

Clearing CMOS, which means to reset the BIOS settings to their default levels. This is a really easy task that's a great troubleshooting step for many types of computer problems.
For example, maybe your computer is freezing up during the POST, in which case clearing the CMOS to reset the BIOS settings to factory default levels, might be the easiest
solution. Or maybe you need to clear CMOS to reset misconfigured BIOS settings to fix certain hardware-related error messages, such as Code 29 errors.
Other CMOS errors revolve around low battery voltage, CMOS checksum, battery failure, and read error.
How BIOS and CMOS Work Together?
The BIOS is a computer chip on the motherboard like CMOS except that its purpose is to communicate between the processor and other hardware components like the hard
drive, USB ports, sound card, video card, and more. A computer without a BIOS wouldn't understand how these pieces of the computer work together. The BIOS firmware is also
what performs the Power On Self Test to test those pieces of hardware, and what ultimately runs the boot loader to launch the operating system .
What Is a CMOS Battery?
The CMOS is usually powered by a coin-sized CR2032 cell battery, referred to as the CMOS battery. Most CMOS batteries will last the lifetime of a motherboard, up to 10 years in
most cases, but will sometimes need to be replaced depending on how the device is being used.
Incorrect or slow system date and time, and loss of BIOS settings, are major signs of a dead or dying CMOS battery. Replacing them is as easy as swapping out the dead one for a
new one.
While most motherboards have a spot for a CMOS battery, some smaller computers, like many tablets and laptops, have a small external compartment for the CMOS battery that
connects to the motherboard via two small wires.
Some devices that use CMOS include microprocessors, microcontrollers, and static RAM (SRAM). It's important to understand that CMOS and BIOS are not interchangeable terms
for the same thing. While they work together for a specific function within the computer but they are two entirely different components. When the computer is first starting up,
there's an option to boot into BIOS or CMOS.
Opening the CMOS setup is how you can change the settings it's storing, like the date and time and how the different computer components are first started up. You can also use
CMOS setup to disable/enable some hardware devices. CMOS chips are desirable for battery-powered devices like laptops because they use less power than other types of chips.
Although they use both negative polarity circuits and positive polarity circuits (NMOS and PMOS), only one circuit type is powered on at a time. The Mac equivalent to CMOS is
PRAM, which stands for Parameter RAM. You can also reset your Mac's PRAM.

WHAT IS POST?
A Power-On Self-Test (POST) is an operation initiated by a computer after it has been turned on but before it boots up the OS. The computer's
firmware -- BIOS, Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) or another system -- carries out this operation by running a diagnostic testing
sequence to determine if the computer's essential hardware is working properly.
What is NO POST? (Power On Self-Test)
A No POST situation means that when you turn on your computer, it doesn't pass the initial checks that make sure all hardware is functioning
properly. Essentially, the computer doesn't get to the point where it starts loading the operating system. This can be due to various hardware
issues like faulty components, loose connections, or even power supply problems.

Common Causes
Power Supply Issues: Faulty power supply or loose connections.
Hardware Failures: Problems with RAM, CPU, motherboard, or graphics card.
Loose Connections: Internal components not properly connected.
BIOS/CMOS Issues: Corrupted BIOS or CMOS settings.
Overheating: Components overheating due to poor ventilation.
Potential Fixes
Check Power Connections: Ensure all power cables are securely connected and the power outlet is working.
Inspect Hardware: Open the computer case and check for loose components. Reset RAM sticks, graphics cards, and cables.
Listen for Beep Codes: If your computer beeps on startup, refer to the motherboard manual for specific beep codes that can help diagnose the
issue.
Reset BIOS/CMOS: Remove the CMOS battery for a few minutes and then reinsert it. Alternatively, use the jumper on the motherboard to reset
BIOS settings.
Cool Down: Allow the computer to cool down if it was overheating, and ensure proper ventilation.

What is firmware?
Firmware is essentially the software that's permanently embedded into a hardware device. It serves as the control program that directs the
device’s functions. It’s the behind-the scenes hero making sure your gadgets work properly.
Types of Firmware: -
Firmware comes in various types based on their functionality and where they are used. Here are the main types:
Low-Level Firmware
Permanent and Unchangeable: Stored in non-volatile memory like ROM or OTP (One-Time Programmable) memory.
Example: Embedded firmware in a microcontroller for basic hardware control.
High-Level Firmware
Updatable and Flexible: Stored in flash memory, can be updated to improve functionality or fix bugs.
Example: Firmware in smartphones or laptops that can receive updates.
Subsystem Firmware
Independent Components: Controls specific subsystems within a larger system.
Example: Firmware in a printer's controller or a network card.

BSOD (Blue Screen of Death)

What is Bsod and how to fix it?
The BSOD is a warning you see when your computer interrupts operations and displays this warning on a blue screen. Officially, it’s called a “Stop error.” The warning informs you
of a critical issue that’s forcing Windows to reboot. Before rebooting, Windows usually saves a “minidump” file on your computer, carrying data about the error. To fix BSOD, it's
best to get your device checked for software and hardware issues.
What is the main cause of BSOD?
It can be anything from hardware issue to a virus, overheating and a bigger malware exposure. Get your computer check in case of BSOD.
What causes the blue screen of Death?
Blue Screen of Death can be occurred due to several reasons related to the system.

Some of the related and common main reasons or causes for Blue Screen of Death are:
Hardware malfunctioning can cause this error
Faulty memory
Improper written device drives
Components getting overheated
Hardware crossing the limits of specifications
Lack of memory protection
Overcrowded memory
Errors in the software of the system
Not updating the hardware program can cause stop errors
Improper installation of any hardware program
Hardware changes that you made didn’t register which can cause blue screen
Issues regarding power supplies
Blue Screen of Death in Windows 9X era can be caused due to bugs or incompatible DLLs in the kernel operating system.

Fixes for Blue Screen of Death

The blue screen of death is caused due to system failure. To fix it, firstly you need to find out the possible reason and then go for a relatable solution. The blue
screen of death can be caused either by an error in software or default in hardware, or sometimes it can also be caused due to the mistake of a user.
Fixing the blue screen of death is caused by software errors
Most of the common reasons for the blue screen of death is usually due to software programming errors.
Sometimes the software is not compatible with the updated Windows version and if the troubleshooting gives you a hint that the cause of the error might be due to the updated
software program. In this case, try installing the version of the software which is compatible with your Windows system. If your program is already updated then reinstall it and
go for a clean version of your software program.
Even after updating and reinstalling the software doesn’t work, then a better option is to change the software program and install a new one.
List down all the error warnings that you got before which could help you find the particular defected area.
Make sure that the internal storage of your device is not full and there is ample space.
Uninstall any additional app that is unnecessary.
Go for startup repairs. The startup repair is already installed in your system then restart the system and wait till works. And if the startup repair is not pre-installed then go for the
inbuilt startup repair in your computer and restart.
Check out the antivirus protection program in your system. Some kind of viruses can interrupt the system settings and can lead to system crashing.
Uninstall the updates because it can also cause errors and then restart the computer using advanced startup.
Fixing Blue Screen Error if caused by hardware errors
After checking out all the software program for errors, but still, the problem is not solved then go for hardware. In most cases, hardware’s are not the cause behind the Blue
Screen.
Test the hardware in order to get to the root of the error. Find out any damaged pieces in hardware and upon finding one, then replace that particular part.
Check out the memory and hard drive. If there is an error in it, then fix it.
Avoid all unnecessary hardware in your PC.
Start your device with minimum hardware and if it works then the removed hardware will be the culprit for the system failure.
Like software, make sure that the hardware is compatible with the Microsoft Windows version of your computer.
If the hardware you are using is old and outdated, not working, then the best option is to replace it. Hardware devices might be costly, but it’s an effective remedy in most of the
system crashes and even for Blue Screen of Death.
Update the firmware.
Even after following all the steps in your troubleshooting list, don’t try anything else if you do not have much knowledge about it as it will mess up with your system programs.
Don’t take any rash steps in a hurry. If you are not able to fix MN, then it’s better to ask the help of experts for a better and reliable solution.

What are Input and Output devices and IP/OP devices?

What is computer’s connection with Input and output devices
A computer is an electronic device that operates data or information and can store, retrieve, and process data. Computers can be used to create documents, play games, send
emails, and browse the web. They are also used to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and videos. To perform such useful operations on a computer, we need input and
output devices to give instructions to the system and receive information. Commonly used input and output devices include the keyboard, mouse, scanner, printer, monitor, and
speaker.
The computer system is designed to perform tasks given by the user and produce results efficiently. It takes in the instructions (in the form of inputs), performs the computing
tasks (also known as processing) and gives back results (in the form of outputs). The computer’s software is designed to do this task with the help of components of a computer,
including an input unit, a processing unit, and an output unit. The computer performs the tasks with the combination of input and output devices to give instructions to the
computer and receive the respective results of the operations performed.
Computer Systems and Their Components
Before we learn about input and output devices, we must understand what a computer is and its components and functionality. A computer is an electronic device designed to
make human tasks easier by taking instructions from the user through input devices, processing them using a processing unit, and giving results using output devices. It is used
for storing and processing data and performing calculations. A computer’s functionality is based on the combined usage of its input, processing, and output units. Hence, it
becomes essential to know the working of these units.
Input Devices
An input device is a hardware device that takes instructions from the user and passes it to a processing unit, such as a CPU. Input devices can transmit data to other devices by
taking it from one device but cannot receive data—for example, the keyboard or the mouse.
List of Input Devices
Some commonly used input devices are listed below:
Keyboard: It is a hardware device with keys with alphabets and numbers on it and is used to take alphanumeric input. It is the most commonly used input device.
Mouse: It is a hardware device that takes input by clicking on keys on the surface of the mouse. The mouse is a pointing device that points to icons on the screen to select them.
Microphone: It takes sound as a form of input and can convert it to a digital or electrical form.
Joystick: It is usually used to play games. It has a stick that is inclined to angle to control movement in video games.
Light Pen/stylus: It is a device used to give input by touching the device. A stylus is a light-dependent tool.
Scanner: It is used to scan images, text, or documents to convert them into digital form.
Output Devices
Output devices are hardware devices that receive data from the processing unit and other devices and return the result of the data—for example, monitors and speakers.
List of Output Devices
Some commonly used output devices are listed below:
Monitor: It is a device through which we see and operate our software. All icons, text, and images are displayed here. We see all the outputs on this screen.
Printer: It produces hard copies or prints of images, text, or documents on the computer.
Speakers: They yield output in the form of audio and allow users to listen to music, game sounds, etc. Speakers can be wired and wireless.
Projector: It produces output by projecting images and videos on a big screen. When connected to a computer, the image on the monitor will only be displayed on the screen.
Headphones: These devices also produce audio outputs but are only for personal use.
Input/Output Devices
An input/output device can perform the job of both input and output devices. In other words, it can receive data from other devices or users (input) and send it to other devices
(output).
Examples of input/output devices include:
CD/DVD drives: They copy data received from the computer and store it. They can also transfer data on the drive and pass it to the computer’s storage
USB/Flash drives: They receive and send data from the computer to the drive and vice-versa.

What is Primary Memory and Secondary Memory?

What is Primary Memory?

Primary memory is a computer system's internal memory. It stores and retrieves data, instructions, and information. The CPU directly and randomly accesses
primary memory, also called Random Access Memory (RAM). Primary memory is volatile and loses data and instructions when the power turns off.

Primary Memory Characteristics

The computer cannot function without primary memory.
Primary memory is also known as the main memory.
You may lose data in case the power is off
Also known as volatile memory
It is the working memory of the computer.
It is faster as compared to secondary memory.
Examples: RAM, ROM, cache, PROM, EPROM, registers, etc.
What is Secondary Memory?
Secondary memory is a permanent storage device that the CPU cannot access directly. A secondary storage device organizes data into files and directories
based on a file system. It also allows the user to access or use additional information like access permissions, owner, last access time, etc. Also, secondary
memory keeps less used data temporarily when primary memory gets full.
Secondary memory devices are less expensive and can store vast amounts of data, audio, video, and multimedia files. Organizations can store the equivalent of
a roomful of data on disks that consume dramatically and significantly less physical space.
Types of Secondary Memory
Solid-state storage devices, such as USB memory sticks.
Optical storage devices, such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs.
Examples: Magnetic storage devices include zip, floppy, and hard disk drives.

Secondary Memory Characteristics

These are magnetic and optical memories.
It is a type of non-volatile memory.
Data is permanently stored even when the computer is turned off
It helps store data on a computer
The computer can function without secondary memory
Slower than primary memory
Examples: magnetic tapes, optical discs, floppy disks, flash memory [USB drives], paper tape, punched cards, etc.
Difference between Primary and Secondary Memory – Comparison Table

Comparison
Primary Memory Secondary Memory
Parameters
Primary memory is the main memory and
Storage validity Secondary memory is the external memory and stores data permanently.
stores data temporarily.
Access The CPU can directly access the data. The CPU cannot directly access the data.
Primary memory is volatile. It loses data in Secondary memory is non-volatile; data is stored even during a power
Volatility
case of a power outage. failure.
Data is stored inside costly semiconductor Data is stored on external hardware devices like hard drives, floppy disks,
Storage
chips. etc.
They do not have such a classification. Secondary memories are
Division It can be divided into RAM and ROM
permanent storage devices like CDs, DVDs, etc.
Speed Faster Slower
It saves the data that the computer is currently
Stored data It can save various types of data in various formats and huge sizes.
using.
Primary and Secondary storage Devices: -
What are primary storage devices?
Primary storage devices are the media that hold memory for a shorter period of time when the computer is running. Such devices have lower
access time but faster time. RAM and cache are two examples of primary storage devices. It is also known as main memory, primary memory,
internal memory and main storage.
Primary storage devices, also known as main memory or primary memory, are the essential components of a computer that store data and
instructions temporarily while the system is running.
Here are the key types:
1. RAM (Random Access Memory)
Volatile Memory: Loses its content when power is off.
High Speed: Faster than secondary storage devices.
Temporary Storage: Holds data that the CPU needs right now.
2. Cache Memory
Ultra-Fast Memory: Even faster than RAM.
Located Close to the CPU: Stores frequently accessed data and instructions to speed up processing.
3. ROM (Read-Only Memory)
Non-Volatile Memory: Retains data even when power is off.
Permanent Storage: Stores essential instructions for booting up the computer (BIOS).

What is secondary storage device?

A secondary storage device is any storage system that isn't the computer's primary memory (RAM). Think of it as your computer's long-term me
mory, used to store data and files even when the power is off.
Some common examples are:
Hard Disk Drives (HDDs): Traditional spinning disk drives with large storage capacities.
Solid State Drives (SSDs): Faster, more durable drives with no moving parts.
USB Flash Drives: Portable storage devices you can plug into a USB port.
CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs: Optical discs used for media storage.
External Hard Drives: Portable versions of HDDs or SSDs that connect via USB.
Cloud Storage: Online storage provided by services like Google Drive, Dropbox, and OneDrive.

What is OS Installation?
Installing an OS, or operating system, is essentially setting up the software that manages all the hardware and other software on your computer. I
t's like giving your computer its personality and set of instructions on how to run everything. This process involves getting the OS software onto y
our machine, configuring it, and getting everything ready for use. It's a pretty critical step because it sets the foundation for all the other software
you'll be using.

How to install OS?

Installing an operating system (OS) can seem daunting, but it's quite manageable with the right steps. Here’s a general guide to help you through
the process:
Step-by-Step Guide to OS Installation
Create Installation Media: Download the OS installer from the official website and create a bootable USB drive or DVD.
Back Up Your Data: Ensure you have backups of all important data, as installing an OS can sometimes lead to data loss.
Boot from Installation Media: Insert the USB drive or DVD and restart your computer. You may need to press a specific key (like F2, F12, or Esc) to
access the boot menu.
Follow Installation Prompts: Once booted from the installation media, follow the on-screen prompts to start the installation process.
Select Installation Type: Choose whether you want to upgrade an existing OS or perform a clean install.
Partition Your Drive: If doing a clean install, you may need to partition your hard drive. Allocate space for the OS and any other partitions you nee
d.
Install OS: Follow the prompts to install the OS. This will involve selecting language, time zone, and other settings.
Complete Installation: Once the installation is complete, your computer will restart, and you should see the new OS loading.
Install Drivers and Updates: After installation, install any necessary drivers for your hardware and update the OS to the latest version.
2 Types of OS Installations: -
There are two primary types of OS installations:
1. Clean Installation
Fresh Start: Installs the OS from scratch, erasing all previous data and settings on the drive.
Pros: Great for getting rid of old problems, ensuring no leftover issues from previous installations.
Cons: Requires backing up all data beforehand, as everything will be wiped.
2. Upgrade Installation
Retains Data: Updates the existing OS to a newer version without deleting current files, settings, and applications.
Pros: Easier and faster since it keeps your existing setup.
Cons: Potentially carries over any old issues and clutter from the previous OS.

What is VPN and its functions?

A VPN, or Virtual Private Network, is a service that helps protect your online privacy and security.
It does a few things:
Encryption: It encrypts your internet traffic, which means your data is turned into a code that is unreadable without a decryption key. This
protects your information from hackers and other malicious entities.
Masking IP Address: A VPN masks your IP address, making your online actions practically untraceable. This is especially useful for accessing
content that might be geo-restricted.
Secure Connection: It creates a secure connection between your device and the VPN server. This means your browsing activity is protected even
when you're using public Wi-Fi.

WHAT IS FIREWALL?
A firewall is a network security device designed to monitor, filter, and control incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined
security rules. The primary purpose of a firewall is to establish a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external networks.
Define Antivirus:- Antivirus is a kind of software used to prevent, scan, detect and delete viruses from a computer.

VPNs vs. FIREWALLS

Firewalls, on the other hand, aim to protect your
VPNs are designed to improve privacy and security when
Primary function network from malicious traffic and unauthorized
transmitting data.
access.
Firewalls monitor and regulate network traffic and
Level of protection VPNs offer end-to-end encryption, securing data in transit
don't offer end-to-end encryption.
You can count on VPNs to secure online privacy or bypass geo- Firewalls are suitable for protecting your network
Usage:
restrictions. from cyber threats.
Firewalls can be a built-in feature of your router or
operating system. You can also purchase firewalls
Cost VPNs usually involve monthly or annual subscriptions
as individual hardware or software solutions with
varying costs.
Situations where They are For maintaining privacy while browsing the internet or using Protecting your home or office network from
more appropriate: public Wi-Fi networks. unauthorized access and potential cyber threats.
Controlling and monitoring network traffic,
Accessing geo-restricted content or bypassing censorship. allowing or blocking specific data packets based on
predefined rules.
Enforcing network security policies for your
Protecting your data while transmitting it over the internet.
organization or personal network.
Accessing company resources securely as a remote worker.

Antivirus vs. VPN: Quick Overview

Antivirus VPN

Detects and removes malware Yes No

Blocks network-based cyber attacks Yes No
Monitors your system in real time to prevent
Yes No
malware attacks
Encrypts your online data No Yes
Masks your IP address to safeguard your
No Yes
privacy
Provides access to georestricted sites No Yes
Prevents you from downloading malicious
Yes No
files
Prevents you from visiting suspicious
Yes Yes
websites
Secures P2P traffic No Yes
Blocks ads Yes Yes

ANTIVIRUS vs. FIREWALL

Firewall Antivirus

Firewall is implemented in both hardware and software. Antivirus is implemented in software only.
Firewall Antivirus

Firewall deals with external threats only. Antivirus deals with both external threats and internal threats.

In firewall counter attacks are possible such as IP Spoofing and routing In antivirus no counter attacks are possible after removing the
attacks. malware.

Firewall works on monitoring and filtering. Antivirus works on Scanning of infected files and software.

Firewall checks the threat from incoming packets. Antivirus checks the threat from malicious software.

Firewall saves the system from all kinds of threats to the system. Antivirus saves the system only from viruses.

Firewall’s programming is complex than antivirus. Antivirus’s programming is simpler as comparison to firewall.

What is WinRE (Windows Recovery) used for?

Windows Recovery Environment (WinRE) is a built-in Windows tool that allows you to recover a system when it can’t be booted. WinRE can help
you with troubleshooting when the system fails to start or unexpectedly restarts. Such issues might be caused by disk corruption, incorrect
updates, or damaged or accidentally removed system files. WinRE repairs the system, bringing it back to a working state.
WIFI stands for Wireless Fidelity which is a wireless technology standard for wireless Internet access. It is used as a replacement for cable
connections and other types of wires.
Difference between a WiFi and Ethernet connection
1 connection
A WiFi connection enables users to access a network and the Internet through a wireless connection to a WiFi router – no cables are needed.
Ethernet connection uses ethernet cable to connect devices to the network or the Internet.
2. speed
While a number of variables determine actual speed of a WiFi connection and an Ethernet connection,
Ethernet is almost always faster than WiFi. The fastest Ethernet speeds today top out at 10Gbps or higher,
while the fastest WiFi speeds theoretically max out at 6.9Gbps, though actual speeds are much slower – usually less than 1Gbps.
3. for security?
An Ethernet connection is much more secure than a WiFi connection. Data on an Ethernet network can only be accessed by physically attaching a
device to the network,
while data on a WiFi network travel through the air and can be more easily intercepted.
reliability?
A WiFi connection is more susceptible to interference from electrical devices or physical objects that can block the signal. An Ethernet connection
is consequently more reliable, as it is insulated from interference and crosstalk and unaffected by the presence of physical objects.
large files?
When uploading large files, streaming video or working with bandwidth-hungry applications, the faster speed of an Ethernet connection will
provide a better experience with lower latency and faster data transfer.
convenience?
WiFi is undoubtedly more convenient than an Ethernet connection. With WiFi, users can move freely throughout a property, untethered to a
desk or workstation by an Ethernet cable.
Spectrum Enterprise?
As a leading provider of fiber solutions for America’s largest businesses, Spectrum Enterprise provides both WiFi and Internet services. Our
Managed WiFi services provide a fully managed solution that provides seamless access anywhere on a property, with support for both 2.4GHz
and 5GHz connections. Our Ethernet services enable seamless collaboration across multiple locations, with bandwidth that can scale from
10Mbps to over 10Gbps

What is Virtualization?
Virtualization is technology that you can use to create virtual representations of servers, storage, networks, and other physical
machines. Virtual software mimics the functions of physical hardware to run multiple virtual machines simultaneously on a single
physical machine. Businesses use virtualization to use their hardware resources efficiently and get greater returns from their
investment. It also powers cloud computing services that help organizations manage infrastructure more efficiently.
Why is virtualization important?
By using virtualization, you can interact with any hardware resource with greater flexibility. Physical servers consume electricity, take
up storage space, and need maintenance. You are often limited by physical proximity and network design if you want to access
them. Virtualization removes all these limitations by abstracting physical hardware functionality into software. You can manage,
maintain, and use your hardware infrastructure like an application on the web.
Virtualization example
Consider a company that needs servers for three functions:
Store business email securely
Run a customer-facing application
Run internal business applications
Each of these functions has different configuration requirements:
The email application requires more storage capacity and a Windows operating system.
The customer-facing application requires a Linux operating system and high processing power to handle large volumes of website
traffic.
The internal business application requires iOS and more internal memory (RAM).

WHAT IS DEVICE MANAGER?

Device Manager is a tool in Windows that allows you to view and manage the hardware devices on your computer. It shows a list of
all the components, such as your keyboard, mouse, hard drives, USB devices, and more. You can use it to update drivers, disable or e
nable devices, and troubleshoot hardware issues. It's like your computer's backstage manager, making sure everything's working as i
t should.
Device Manager is an extension of the Microsoft Management Console that provides a central and organized view of all the
Microsoft Windows recognized hardware installed in a computer.
Managing hardware devices installed in a computer, like hard disk drives, keyboards, sound cards, USB devices, and more, can be
done through Device Manager.
You can use it to change hardware configuration options, manage drivers, disable and enable hardware, identify conflicts between
hardware devices, and much more.

WHAT IS IP address?
An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique string of numbers separated by periods or colons that identifi
es each device using the Internet Protocol to communicate over a network.

Structure and Types of IP Address

An IP address represents an Internet Protocol address. A unique address that identifies the device over the network. It is almost like a set of rules
governing the structure of data sent over the Internet or through a local network. An IP address helps the Internet to distinguish between
different routers, computers, and websites. It serves as a specific machine identifier in a specific network and helps to improve visual
communication between source and destination.
IP address structure: IP addresses are displayed as a set of four digits- the default address may be 192.158.1.38. Each number on the set may
range from 0 to 255. Therefore, the total IP address range ranges from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.
IP address is basically divided into two parts: X1. X2. X3. X4
1. [X1. X2. X3] is the Network ID
2. [X4] is the Host ID
Network ID–
It is the part of the left-hand IP address that identifies the specific network where the device is located. In the normal home network, where the
device has an IP address 192.168.1.32, the 192.168.1 part of the address will be the network ID. It is customary to fill in the last part that is not
zero, so we can say that the device’s network ID is 192.168.1.0.
Hosting ID–
The host ID is part of the IP address that was not taken by the network ID. Identifies a specific device (in the TCP / IP world, we call devices
“host”) in that network. Continuing with our example of the IP address 192.168.1.32, the host ID will be 32- the unique host ID on the
192.168.1.0 network.
Version of IP address:
Currently there are 2 versions of IP addresses are in use i.e IPV4 and IPV6
IPV4 (Internet Protocol Version 4): It is the first version of Internet Protocol address. The address size of IPV4 is 32 bit number. In this Internet
Protocol Security (IPSec) with respect to network security is optional. It is having 4,294,967,296 number of address still we are seeing a shortage
in network addresses as the use of network & virtual devices are increasing rapidly.
IPV6 (Internet Protocol Version 6): It is the recent version of Internet Protocol address. The address size of IPV6 is 128 bit number. In this
Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) with respect to network security is mandatory. It allows 3.4 x 10^38 unique IP addresses which seems to be
more than sufficient to support trillions of internet devices present now or coming in future.
IP Address Types:
There are 4 types of IP Addresses- Public, Private, Fixed, and Dynamic. Among them, public and private addresses are derived from their local
network location, which should be used within the network while public IP is used offline.
Public IP address–
A public IP address is an Internet Protocol address, encrypted by various servers/devices. That’s when you connect these devices with your
internet connection. This is the same IP address we show on our homepage. So why the second page? Well, not all people speak the IP language.
We want to make it as easy as possible for everyone to get the information they need. Some even call this their external IP address. A public
Internet Protocol address is an Internet Protocol address accessed over the Internet. Like the postal address used to deliver mail to your home,
the public Internet Protocol address is a different international Internet Protocol address assigned to a computer device. The web server, email
server, and any server device that has direct access to the Internet are those who will enter the public Internet Protocol address. Internet
Address Protocol is unique worldwide and is only supplied with a unique device.
Private IP address–
Everything that connects to your Internet network has a private IP address. This includes computers, smartphones, and tablets but also any
Bluetooth-enabled devices such as speakers, printers, or smart TVs. With the growing internet of things, the number of private IP addresses you
have at home is likely to increase. Your router needs a way to identify these things separately, and most things need a way to get to know each
other. Therefore, your router generates private IP addresses that are unique identifiers for each device that separates the network.
Static IP Address–
A static IP address is an invalid IP address. Conversely, a dynamic IP address will be provided by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
server, which can change. The Static IP address does not change but can be changed as part of normal network management.
Static IP addresses are incompatible, given once, remain the same over the years. This type of IP also helps you get more information about the
device.
Dynamic IP address–
It means constant change. A dynamic IP address changes from time to time and is not always the same. If you have a live cable or DSL service,
you may have a strong IP address. Internet Service Providers provide customers with dynamic IP addresses because they are too expensive.
Instead of one permanent IP address, your IP address is taken out of the address pool and assigned to you. After a few days, weeks, or sometimes
even months, that number is returned to the lake and given a new number. Most ISPs will not provide a static IP address to customers who live
there and when they do, they are usually more expensive. Dynamic IP addresses are annoying, but with the right software, you can navigate
easily and for free.
Types of Website IP address:
Website IP address is of two types- Dedicated IP Address and Shared IP Address. Let us discuss the two.
Dedicated IP address–
A dedicated IP address is one that is unique for each website. This address is not used by any other domain. A dedicated IP address is beneficial in
many ways. It provides increased speed when the traffic load is high and brings in increased security. But dedicated IPs are costly as compared to
shared IPs.
Shared IP address–
A shared IP address is one that is not unique. It is shared between multiple domains. A shared IP address is enough for most users because
common configurations don’t require a dedicated IP.
IP Address Classification Based on Operational Characteristics:
According to operational characteristics, IP address is classified as follows:
Broadcast addressing–
The term ‘Broadcast’ means to transmit audio or video over a network. A broadcast packet is sent to all users of a local network at once. They do
not have to be explicitly named as recipients. The users of a network can open the data packets and then interpret the information, carry out the
instructions or discard it. This service is available in IPv4. The IP address commonly used for broadcasting is 255.255.255.255
Unicast addressing–
This address identifies a unique node on the network. Unicast is nothing but one-to-one data transmission from one point in the network to
another. It is the most common form of IP addressing. This method can be used for both sending and receiving data. It is available in IPv4 and
IPv6.
Multicast IP addresses–
These IP addresses mainly help to establish one-to-many communication. Multicast IP routing protocols are used to distribute data to multiple
recipients. The class D addresses (224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255) define the multicast group.
Anycast addressing–
In anycast addressing the data, a packet is not transmitted to all the receivers on the network. When a data packet is allocated to an anycast
address, it is delivered to the closest interface that has this anycast address.

Define USB:- Universal serial bus (USB) is defined as a standard that mentions the specifications used by cables, ports, and protocols that enable
simple and universally accepted connectivity between a host and peripheral device.
Types of USB Ports: - USB ports have evolved over the years to meet different needs and devices: -
. Here are the main types:
USB-A
Most common type: Found on computers, power banks, and many other devices.
Standard connector: Used for connecting peripherals like keyboards, mice, and flash drives.
USB-B
Less common: Typically used for larger devices like printers and external hard drives.
Square connector: Usually not found on consumer electronics.
Micro-USB
Common on older smartphones and tablets: Smaller than USB-A and USB-B.
Standard for mobile devices: Used for charging and data transfer.
Mini-USB
Older mobile devices: Smaller than USB-A but larger than Micro-USB.
Less common now: Mostly replaced by Micro-USB and USB-C.
USB-C
Latest standard: Found on modern smartphones, laptops, and tablets.
Versatile connector: Can be used for charging, data transfer, and video output.
Reversible: Can be plugged in either way up.
Lightning
Apple-specific: Used exclusively for iPhones, iPads, and iPods.
Compact and reversible: Similar to USB-C in functionality.
Type-C
Future-proof: Designed to replace older USB types with a single, universal port.
High-speed data transfer: Supports faster data rates and higher power delivery.

USB 3.1
USB 3.1 is like USB on steroids! It offers faster data transfer rates and improved power delivery compared to its predecessors. Here are the highlig
hts:
Key Features of USB 3.1
Data Transfer Speed: Up to 10 Gbps, which is twice the speed of USB 3.0.
Power Delivery: Better power efficiency, can deliver more power for charging devices.
Backward Compatibility: Works with USB 3.0 and 2.0 devices.
Enhanced User Experience: Less latency, smoother performance.
It's a massive upgrade, especially for data-heavy tasks like transferring large files or connecting high-performance peripherals. Using it with a Typ
e-C connector makes it even more versatile.

USB Power Delivery

USB Power Delivery (USB PD) is a protocol that allows USB devices to charge more quickly and transfer data more efficiently. Here are its key feat
ures:
Features of USB Power Delivery
Higher Power Transfer: Supports up to 100W of power, which is enough to charge larger devices like laptops, in addition to smaller ones like smar
tphones and tablets.
Dynamic Power Adjustment: Devices can negotiate and adjust power levels to suit their needs, optimizing both speed and safety.
Versatility: USB PD works across different types of USB connectors, including USB-C, making it very adaptable.
Bidirectional Charging: Not only can your device get charged, but it can also provide power to
other devices.

Extra Information: -
OS Virtualization
With the help of OS virtualization nothing is pre-installed or permanently loaded on the local device and no-hard disk is needed. Everything
runs from the network using a kind of virtual disk. This virtual disk is actually a disk image file stored on a remote server, SAN (Storage Area
Network) or NAS (Non-volatile Attached Storage). The client will be connected by the network to this virtual disk and will boot with the
Operating System installed on the virtual disk.
How does OS Virtualization works?
Components needed for using OS Virtualization in the infrastructure are given below:
The first component is the OS Virtualization server. This server is the center point in the OS Virtualization infrastructure. The server manages
the streaming of the information on the virtual disks for the client and also determines which client will be connected to which virtual disk
(using a database, this information is stored). Also the server can host the storage for the virtual disk locally or the server is connected to the
virtual disks via a SAN (Storage Area Network). In high availability environments there can be more OS Virtualization servers to create no
redundancy and load balancing. The server also ensures that the client will be unique within the infrastructure.
Secondly, there is a client which will contact the server to get connected to the virtual disk and asks for components stored on the virtual disk
for running the operating system.
The available supporting components are database for storing the configuration and settings for the server, a streaming service for the virtual
disk content, a (optional) TFTP service and a (also optional) PXE boot service for connecting the client to the OS Virtualization servers.
As it is already mentioned that the virtual disk contains an image of a physical disk from the system that will reflect to the configuration and
the settings of those systems which will be using the virtual disk. When the virtual disk is created then that disk needs to be assigned to the
client that will be using this disk for starting. The connection between the client and the disk is made through the administrative tool and
saved within the database. When a client has a assigned disk, the machine can be started with the virtual disk using the following process as

displayed in the given below Figure:

1) Connecting to the OS Virtualization server:
First we start the machine and set up the connection with the OS Virtualization server. Most of the products offer several possible methods
to connect with the server. One of the most popular and used methods is using a PXE service, but also a boot strap is used a lot (because of
the disadvantages of the PXE service). Although each method initializes the network interface card (NIC), receiving a (DHCP-based) IP address
and a connection to the server.
2) Connecting the Virtual Disk:
When the connection is established between the client and the server, the server will look into its database for checking the client is known
or unknown and which virtual disk is assigned to the client. When more than one virtual disk are connected then a boot menu will be
displayed on the client side. If only one disk is assigned, that disk will be connected to the client which is mentioned in step number 3.
3) VDisk connected to the client:
After the desired virtual disk is selected by the client, that virtual disk is connected through the OS Virtualization server . At the back-end, the
OS Virtualization server makes sure that the client will be unique (for example computer name and identifier) within the infrastructure.
4) OS is "streamed" to the client:
As soon the disk is connected the server starts streaming the content of the virtual disk. The software knows which parts are necessary for
starting the operating system smoothly, so that these parts are streamed first. The information streamed in the system should be stored
somewhere (i.e. cached). Most products offer several ways to cache that information. For examples on the client hard disk or on the disk of
the OS Virtualization server.
5) Additional Streaming:
After that the first part is streamed then the operating system will start to run as expected. Additional virtual disk data will be streamed
when required for running or starting a function called by the user (for example starting an application available within the virtual disk).

Virtualization in Cloud Computing

Virtualization is the "creation of a virtual (rather than actual) version of something, such as a server, a desktop, a storage device, an operating
system or network resources".
In other words, Virtualization is a technique, which allows to share a single physical instance of a resource or an application among multiple
customers and organizations. It does by assigning a logical name to a physical storage and providing a pointer to that physical resource when
demanded.
What is the concept behind the Virtualization?
Creation of a virtual machine over existing operating system and hardware is known as Hardware Virtualization. A Virtual machine provides an
environment that is logically separated from the underlying hardware.
The machine on which the virtual machine is going to create is known as Host Machine and that virtual machine is referred as a Guest Machine
Types of Virtualization:
Hardware Virtualization.
Operating system Virtualization.
Server Virtualization.
Storage Virtualization.
1) Hardware Virtualization:
When the virtual machine software or virtual machine manager (VMM) is directly installed on the hardware system is known as hardware
virtualization.
The main job of hypervisor is to control and monitoring the processor, memory and other hardware resources.
After virtualization of hardware system, we can install different operating system on it and run different applications on those OS.
Usage:
Hardware virtualization is mainly done for the server platforms, because controlling virtual machines is much easier than controlling a physical
server.
2) Operating System Virtualization:
When the virtual machine software or virtual machine manager (VMM) is installed on the Host operating system instead of directly on the
hardware system is known as operating system virtualization.
Usage:
Operating System Virtualization is mainly used for testing the applications on different platforms of OS.
3) Server Virtualization:
When the virtual machine software or virtual machine manager (VMM) is directly installed on the Server system is known as server virtualization.
Usage:
Server virtualization is done because a single physical server can be divided into multiple servers on the demand basis and for balancing the load.
4) Storage Virtualization:
Storage virtualization is the process of grouping the physical storage from multiple network storage devices so that it looks like a single storage
device.
Storage virtualization is also implemented by using software applications.
Usage:
Storage virtualization is mainly done for back-up and recovery purposes.
How does virtualization work in cloud computing?
Virtualization plays a very important role in the cloud computing technology, normally in the cloud computing, users share the data present in
the clouds like application etc, but actually with the help of virtualization users shares the infrastructure.
The main usage of Virtualization Technology is to provide the applications with the standard versions to their cloud users, suppose if the next
version of that application is released, then cloud provider has to provide the latest version to their cloud users and practically it is possible
because it is more expensive.
To overcome this problem we use basically virtualization technology, By using virtualization, all severs and the software application which are
required by other cloud providers are maintained by the third party people, and the cloud providers has to pay the money on monthly or annual
basis.

Conclusion
Mainly Virtualization means, running multiple operating systems on a single machine but sharing all the hardware resources. And it helps us to
provide the pool of IT resources so that we can share these IT resources in order get benefits in the business.
Hard Disk Drive HDD
A hard disk drive (HDD) is an internal or external computer component that stores data, such as the operating system, applications, and user files.
HDDs are “non-volatile” storage devices, meaning they retain stored data even when power isn't being supplied.
How does a hard drive work?
An HDD includes two main elements; a spinning platter and an actuator arm.
The platter is a circular magnetic disk containing tracks and sectors that retain data.
The actuator arm moves across the platter to read and write data.
The platter spins (hence the name) on a spindle to help speed up the read/write process as the actuator arm moves across it.
The data sectors are spread out randomly (also known as fragmented) across the platter.
What is an SSD? (Solid State Drive)
An SSD, or solid-state drive, is a type of storage device used in computers. This non-volatile storage media stores persistent data on solid-state
flash memory. SSDs replace traditional hard disk drives (HDDs) in computers and perform the same basic functions as a hard drive. But SSDs are
significantly faster in comparison. With an SSD, the device's operating system will boot up more rapidly, programs will load quicker and files can
be saved faster.