MOUNTAINS OF THE MOON UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION

EMT1101 NUMERACY SKILLS IN EDUCATION

Instructor: Issa Ndungo [email protected]

UNIT 2: VARIABLES AND RELATIONSHIPS

Section 1: Introduction to Variables

What is a Variable?

A variable is any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted. It can
change from one individual or situation to another, and it often influences or is influenced by other
variables. In simple terms, it can vary or take different values.

Examples of Variables:

 In General Life:
o Age (can vary from person to person).
o Height (varies between individuals).
o Weight (can increase or decrease over time).
 At Home:
o Number of family members (this can vary across different households).
o Monthly expenses (can fluctuate based on spending).
o Number of meals per day (may change depending on family routine).
 In School:
o Number of students enrolled (varies year by year or by school).
o Teacher salaries (can differ based on the position or level of experience).
o Student grades (change from student to student and across subjects).
o Amount of school fees (can change based on the grade level or school type).
o Number of teachers (depends on the school size).

Key Characteristics of Variables:

 Values can change: Variables aren’t fixed; they can increase, decrease, or fluctuate
depending on the situation.
 Variables are measurable: You can count or quantify variables like height, number of
students, or school fees.

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Importance of Variables in a School Context:

In a school setting, understanding variables is essential for management and decision-making.

Variables like student enrollment, grades, teacher-student ratios, and funding directly impact
school operations and outcomes. For example:

 Tracking student enrollment helps administrators plan for classroom space and resources.
 Monitoring teacher salaries ensures fair compensation based on qualifications and
performance.
 Analyzing student grades provides insight into academic performance and potential areas
for improvement.

Activity 1

A school principal is managing various aspects of the school’s operation. For each scenario below,
identify the variable(s) involved, explain whether each variable is likely to change, and state why
tracking that variable is important for school management:

1. The school’s monthly expenses on utilities (water, electricity, internet).

o (a) What is the variable in this scenario?
o (b) Will this variable change over time? Why or why not?
o (c) Why is it important for the principal to track this variable?
2. The number of students enrolled in the school for the current academic year.
o (a) What is the variable in this scenario?
o (b) Will this variable change over time? Why or why not?
o (c) Why is it important for the principal to track this variable?
3. Teacher salaries for each staff member in the school.
o (a) What is the variable in this scenario?
o (b) Will this variable change over time? Why or why not?
o (c) Why is it important for the principal to track this variable?
4. Student grades in a mathematics class at the end of the term.
o (a) What is the variable in this scenario?
o (b) Will this variable change over time? Why or why not?
o (c) Why is it important for teachers and the school to track this variable?

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Section 2: Types of Variables

1. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Variables

 Qualitative Variables: Also known as categorical variables, these describe characteristics

or categories rather than numbers. They do not have numerical value but instead, classify
or describe something.
o Examples:
 School context: Type of school (public or private), student gender (male or
female), grade level (S.1, S.2, etc.).
 General context: Eye color, nationality, occupation.
 Quantitative Variables: These variables are numerical and represent a measurable
quantity. They can be counted or measured, and arithmetic operations can be applied to
them.
o Examples:
 School context: Number of students, teacher salaries, exam scores.
 General context: Age, income, weight.

2. Dependent vs. Independent Variables

 Independent Variable: This is the variable that is manipulated or controlled in an

experiment or observation. It is believed to influence changes in another variable.
o Example: In a school setting, the amount of time spent studying could be an
independent variable because it can affect student performance.
 Dependent Variable: This is the variable that is affected by changes in the independent
variable. It is what is being measured or observed.
o Example: Student grades could be a dependent variable because they are
influenced by the amount of time students spend studying.

3. Discrete vs. Continuous Variables

 Discrete Variables: These variables can only take specific, distinct values, usually whole
numbers. They cannot take on fractional values.
o Examples:
 School context: Number of students in a classroom, number of books in the
library, number of teachers.
 General context: Number of siblings, number of cars, number of countries
visited.
 Continuous Variables: These variables can take on any value within a range and can
include fractions or decimals.
o Examples:
 School context: Student height, teacher salary, student test scores.
 General context: Temperature, weight, distance.

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Activity 2

Question 1

You are an assistant headteacher of Blue River Secondary School. For each of the following tasks,
identify whether the key variable is qualitative or quantitative and whether it is dependent or
independent, discrete or continuous. Justify your answers.

1. You are analyzing the student enrollment data across different years to see if enrollment
increases over time.
2.
o (a) Is the variable qualitative or quantitative?
o (b) Is the variable discrete or continuous?
o (c) Is the variable dependent or independent? Justify your answer.
3. The school administration is reviewing the amount of time teachers spend in professional
development workshops.
o (a) Is the variable qualitative or quantitative?
o (b) Is the variable discrete or continuous?
o (c) Is the variable dependent or independent? Justify your answer.
4. The principal is tracking the types of extracurricular activities that students participate in
(sports, arts, science clubs, etc.).
o (a) Is the variable qualitative or quantitative?
o (b) Is the variable discrete or continuous?
o (c) Is the variable dependent or independent? Justify your answer.

Question 2

You are the headteacher of Green Valley Secondary School. As part of your duties, you need to
manage various aspects of school operations. For each of the following tasks, identify the key
variable, classify it as either qualitative or quantitative, and explain whether it is discrete or
continuous.

1. You are reviewing the types of meals students choose in the school cafeteria.
o (a) What is the variable in this case?
o (b) Is this variable qualitative or quantitative?
o (c) Is this variable discrete or continuous? Justify your answer.
2. You are calculating the school’s monthly expenditure on classroom supplies.
o (a) What is the variable in this case?
o (b) Is this variable qualitative or quantitative?
o (c) Is this variable discrete or continuous? Justify your answer.
3. You are analyzing the gender of students enrolled at the school to determine any
imbalances in enrollment.
o (a) What is the variable in this case?
o (b) Is this variable qualitative or quantitative?
o (c) Is this variable discrete or continuous? Justify your answer.
4. You are managing the number of teachers in each department to ensure balanced staffing.

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 o (a) What is the variable in this case?
o (b) Is this variable qualitative or quantitative?
o (c) Is this variable discrete or continuous? Justify your answer.
5. You are tracking the classroom temperature throughout the day to ensure a comfortable
learning environment.
o (a) What is the variable in this case?
o (b) Is this variable qualitative or quantitative?
o (c) Is this variable discrete or continuous? Justify your answer.

Section 3: Relationships between Variables

Understanding the relationships between variables helps predict outcomes, make decisions, and
identify patterns.

1. What Is the Relationship Between Variables?

A relationship between variables refers to how one variable affects or is affected by another. For
example, in a school context:

 The number of study hours may affect student grades.

 Class size might impact the quality of learning.
 School funding could influence student performance.

These relationships help us understand whether increasing, decreasing, or changing one variable
can lead to changes in another.

2. Types of Relationships

 Positive Relationship: This occurs when an increase in one variable leads to an increase
in another.
o Example: The more hours a student studies, the higher their grades tend to be.
 Negative Relationship: This occurs when an increase in one variable leads to a decrease
in another.
o Example: The larger the class size, the lower the individual attention a student
receives.
 No Relationship (Zero Correlation): This occurs when changes in one variable do not
affect another.
o Example: The type of shoes a student wears does not affect their academic
performance.

3. Examples of Relationships in a School Context

 Positive Relationship:
o The number of hours a student studies and their exam scores.

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 o
The number of teachers in a school and the quality of student support.
 Negative Relationship:
o Class size and individual student performance.
o Teacher absenteeism and student achievement.
 No Relationship:
o The color of classroom walls and student grades.
o The type of stationery used and attendance rate.

4. Understanding Correlation

 Strong Positive Correlation: As one variable increases, the other increases significantly.
 Weak Positive Correlation: As one variable increases, the other increases slightly.
 Strong Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases significantly.
 Weak Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases slightly.
 No Correlation: There is no observable relationship between the two variables.

Activity 3

You are a newly appointed Director of Studies at Maple Grove High School. You have been asked
to analyze the relationships between various school-related variables to help the administration
make better decisions. For each of the following scenarios, identify the type of relationship
(positive, negative, or no relationship), and briefly explain your reasoning:

1. Study hours and exam scores:

o (a) What is the relationship between these two variables?
o (b) Provide a brief explanation for your answer.
2. Class size and student performance:
o (a) What is the relationship between these two variables?
o (b) Provide a brief explanation for your answer.
3. Teacher absenteeism and student achievement:
o (a) What is the relationship between these two variables?
o (b) Provide a brief explanation for your answer.
4. Number of computers in the school and student participation in digital learning:
o (a) What is the relationship between these two variables?
o (b) Provide a brief explanation for your answer.
5. Type of school uniform and student grades:
o (a) What is the relationship between these two variables?
o (b) Provide a brief explanation for your answer.

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Section 4: Forming Relationships as Equations

Understanding how to form equations helps in predicting outcomes, making decisions, and
interpreting data in a school context.

1. Expressing Relationships in Equations

When two variables have a relationship, we can often express that relationship using an equation.
For example, if we know that student grades depend on the number of study hours, we can create
an equation to represent this relationship.

2. Structure of an Equation

The general form of an equation that shows the relationship between two variables is:

𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 + 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

 Dependent Variable: The outcome that changes based on the independent variable (e.g.,
student grades).
 Independent Variable: The factor that influences the dependent variable (e.g., study hours).
 Coefficient: The rate at which the independent variable affects the dependent variable.
 Constant: A fixed value that adjusts the equation to fit the real data.

3. Example of Forming an Equation in a School Context

Suppose we observe that student grades improve by 5 points for every additional hour spent
studying. If a student who studies for 2 hours scores 60 points, we can form an equation as follows:

 Let G represent the grade (dependent variable).

 Let H represent the number of study hours (independent variable).

The equation becomes: 𝐺 = 5𝐻 + 50

In this case:

 The coefficient is 5, meaning that for every additional hour of study, the student’s grade
increases by 5 points.
 The constant is 50, meaning that even without studying, the student starts with a base grade
of 50.

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4. Interpreting the Equation

From the equation 𝐺 = 5𝐻 + 50, we can make predictions:

 If a student studies for 4 hours, we can predict their grade by substituting 𝐻 = 4 into the
equation: 𝐺 = 5(4) + 50 = 20 + 50 = 70

This means that a student who studies for 4 hours is predicted to score 70 points.

5. Application in School Context

Equations are powerful tools in school management and decision-making. They allow
administrators and teachers to predict outcomes, analyze trends, and optimize resources. For
example:

 Predicting student performance based on study habits.

 Calculating total school expenses by forming equations using different expenditure
categories.
 Estimating resource needs, such as the number of textbooks required based on student
enrollment.

Activity 4

You are the headteacher of River Valley Secondary School. Based on recent data, you have
observed that student grades are affected by the number of hours they spend studying and the
amount of time they spend on extracurricular activities.

1. Study Hours and Student Grades

You have found that for every additional hour of study, student grades increase by 4
points. If a student who studies for 3 hours scores 70 points, form an equation to
represent the relationship between study hours and grades.
o (a) Write the equation.
o (b) Using the equation, predict the grade of a student who studies for 5 hours.
o (c) Interpret the meaning of the coefficient and constant in your equation.
2.
3. Extracurricular Activities and Student Performance
You have also noticed that for every 2 hours a student spends in extracurricular activities,
their grades decrease by 1 point. If a student who spends 4 hours in extracurricular
activities scores 80 points, form an equation to represent this relationship.
o (a) Write the equation.
o (b) Using the equation, predict the grade of a student who spends 6 hours in
extracurricular activities.

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Section 5: Graphical Representation of Data

Graphs are a visual way to represent data, helping us to identify patterns, trends, and relationships
between variables. In a school context, graphs can be used to display data like student performance,
attendance rates, or resource allocation, making it easier to understand and make decisions.

1. Types of Graphs

Several types of graphs can be used to represent data, each serving different purposes:

 Scatter Plots: Used to show the relationship between two variables and determine if there
is a correlation (positive, negative, or no correlation).
o Example: Plotting the number of hours studied (X-axis) against student grades (Y-
axis) to see if more study hours lead to better grades.
 Line Graphs: Used to show trends over time.
o Example: Plotting the average student performance over several months to observe
if grades are improving or declining over time.
 Bar Graphs: Used to compare different categories of data.
o Example: Comparing the number of students enrolled in different subjects (math,
science, etc.) using bars.
 Histograms: Used to show the distribution of a single variable.
o Example: Showing the distribution of student test scores to see if most students
scored high, low, or in the middle range.

2. Scatter Plots and Correlation

A scatter plot helps you visualize the relationship between two variables by plotting data points.
The pattern of the points indicates the type of correlation:

 Positive Correlation: The points slope upwards, showing that as one variable increases,
the other also increases.
 Negative Correlation: The points slope downwards, showing that as one variable
increases, the other decreases.
 No Correlation: The points are scattered randomly, showing no clear relationship between
the two variables.

Example: Plotting hours of study vs. exam scores. If the points form a line sloping upwards, it
indicates a positive correlation: more study hours lead to higher grades.

3. Line Graphs for Time-Based Data

A line graph is ideal for tracking changes over time. It helps in identifying trends, such as whether
something is increasing, decreasing, or staying constant.

Example: A school could use a line graph to track the improvement of student attendance rates
over the course of a school year.

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4. Bar Graphs for Comparisons

A bar graph uses rectangular bars to represent different categories or groups. Each bar’s height
represents the value of the category.

Example: A school might use a bar graph to compare the number of boys and girls enrolled in
different sports activities.

5. Histograms for Data Distribution

A histogram is used to show how a set of data is distributed. It groups data into ranges (bins) and
shows the frequency of data points within each range.

Example: A histogram could show the distribution of students’ exam scores to identify if most
students are performing well or if the scores are widely spread out.

Activity 5

Question:

You are the Director of Studies at Redwood High School, tasked with analyzing student data to
inform school policies. Use the following scenarios to apply your understanding of different types
of graphs:

1. Student Grades and Study Hours:

You have collected data on student grades and their corresponding study hours.
o (a) Which type of graph would you use to represent this relationship?
o (b) Draw a scatter plot using the following data and determine if there is a positive,
negative, or no correlation

Study Hours Grades

2 50
4 60
6 75
8 85
10 90

2. Monthly Attendance Rates:

The principal wants to know how the school’s attendance rate has changed over the last 6
months.
o (a) Which type of graph would you use to track attendance over time?
o (b) Using the following data, plot a line graph and describe the trend

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 Month Attendance Rate (%)
January 85
February 88
March 92
April 90
May 93
June 95

3. Number of Students in Extracurricular Activities:

You want to compare the number of students involved in various extracurricular activities
(Sports, Arts, Music, Debate).
o (a) Which type of graph would you use to make this comparison?
o (b) Explain why this graph is suitable for comparing categories.

Section 6: Cross-Tabulation and Data Interpretation

Cross-tabulation is a method for comparing the relationship between two or more categorical
variables by arranging data into a table format. It helps identify trends, patterns, and differences
across groups. In a school context, cross-tabulation is useful for comparing data such as student
performance across different grade levels, genders, or subject areas.

1. What is Cross-Tabulation?

Cross-tabulation is a way of organizing data in a table. One variable is listed in rows, and another
is listed in columns. Each cell in the table shows the frequency or count of occurrences for
combining those variables.

 Example: A table that shows how many boys and girls scored high, medium, or low grades
in a math exam.

Grade Boys Girls

High 15 18
Medium 25 22
Low 10 12

2. Interpreting Cross-Tabulated Data

When data is cross-tabulated, it becomes easier to compare categories and draw conclusions. In
the example above, you can compare the performance of boys and girls in the math exam:

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  Boys vs. Girls in High Grades: 18 girls scored high grades compared to 15 boys.
 Overall Performance: More girls scored high and medium grades than boys.

By looking at the totals, you can identify which group performed better or worse, or if there is a
significant difference between groups.

3. Applications of Cross-Tabulation in a School Context

Cross-tabulation is commonly used to analyze:

 Student performance by gender, grade level, or subject.

 Attendance rates by class, gender, or age group.
 Teacher evaluation scores across different subjects or grade levels.
 Resource usage (such as textbooks or computers) by subject or department.

4. Comparison and Summary Statistics

When interpreting cross-tabulated data, you can focus on:

 Maximum and Minimum: Identifying the highest and lowest values in a table.
o Example: Which group has the highest number of high grades?
 Averages or Proportions: Comparing the average performance across categories.
o Example: What proportion of students scored high grades compared to medium or
low?
 Trends: Observing if certain groups consistently perform better or worse over time or
across different variables.

5. Making Data-Driven Decisions

Cross-tabulation helps school administrators make informed decisions based on comparisons:

 Identify problem areas: If certain classes or groups consistently perform lower, you can
intervene.
 Allocate resources effectively: If some subjects or groups lack resources, you can adjust
allocations to improve outcomes.
 Monitor progress: By cross-tabulating data over time, you can see if interventions or
policy changes are having the desired effect.

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Activity 6

Question:

You are the Head of the Academic Department at Bright Future Secondary School. You have been
asked to analyze the relationship between gender and student performance in the mid-term
mathematics exam. The data is shown below:

Performance Level Boys Girls

High 20 25
Medium 30 35
Low 15 10

1. (a) Using the data provided, which performance level has the highest number of students?
2. (b) Compare the performance of boys and girls. Which gender performed better overall?
Explain your reasoning using the data.
3. (c) What proportion of the girls achieved a high-performance level? Express your answer
as a percentage.
4. (d) If the total number of students is 135, calculate the proportion of students in each
performance level (high, medium, and low). Express your answer as percentages.

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