The lap winding can be defined as a coil which can be lap back toward the succeeding coil.

The wave winding can be defined as the loop of the winding can form the signal shape. The
connection of the lap winding is, the armature coil end is connected to the nearby section on
the commutators.
This is a direct method of testing the motor. In this method, the motor is put on the direct
load by means of a belt and pulley arrangement. Bu adjusting the tension of belt, the load is
adjusted to give the various values of currents. The load is finally adjusted to get full load
current.
MMF Method is also known as Ampere Turn Method. The synchronous impedance method
is based on the concept of replacing the effect of armature reaction with an imaginary
reactance, the Magnetomotive force (MMF).
SCRs are mainly used in devices where the control of high power, possibly at high voltage,
is needed. The ability to switch large currents on and off makes the SCR suitable for use in
medium to high-voltage AC power control applications, such as lamp dimming, regulators
and motor control.
In AC electrical power systems, a synchroscope is a device that indicates the degree to
which two systems (generators or power networks) are synchronized with each other. For
two electrical systems to be synchronized, both systems must operate at the
same frequency, and the phase angle between the systems must be zero (and two
polyphase systems must have the same phase sequence). Synchroscopes measure and
display the frequency difference and phase angle between two power systems. Only when
these two quantities are zero is it safe to connect the two systems together. Connecting two
unsynchronized AC power systems together is likely to cause high currents to flow, which
will severely damage any equipment not protected by fuses or circuit breakers.

Starting Torque:The torque is being developed at the starting time of the motor. It is also
called as breakaway torque. The starting torque of the synchronous motor is purely
depending on the method of starting the motor.

Running Torque:The full load torque of the motor is called running torque. The running
torque is defending on the motor specifications.

Pull-in Torque:Let we assume the synchronous motor is started and the speed is nearer to
the synchronous speed, during that time the stator pulls the rotor into synchronism, that
torque is called pull-in torque.

Pull out Torque:Let we assume the motor is running at the maximum torque, beyond that
slight increase in load causes the motor pulls out the synchronism, that maximum torque is
called pull out torque. The pull out torque will be three to four-time of the full load torque of
the motor.
Losses in synchronous machine

 Friction and windage losses do not depend upon the load condition of the machine;
They are the function of the speed only, thus for the most synchronous machine they
are constant.
 The core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) depends upon the speed and
magnitude of the rotating magnetic field.
Efficiency in synchronous machine
Synchronous motors can achieve efficiencies of >90% in some cases and are generally
more energy-efficient than induction motors

At the starting of the motor there is no back emf, so large current current flows cause high
starting torque. This starting torque leads to very fast acceleration of motor if shaft is not
connected to any load. This fast acceleration cause motor to damage. So series motor are
always started with load.
If the shunt field is open it will not conduct field current and therefore not produce any field
flux magnetism. With no field flux the armature cannot produce rotational torque. With no
rotation and no field flux the armature cannot produce Counter Electromotive Voltage to limit
armature current.
The Synchronous Reactance (XS) is the imaginary reactance employed to account for the
voltage effects in the armature circuit produced by the actual armature leakage reactance
and by the change in the air gap flux caused by the armature reaction.
the Synchronous Impedance ZS is a fictitious impedance employed to account for the
voltage effects in the armature circuit produced by the actual armature resistance, the actual
armature leakage reactance, and the change in the air gap flux produced by the armature
reaction.
A starter is necessary to start a DC motor because it restricts the initial high armature
current that exists, as the value of starting back-EMF is zero. Without a starter high current
flow through the armature at starting.
The speed-torque characteristics of DC shunt motor are also known as mechanical
characteristics. They can be obtained from torque-current and speed-current characteristics
of DC shunt motor.

The speed-torque characteristics of DC series motor can be obtained or derived from the
torque-current and speed-current characteristics of DC series motor. Therefore, armature
torque and speed has inverse relationship

The bus whose voltage and frequency remain constant even after the variation in the load is
known as the infinite bus. The alternators operating in parallel in a power system are the
example of the infinite bus. The on and off of any of the alternators will not affect the working
of the power system.

A synchronous motor works on the principle of motional EMF that is, a conductor tends to
rotate due to the effect of the magnetic field. To provide a magnetic field, two ways are used
that is a three-phase AC supply and a constant DC power supply to the stator. A
conventional synchronous condenser is an AC synchronous motor that is not attached to
any driven equipment. The device can provide continuous reactive power control when used
with the suitable automatic exciter. An increase of the device's field excitation results in
providing magnetizing power (kVAr) to the system.

Power Angle Curve of Synchronous Machine is the graphical representation of electrical

output with respect to the power angle. As we know, power angle is also known as load
angle, therefore it can be said that this curve is graphical representation of electrical output
of generator with respect to load angle
Synchronous Machine constitutes of both synchronous motors as well as synchronous
generators. An AC system has some advantages over a DC system. Therefore, the AC
system is exclusively used for the generation, transmission, and distribution of electric
power. The machine which converts mechanical power into AC electrical power is called
a Synchronous Generator or Alternator. However, if the same machine can be operated as
a motor is known as Synchronous Motor.
Basic Principles of Synchronous Machine

A synchronous machine is just an electromechanical transducer that converts mechanical

energy into electrical energy or vice versa. The fundamental phenomenon or law which
makes these conversions possible is known as the Law of Electromagnetic
Induction and Law of interaction.

Law of Electro-Magnetic Induction

This law is also called Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction. This law relates to
the production of emf, i.e.; emf is induced in a conductor whenever it cuts across the
magnetic field .

Law of Interaction

This law relates to the production of force or torque, i.e., whenever a current-carrying
conductor is placed in the magnetic field, by the interaction of the magnetic field produced by
the current-carrying conductor and the main field, force is exerted on the conductor
producing torque.

The "super synchronous" motor differs mechanically from the ordinary motor in having the
stator mounted on auxiliary bearings, which are used only during the starting period, and in
having a brake of such propor tions as to bring the stator quickly from synchronous speed to
rest and to be clamped securely in place.

Load sharing is the method of distributing the load (or power demand) among multiple
generators so that no one generator is overloaded. This is usually done by using a load-
sharing controller, which automatically adjusts the output of each generator based on the
demand.
The generator which runs at a synchronous speed is known as the synchronous generator.
The synchronous generator converts the mechanical power into electrical energy for the
grid. The Derivation of EMF Equation of a synchronous generator is given below.

Let,

 P be the number of poles

 ϕ is Flux per pole in Webers
 N is the speed in revolution per minute (r.p.m)
 f be the frequency in Hertz
 Zph is the number of conductors connected in series per phase
 Tph is the number of turns connected in series per phase
 Kc is the coil span factor
 Kd is the distribution factor

Flux cut by each conductor during one revolution is given as Pϕ Weber. Time taken to
complete one revolution is given by 60/N sec

Average EMF induced per conductor will be given by the equation shown below:

Average EMF induced per phase will be given by the equation shown below:

The average EMF equation is derived with the following assumptions given below.

 Coils have got the full pitch.

 All the conductors are concentrated in one stator slot.

Root mean square (R.M.S) value of the EMF induced per phase is given by the equation
shown below:

Eph = Average value x form factor

Therefore,
If the coil span factor Kc and the distribution factor Kd , are taken into consideration then the
Actual EMF induced per phase is given as:

Equation (1) shown above is the EMF equation of the Synchronous Generator.

Coil Span Factor

The Coil Span Factor is defined as the ratio of the induced emf in a coil when the winding is
short-pitched to the induced emf in the same coil when the winding is full pitched.

Distribution Factor

The distribution factor is defined as the ratio of induced EMF in the coil group when the
winding is distributed in a number of slots to the induced EMF in the coil group when the
winding is concentrated in one slot.

Torque or moment or moment of force is the tendency of a force to rotate or move an object
about an axis. A force is a push or pull, likewise, torque is a twist to an object.
Mathematically, torque, T = F × r.
Let

 Tg = armature or gross torque (N-m) = Force × radius.

 r = radius of the armature in m.
 N = speed of the armature in rpm = N/60 rps.
Work done/revolution = force × distance moved per revolution

The expression for voltage in dc motor is given by,

Electrical input = electrical power equivalent to mechanical power developed +

armature copper loss
Mechanical power developed,

Since equation (1) = equation (2),

Hence torque of a dc motor is directly proportional to the flux/pole and armature

current.
In the case of the PMDC motor, the armature is placed within the magnetic field created by
the permanent magnets placed inside the stator. The armature will then rotate according to
the force generated

There are three main ways to achieve speed regulation in series DC motors–flux control,
voltage control, and armature resistance control.

1. Flux Control Method

In the flux control method, a rheostat (a type of variable resistor) is connected in series with
the field windings. The purpose of this component is to increase the series resistance in the
windings which will reduce the flux, consequently increasing the motor’s speed.

2. Voltage Regulation Method

The variable regulation method is typically used in shunt dc motors. There are, again, two
ways to achieve voltage regulation control:

 Connecting the shunt field to a fixed exciting voltage while supplying the
armature with different voltages (aka multiple voltage control)
 Varying the voltage supplied to the armature (aka the Ward Leonard method)

3. Armature Resistance Control Method

The armature resistance control is based on the principle that the speed of the motor is
directly proportional to the back EMF. So, if the supply voltage and the armature resistance
are kept at a constant value, the speed of the motor will be directly proportional to the
armature current.

Starters are used to protect DC motors from damage that can be caused by very high
current and torque during startup. They do this by providing external resistance to the motor,
which is connected in series to the motor's armature winding and restricts the current to an
acceptable level

A three-point starter is an electrical device, used for starting as well as maintaining the DC
shunt motor speed. The connection of resistance in this circuit is in series which decreases
the initial high current and guards the equipment against any electrical failures.
BLDC motor works on the principle similar to that of a Brushed DC motor. The Lorentz force
law which states that whenever a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field it
experiences a force. As a consequence of reaction force, the magnet will experience an equal
and opposite force. In the BLDC motor, the current carrying conductor is stationary and the
permanent magnet is moving.

When the stator coils get a supply from source, it becomes electromagnet and starts
producing the uniform field in the air gap. Though the source of supply is DC, switching makes
to generate an AC voltage waveform with trapezoidal shape. Due to the force of interaction
between electromagnet stator and permanent magnet rotor, the rotor continues to rotate.

With the switching of windings as High and Low signals, corresponding winding energized as
North and South poles. The permanent magnet rotor with North and South poles align with
stator poles which causes the motor to rotate.

Advantages of Brushless DC motor

 Less overall maintenance due to absence of brushes

 Reduced size with far superior thermal characteristics
 Higher speed range and lower electric noise generation.
 It has no mechanical commutator and associated problems
 High efficiency and high output power to size ratio due to the use of permanent magnet
rotor
 High speed of operation even in loaded and unloaded conditions due to the absence of
brushes that limits the speed
 Smaller motor geometry and lighter in weight than both brushed type DC and induction
AC motors.
 Long life as no inspection and maintenance is required for commutator system
 Higher dynamic response due to low inertia and carrying windings in the stator
 Less electromagnetic interference
 Low noise due to absence of brushes

Testing of DC motor
Testing of machines is used for finding losses, efficiency and temperature rise. Direct
method is used, for small machines. Indirect method is used for large shunt machines. In
practice, seinburne,s test are mostly used.
1.Direct method of testing
In direct method of testing the generator or motor is put on full load and whole of the power
developed by it is wasted,. Brake test is a typical example of direct test. The direct tests can
be used only on small machines.
Though this method is simple, bt involves complication in the measurement of mechanical
power input in the case of generator and output in case of a motor. If brake is to be applied
to a series motor, the brake must be tight before the motor is started, otherwise the armature
may get damaged and break into pieces.
The efficiency is:
Efficiency = Output / In put
Disadvantage
1. Accuracy in determining the mechanical power output of the motor is limited.
2. It is difficult to provide full load for the large capacity motor.
2. Indirect method of testing
This method consists of measuring the losses and then calculating the efficiency. The
simplest of the indirect test is Swinburne’s test. Hopkinson test is commonly used test under
this method on shunt motors. This method also enables the determination of losses without
actually loading the machine. The power is required to supply the losses only, so there is no
difficulty in applying this method even to very large machines
The disadvantage of this method is that machine is run light during this test which gives no
indication to the temperature rise on load or to the commutating qualities of the machine.
3. Swinburne’s test (No load test)
In this method (simplest indirect method) the losses are measured separately and efficiency
at any desired load is pre-determined.
The iron and friction losses are determined by measuring the input to the machine on no-
load, the machine being run as a motor at normal voltage and speed. The copper losses are
calculated from measured values of the various resistances. The method may be applied to
level compound generators and to shunt motors.
Advantages of Swinburne’s Test
1. The biggest advantage of Swinburne’s test is that the shunt machine is to be run as motor
under no load condition requiring little power to be drawn from the supply based on the no
load reading, efficiency can be predicted for any load current.
2. Power required for this test is small.
Disadvantage of Swinburne’s test
1. This test cannot be applied to series motors because the speed of a series motor being
very high at no-load, it is not possible to run a series motor on no-load.
2. Iron loss in some cases is as high as 50%.
4. Hopkinson’s Test (Back-to-back test or Regenerative test)
Through this test full-load testing of two d.c. shunt machines can be carries out, mainly
identical ones. In this test, power drawn from the supply only corresponds to no load losses
of the machines. Electrically these two machines are mechanically connected in parallel and
controlled in such a way that one machine acts as a generator and the other as motor. The
output of motor is used to drive the generator and the electrical output of generator is used
as an input to the motor. Both motor and generator would have run without any external
power supply, if there are no losses in the machine. But due to losses, generator output is
not sufficient to drive the motor and vice-versa.
To generate motion in a three-phase linear motor there must be switching between the
phases to energize appropriate windings. The process of switching between the phases is
called commutation. In order to create the desired movement a controller must determine
which phase needs to be switched on.
There are three main methods of Improving commutation or obtaining sparkles
Commutation. These are Resistance Commutation and Voltage Commutation and
Compensating Winding.
Condition for three phase alternator
The voltage of the incoming alternator must be same as the bus-bar voltage. The frequency
of the incoming alternator must be same as the frequency of bus-bar voltage. The phase of
incoming alternator voltage must be identical to the phase angle of bus-bar voltage.
Alternator factor
 Unity Power Factor − When the alternator supplies a load at unity power factor, i.e.
purely resistive load, the effect of armature reaction is to distort the main field flux.
This is called cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction.
 Lagging Power Factor − When the alternator supplies a load at lagging power
factor, i.e. purely inductive load, the effect of armature reaction is
partly demagnetizing and partly cross-magnetizing. This causes a reduction in
generated voltage.
 Leading Power Factor − When the alternator supplies a load at leading power
factor, i.e. purely capacitive load, the effect of the armature reaction is partly
magnetizing and partly cross-magnetizing. This causes an increase in generated
voltage.
Synchronous motor factor
 Lagging Power Factor − When the synchronous motor draws a current at a lagging
power factor, the effect of armature reaction is partly magnetizing and partly cross-
magnetizing.
 Leading Power Factor − When the synchronous motor draws a current at a leading
power factor, the effect of armature reaction is partly demagnetizing and partly cross-
magnetizing.
 A stepper motor, also known as step motor or stepping motor,[1] is an electrical
motor that rotates in a series of small angular steps, instead of continuously.
[2]
Stepper motors are a type of digital actuators. Stepper motors are an
eletromagnetic actuator; it converts electromagnetic energy into mechanical
energy to perform mechanical work.[1]
 A stepper motor is a brushless DC electric motor that divides a full rotation into a
number of equal steps. The motor's position can be commanded to move and hold at
one of these steps without any position sensor for feedback (an open-loop controller),
as long as the motor is correctly sized to the application in respect to torque and
speed.
 Switched reluctance motors are very large stepping motors with a reduced pole
count, and generally are closed-loop commutated.
 A reluctance motor is a type of electric motor that induces non-permanent magnetic
poles on the ferromagnetic rotor. The rotor does not have any windings. It generates
torque through magnetic reluctance.
 Reluctance motor subtypes include synchronous, variable, switched and variable
stepping.
 Reluctance motors can deliver high power density at low cost, making them attractive
for many applications. Disadvantages include high torque ripple (the difference
between maximum and minimum torque during one revolution) when operated at low
speed, and noise due to torque ripple

Hysteresis motor is defined as a synchronous motor that is having cylindrical rotor and
works on hysteresis losses induced in the rotor of hardened steel with high retentivity. It
is a single phase motor and its rotor is made of ferromagnetic material with non magnetic
support over the shaft.
V-Curves of Synchronous Motor :

If the armature current Ia is plotted against excitation or field current for various load
conditions, we obtain a set of curves known as 'V-Curves' clue to their shape similar to
english letter V.
In the below figure V-Curve of a synchronous motor shows how armature current Ia changes
with excitation for the same input, at no-load, half full-load, and full-load.
From V-Curves it is observed that the armature current has large values both for low and
high values of excitation (though it is lagging for low excitation and leading for higher
excitation). In between, it has a minimum value corresponding to the unity power factor
(normal excitation).

Inverted V-Curves of Synchronous Motor :

If the power factor is plotted against excitation for various load conditions, we obtain a set of
curves known as Inverted V-Curves.

The inverted V-Curves of synchronous motor shows how the power factor varies with
excitation. From inverted V-curves, it is observed that the power factor is lagging when the
motor is under excited and leading when it is over-excited. In between, the power factor is
unity.

Armature reaction is the effect on the main field flux of that flux set up by the currents in the
armature winding. The effect is the same for both lap- and wave-wound machines.

The Adverse Effects Of Armature Reaction:

1. Armature reaction weakens the main flux. In case of a dc generator, weakening
of the main flux reduces the generated voltage.
2. Armature reaction distorts the main flux, hence the position of M.N.A. gets
shifted (M.N.A. is perpendicular to the flux lines of main field flux). Brushes
should be placed on the M.N.A., otherwise, it will lead to sparking at the surface
of brushes. So, due to armature reaction, it is hard to determine the exact
position of the MNA

For a loaded dc generator, MNA will be shifted in the direction of the rotation. On the other
hand, for a loaded dc motor, MNA will be shifted in the direction opposite to that of the
rotation.

The method used to determine Xq and Xd, the direct and quadrature axis reactance is called
slip test.
In an alternator we apply excitation to the field winding and voltage gets induced in the
armature. But in the slip test, a three phase supply is applied to the armature, having voltage
must less than the rated voltage while the field winding circuit is kept open.
The alternator is run at a speed close to synchronous but little less than synchronous value.
The three phase currents drawn by the armature from a three phase supply produce a
rotating flux. Thus the armature m.m.f. wave is rotating at synchronous speed