1.

1 General
Limit State Design (LSD), also known as Load And Resistance Factor Design (LRFD), refers
to a design method used in structural engineering. A limit state is a condition of a
structure beyond which it no longer fulfills the relevant design criteria.[1] The condition
may refer to a degree of loading or other actions on the structure, while the criteria refer
to structural integrity, fitness for use, durability or other design requirements. A structure
designed by LSD is proportioned to sustain all actions likely to occur during its design life,
and to remain fit for use, with an appropriate level of reliability for each limit state.
Building codes based on LSD implicitly define the appropriate levels of reliability by their
prescriptions

The method of limit state design, developed in the USSR and based on research led by
Professor N.S. Streletski, was introduced in USSR building regulations in 1955.

Allowable Stress Design

Allowable Stress Design (ASD) is also referred to as the service load design or working
stress design (WSD). The basic conception (or design philosophy) of this method is that
the maximum stress in a structural member is always smaller than a certain allowable
stress in bridge working or service conditions. The allowable stress of a material
determined according to its nominal strength over the safety factor.

1.2 Bridge
The bridge, a connecting structure, creates bonding between different disconnected parts
of a country, two banks of the ocean or parts of two countries. A Bridge is a structural
marvel which is generally used to pass any type of obstruction that can slow the life of
people. From the very beginning, engineers were trying to win over nature and
consequently, they have invented bridge structure which can use to overcome the
mentioned natural obstacles.
1.3 Component of bridge

Figure(1.1): Components of Bridge

Components of Bridge
The major parts of a bridge

1. Substructure
2. Superstructure
3. Adjoining structure

1.3.1 substructure
The structure of the bridge below the level of bearings is known as
the Substructure. It consists of the following. The function of
the substructure is to support the superstructure components and
transmit their loads safely to the subsoil,

Abutments

It is a structure mostly used for bridges and dams as a substructure at the

ends of a bridge span or dam and on that superstructure is rest. Bridge
with a single span has two abutments that offer vertical and lateral
support. It also plays the role of retaining walls to resist lateral movement of
the earthen fill of the bridge approach.
 Figure (1.2): Abutment of Bridge

The abutment can also be defined by the structure supporting one side of
an arch, or masonry used to resist the lateral forces.

Piers

Piers provide intermediate support between two bridge spans. Bridge piers
mainly support the bridge superstructure element and transfer the load to
the foundation.

Pier must be strong to handle the horizontal as well as

lateral. Piers are known as compression members of the bridge.

Wing Walls

It is one of the earth retaining structures in the bridge. They are located
adjacent to the abutments and act as retaining walls. Wing wall retains
soil for abutment, roadway, and approach embankment, which can be at
a right angle to the abutment or splayed at different angles.

Figure (1.3): Wing Walls

1.3.2 Superstructure

The components of the bridge above the bearing are known as

superstructures.

It consists of the following.

Beams and girders

Both have a similar function to support the roadway and prevent bending.
Girder is also one type of beam support. Where loads are heavy girders are
used instead of beam support.

Beam has a rectangle cross-section, whereas girders have composed of I-

shaped cross–sections with two load-bearing flanges and a web
for stabilization.

Bearing

A bearing is provided between the bridge girder and the pier cap. The
main function of bearing to allow free movement or vibration of the top
superstructure and reduce effect stress to reach the bridge foundation.

Figure(1.4): Bearing in Bridge

Arch and Cables

Arched and Cable both have specified used. Arches are used for arch
bridge construction and cable is used for suspension, cable-stayed
bridge, etc. For different types of bridge construction arches and cables
play a vital role.
Parapet Wall and Handrail

The parapet is one of the safety components of any bridge

which prevent the vehicle from falling off where there is a drop. It is also
useful for restricting views, preventing rubbish from passing below,
and acting as noise barriers.

Flooring

Its top surface of bridge roadway on vehicle travel. It is made

of concrete or bituminous road.

1.3.3 Adjoining Structures

It consists of the following:

Approaches

It is structured constructed at the starting or ending of any bridge. Its main

function is to provide smooth and easy entry or exit from the bridge.

Guard Stones

They are used to restrict traffic on a particular lane or sometimes as road

railing but are generally positioned to protect a specific object, such as
a corner of a street or the side of a gate.

1.4 Type of bridge

Figure(1.5): Type of bridges

There are 7 main types of bridges: Arch Bridge, Beam Bridge, Cable-
stayed Bridge, Cantilever Bridge, Suspension Bridge, Truss Bridge, Tied
Arch Bridge. The way in which the vertical/horizontal stresses are
managed dictates the structure of different bridges. In some cases the
deck area will be the load-bearing element while in others it will be the
towers. There are also designs that transmit tension through bridge
cables which allow a degree of flexibility for different terrains.

One interesting factor when looking at different bridge designs is their

longevity and the fact they have been around for centuries. Many of the
world‟s greatest engineers have failed to add any significant
improvements to the basic load-bearing designs of years gone by. We will
now take a look at the different types of bridges and how they work

Types of bridges

The 7 main types of bridges are:

1-Arch Bridge

2-Beam Bridge

3-Cable-stayed Bridge

4-Cantilever Bridge

5-Suspension Bridge

6-Truss Bridge

7-Tied Arch Bridge

The 5 main types of bridges are:

1-Arch Bridge

2-Beam Bridge

3-Cable-stayed Bridge
4-Suspension Bridg

5-Truss Bridge

1.4.1 Beam Bridges

Figure(1.6): Beam Bridges

palest types of bridge. A perfect example being a basic log bridge –

something you may see while out on a country walk.

The deck area traditionally consists of wood plank or stone slabs (often
referred to as a clapper bridge). These are supported either side by two
beams running between abutments/piers.

Very often you will find other beams, positioned in between the main
beams, offering additional support and stability.

The area over which people or vehicles travel will be a simple decking
positioned vertically across the underlying beams. This is often referred
to as a “simply supported” structure. There is no transfer of stress which
you see in arch structures and other types of bridges.

1.4.2 Truss bridges

 Figure(1.7): Truss bridges

The truss bridge has been around for literally centuries and is a load-
bearing structure which incorporates a truss in a highly efficient yet very
simple design. You will notice an array of different variations of the
simple truss bridge but they all incorporate triangular sections. The role
of these triangular elements is important because they effectively absorb
tension and compression to create a stressed structure able to
accommodate dynamic loads. This mixture of tension and compression
ensures the structure of the bridge is maintained and the decking area
remains uncompromised even in relatively strong winds.

Figure(1.8): Truss Bridge-Francis Scott Key Bridge

1.4.3 Cantilever bridges

 Figure(1.9): Cantilever bridges

When the first cantilever bridge was designed it was seen as a major
engineering breakthrough. The bridge works by using cantilevers which
may be simple beams or trusses. They are made from pre-stressed
concrete or structural steel when used to accommodate traffic. When you
consider that the horizontal beams making up the cantilever arm are only
supported from one side it does begin to sound a little dangerous.
However, the two cantilever arms are connected by what is known as the
“suspended span” which is effectively a centerpiece which has no direct
support underneath. The bridge load is supported through diagonal
bracing with horizontal beams as opposed to typical vertical bracing.
Extremely safe and very secure, the design of cantilever bridges is one
which still lives on today.

Figure(1.10): Cantilever bridge: Forth Bridge, Scotland

1.4.4 Arch Bridges

There are many different types of arch bridge but they all have central
elements in common. Each bridge has abutments, which are used to
support the curved arch structure under the bridge. The most common
type of arch bridge is a viaduct, a long bridge made up of many arches.
The lateral pressure created by the arch span is transferred into the
supporting abutments. It is therefore essential that these parts of the
bridge remain solid, intact and well founded. You will see many arch
bridges with decorative brickwork which is an integral part of the design.
Simple yet so very effective an arch bridge can carry everything from
pedestrians to heavy rail.

Figure(1.11) Arch Bridge: Gaoliang Bridge of The Summer Palace

1.4.5 Tied Arch Bridges

Figure (1.12): Tied Arch Bridges

The tied arch bridge is a fascinating design which incorporates an arch
structure (usually metal) supported by vertical ties between the arch and
the deck. The tips of the arch structure are connected by a bottom chord.
This acts in a similar fashion to the string of a bow. The downward
pressure from the arch structure to the deck of the bridge is translated
into tension by the vertical ties. Many people assume that the abutments
ensure that the tied arch bridge and arch structure stay in place.
However it is the decking/strengthened chord which connects the tips of
each end of the arch together. The best example of this is a bowstring
which absorbs pressure, keeping both sides of the bow in contact, until it
eventually flattens out.

Figure(1.13): Tied Arch Bridge: Infinity Bridge in Stockton-On-Tees

1.4.6 Suspension Bridges

The structure of a stereotypical suspension bridge looks very simple but

the design is extremely effective. The deck of the suspension bridge is
the load-bearing element of the structure. This is held in place by vertical
suspenders which support the cables. The suspension cables extend out
beyond each side of the bridge and are anchored firmly into the ground.
It will depend upon the size of the bridge but a number of towers will be
installed to hold up the suspension cables. Any load applied to the bridge
is transformed into tension across the suspension cables which are the
integral part of the structure. As there is some “give” in the suspension
cables this can translate into slight, but measured, bridge movement in
difficult weather conditions.
 Figure(1.14): Suspension Bridge

1.4.7 Cable-stayed bridges

A cable stayed bridge is dependent upon towers/pylons which are the

load-bearing element of the structure. Cables are connected from the
pylons to the deck below. Either directly from the top of the tower or at
different points of the column. When connected at different points of the
column this creates a fan like pattern. This is the feature many people
associate with cable stayed bridges. This type of structure tends to be
used for distances greater than those achieved with a cantilever bridge
design but less than a suspension bridge. One of the main issues with this
type of bridge is that the central connection of the cables can place
horizontal pressure on the deck. Therefore, the deck structure needs to
be reinforced to withstand these ongoing pressures.

Figure(1.15): Cable-stayed Bridge: The Rio Antirrio bridge in Greece

1.5 composite Steel-Concrete-Bridge

Composite‟ means that the steel structure of a bridge is fixed to the

concrete structure of the deck so that the steel and concrete act together,
thus reducing deflections and increasing strength. This is done using
„shear connectors‟ fixed to the steel beams and then embedded in the
concrete. Shear connectors can be welded on, perhaps using a „stud
welder‟, or better still on export work, by fixing nuts and bolts.

Composite bridge decks usually consist of a steel structure that works

together with a top concrete slab, which forms the road, rail, or
pedestrian platform. This structural solution has been adopted over the
last 50 years in small span bridges, as well as in medium and long-span
bridges.

Steel-concrete composite bridges are used as an alternative to concrete

bridges because of their ability to adapt their geometry to design
constraints and the possibility of reusing some of the materials in the
structure. In this review, we report the research carried out on the
design, behavior, optimization, construction processes, maintenance,
impact assessment, and decision-making techniques of composite bridges
in order to arrive at a complete design approach. In addition to a
qualitative analysis, a multivariate analysis is used to identify knowledge
gaps related to bridge design and to detect trends in research. An
additional objective is to make visible the gaps in the sustainable design
of composite steel-concrete bridges, which allows us to focus on future
research studies. The results of this work show how researchers have
concentrated their studies on the preliminary design of bridges with a
mainly economic approach, while at a global level, concern is directed
towards the search for sustainable solutions. It is found that life cycle
impact assessment and decision-making strategies allow bridge managers
to improve decision-making, particularly at the end of the life cycle of
composite bridges.

Mechanical connectors used in the steel-concrete composite structure can

be divided into two major types. The first one includes discrete
connectors which are usually located along the girder. Each of these
connectors was shop-welded for instance to the upper flange of steel
beam and after that got embedded in concrete on site. The other type
includes continuous types of shear connectors – a group of members,
formed in one piece, which was assumed to act as a continuous shearing
medium along the beam.