Chapter 1. Diodes and Applications

Chapter 1
Diodes and Applications
Lecturer: Dr. Nguyen Thi Luong

Outline
 Tuning-in Activities
 Definitions
 Ideal Diode
 Semiconductor Materials
 Diodes and Applications
 Special Purpose Diodes

Group Discussion
 What are electronics and electronic circuits?
 List electronic devices and their components
 What do electronic engineers deal with?
 What are the differences between “electrical” and “electronic”

engineering?
Outline
 Definitions
 Ideal Diode

What is Electronics?
 The branch of science and technology
 Deal with the motion of electrons in various systems or devices
 Include active electrical components: diodes, transistors, rectifiers …

What is a Circuit?
 Closed system consists of various components (Electronic) linked to

each other to make a circuit functional
 Very small in size
 Have plenty of circuits present in chips
Semiconductor Electronic Electronic devices

devices circuits and system
Electronic Devices
Electronic Engineering
 Control  Microprocessors
 Information processing  Microcontrollers
 Signal processing  Application specific integrated

circuit (ASIC)
 Telecommunication
 Digital signal processing(DSP)
 Switching
 Field programmable gate
 Analog – Digital
array (FPGA)
Electronic vs Electrical Engineering
Electronic vs Electrical Engineering
Electronic Electrical
 Semiconductor (usually  Conductor (Metals and
silicon) alloys)
 low intensity currents  powerful currents
 conduction is finely  conduction is not as finely
controlled controlled
 small scale electronic  large scale electrical systems:
systems: computers, integrated power transmission, motor
circuit control …
Outline
 Definitions
 Ideal Diode

Ideal Diode
 the simplest of semiconductor devices but plays a very vital role
 have characteristics that closely match those of a simple switch that

can conduct current in only one direction.
Outline
 Definitions
 Ideal Diode

Semiconductor Materials
 Conductor
 have very low values of resistivity
 plenty of free electrons floating about within
their basic atom structure
 easily pass an electrical current
 Insulator
 have very high resistances
 have very few or no “free electrons” floating
about within their basic atom structure
 the electrons are stuck to the parent
atom and can not move around freely
 Semiconductor
 have electrical properties somewhere in the
middle, between those of a “conductor” and an
“insulator”
 have very few “free electrons”
 electrons are still able to flow under special
conditions
 it is possible to control its conductivity by controlling
the amount of impurities added to the intrinsic
semiconductor material
 Resistivity ( , Greek letter rho)

 comparing the resistance levels of materials
 measured in -cm or -m
 if the area A = 1 cm2, and the length l = 1cm

 Ge and Si have received the broadest range of interest in the

development of semiconductor devices
 can be manufactured to a very high purity level
 their characteristics can be changed significantly
through the application of heat or light
 Ge and Si have received the broadest range of interest in the

development of semiconductor devices
5, 6, 7, 8 4 1, 2, 3
valence electrons valence electrons valence electrons
 The outermost shell of atom is capable to hold up to eight electrons (most

stable)
 Silicon atom forms four covalent bonds with the four neighboring atoms
 covalent bonding: each valence electron is shared by two atoms
 Pure (intrinsic) semiconductors: low conductivity as a result of

covalent bonding (and other factors).
 Doping: adding impurity atoms to intrinsic silicon or germanium to

improve the conductivity of the material.
 Two types of elements are used for doping:

 Trivalent elements: 3 valence electrons. (p-type material)
 Pentavalent elements: 5 valence electrons. (n-type material)
N-type Semiconductor
• Antimony (Sb)
• Pentavalent
Free electron
impurity atom conduction electron
• Donor atom
Forming covalent bonds with four

adjacent silicon atoms
N-type Semiconductor
 Conduction band electrons > Valence band holes
 Electrons = majority carriers
 Holes = minority carriers
 Electrically neutral
P-type Semiconductor
• Boron (B)
• Trivalent impurity atom
• Acceptor atom Hole
Forming covalent bonds with four

adjacent silicon atoms
P-type Semiconductor
 Conduction band electrons < Valence band holes
 Electrons = minority carriers
 Holes = majority carriers
 Electrically neutral
Outline
 Definitions
 Ideal Diode

Semiconductor Diode
 formed by simply bringing n- and p-type materials together
 electrons and holes in the region of the junction will combine

 lack of carriers in the region near the junction
Semiconductor Diode
Basic Structure
Symbol
A K
Anode Cathode
Semiconductor Diode
Diodes in Industrial Applications

Diode Operation
 The application of a voltage across diode’s terminals leaves three

possibilities:
 No bias (VD = 0V)
 Forward bias (VD > 0V)
 Reverse bias (VD < 0V)
Diode Operation - No bias
 the net flow of charge in any one direction for a semiconductor diode
is zero
Diode Operation - No bias
 the net flow of charge in any one direction for a semiconductor diode
is zero
 the majority carriers pass
through the depletion region
following the diffusion
 the minority carriers find
themselves in the depletion
region due to their random motion
Diode Operation - Forward bias
Diode Operation - Forward bias
 the width of the depletion region will be reduced

 the heavy majority flow across the junction
 the number of minority
carriers find themselves
entering the depletion region
will not change
ID > 0
A K A K
VAK = VF = 0
Diode Operation - Reverse bias
Diode Operation - Reverse bias
 the depletion region will be expanded

 the majority carriers can not overcome  majority carrier follow is reduced to
zero
 the number of minority
carriers find themselves
entering the depletion region
will not change
(reverse saturation current) ID = 0
A K
A K
VAK < 0
Diode Characteristics
IS: reverse saturation current

k: 11,600/𝜂
(𝜂 = 1 for Ge and 𝜂 = 2 for Si for low levels of diode current)
(𝜂 = 1 for Ge and Si for high levels of diode current)
TK = TC + 273
Diode Operation – Zener Region
 the voltage across the diode increases in the reverse-bias region

 the velocity of the minority carriers
responsible for the reverse saturation
current will also increase
 release additional carriers through
collisions with otherwise stable atomic
structures (ionization process)
 high avalanche current is established and
the avalanche breakdown region determined
 the avalanche region (VZ) can be brought closer to

the vertical axis by increasing the doping levels
in the p- and n- type materials
 as VZ decreases to very low levels,

called Zener breakdown, will contribute
to the sharp change in the characteristic
Practical curve Ideal curve

Ideal curve
VF = 0,7 V – Silicon
= 0,3 V - Germanium Practical curve
VF = 0,7 V – Silicon
= 0,3 V - Germanium Practical curve
Variation in diode characteristics with temperature change

Resistance Levels
 the operating point of a diode moves from one region to another 

the resistance of the diode will also change
 type of applied voltage or signal will define the resistance level
 there are three different levels:
 DC or Static Resistance
 AC or Dynamic Resistance
 Average AC Resistance
Resistance Levels – DC or Static Resistance
 With applied DC voltage, the operating point on the characteristic

curve will not change with time.
 The resistance of the diode can be found simply by:

Resistance Levels – DC or Static Resistance
Resistance Levels – AC or Dynamic Resistance
 If a sinusoidal is applied
 the varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up and down a region
of the characteristics
 define a specific change in current and

voltage
 We have: and
 Inverse and take the derivative:
 In general, ID >> IS
 at room temperature
Resistance Levels – Average AC Resistance
 If the input signal is sufficiently large

 the resistance associated with the device for
this region is called the average ac resistance
Resistance Levels
Outline
 Definitions
 Ideal Diode

Load-Line Analysis
• Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the series circuit:
Load-Line Analysis
• If VD = 0V:
• If ID = 0A:
Load-Line Analysis
• Q-point: the point of operation
(quiescent point)
• : Operating Voltage
• : Operating Current
Load-Line Analysis
Repeat with R = 2k
Load-Line Analysis
• We can use the approximate model
Series Diode Configurations With DC Inputs
• For the series diode configuration of the following Figure, determine VD, VR,
and ID.
• Repeat with the reversed diode.

• For the series diode configuration of the following Figure, determine VD, VR,
and ID.
• Determine VO, and ID for the series circuit of the following Figure:
• Determine VD2, VO and ID for the series circuit of the following Figure:
• Determine V1, V2, VO and I for the series circuit of the following Figure:
Parallel and Series–Parallel Configurations
• Determine VO, I1, ID1, ID2 for the network of the following Figure:
• Determine current I for the network:
• Determine voltage VO for the network:
And/Or Gates
• Determine voltage VO for the networks:

Single phase Half-wave Rectifier
Regulated 12 V power supply circuit.

 Uncontrolled AC/DC converters:

 uncontrolled rectifiers
 Convert an AC power supply source voltage to a controlled DC load
voltage.
Input AC – DC Output
- AC CONVERTER - DC
Diode
- U1, f1 - U2
Input Output
- AC AC – DC CONVERTER - DC
- U1, f1 - U2
= constant = DC
Unrectified waveform Diode Rectified waveform

uin(V) Uin = UPN

+Um
P
uIN ( )
Diode 0  2 3 4  (rad)
R u0( )
N
-Um
u0(V)
+Um
u0 (V)
vi ( )  vPN ( )
 (rad)
 U m sin t  U 2 2 sin  [V ] 0  2 3 4
Operation with R Load
+Um
uin(V)
Operation  2 3 4
0
with R Load
-Um
P u0(V)
Diode
uIN( )  2 3 4
R u0( ) 0
N
The Peak Inverse
udiode(V)
Voltage
0  2 3 4
UPIV  UpLoad
uin(V) Uin = UPN The average load voltage

2
1
2 0
VOAV  u()d
 (rad) 1 
 2

0 2 3 4    UinPeak sin()d   0d  
2  0  
UinPeak
  0,45UinRMS
u0(V) 
The average load current
u0 (V)
Ud
Id 
 (rad) R
Operation with R Load

Vp = Vpeak = Vm = Vmaximum
Average value of the half-wave rectified signal

Ideal model: VpLoad = VpSource
Practical model: VpLoad = VpSource- 0,7
Example: Average Voltage Calculation

Example: Average Voltage/Current Calculation of Load

Example: Average Voltage/Current Calculation of Load

Single phase Full-wave Rectifier
Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier


Positive half wave
During positive half-cycles, D1 is forward-

biased and D2 is reverse-biased

Negative half wave
During negative half-cycles, D2 is forward-

biased and D1 is reverse-biased

Ideal model:
VpLoad = VpSource
Practical model:
VpSource VpLoad = VpSource- 0,7
VpLoad

VpSource
VpLoad
The average load voltage: VAVG = 2*VpLoad / 
UPIV  2*UpLoad
Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

A
E C
D
F

A
E C
F D
During the positive half-cycle of the input, D1
and D2 are forward-biased and conduct
current. D3 and D4 are reverse-biased

A
E C
F D
During the negative half-cycle of the input, D3
and D4 are forward-biased and conduct
current. D1 and D2 are reverse-biased

VpSource
VpLoad
The average load voltage: VAVG = 2*VpLoad / 
Ideal model: VpLoad = VpSource

Practical model: VpLoad = VpSource- 1,4
UPIV  UpLoad
• Determine the output waveform for the network of the following Figure and
calculate the output dc level and the required PIV of each diode.
Power Supply Filters And Regulators
Power supply filtering

Power supply filtering with Capacitor-Input Filter



Ripple factor
Ripple Voltage
Load Average Voltage

Power Supply Voltage Regulator

Power Supply Voltage Regulator
IC
Clippers
• have the ability to “clip” off a portion of the input signal without distorting
the remaining part of the alternating waveform
Clippers
Clippers
• Determine the output waveform for the network of the following Figure
Clippers
• parallel diode configuration:
Clippers
• Determine vo for the network:
• Repeat using a silicon diode with VT = 0.7 V.

Clippers
Clippers
Clippers
Clippers
Clampers
• “clamp” a signal to a different dc level
Clampers
• “clamp” a signal to a different dc level
Clampers
• The time constant =RC is large enough
• to ensure that the voltage across the capacitor does not discharge
significantly during the interval the diode is nonconducting
Clampers
• Determine vo for the network:
• Repeat using a silicon diode with VT = 0.7 V.

Clampers
Clampers
Clampers
Voltage-Multiplier Circuits
• stepping up the peak output voltage to two, three, four, or more times the
peak rectified voltage
• Positive voltage half cycle: diode D1 conducts (D2 cut off), charging
capacitor C1 up to Vm.
• the negative half-cycle: diode D1 is cut off and diode D2 conducts charging
capacitor C2.
Full-wave voltage doubler
Outline
 Definitions
 Ideal Diode

Special Purpose Diodes
Types of special Purpose Diodes

LED – Light Emitting Diode
LED
Symbol
LED
Datasheet
The 7-segment LED display

VBIAS  VF
RLIMIT 
ILED
Simple LED circuit design

Zener Diode
Zener diode symbol

General zener diode V-Icharacteristic
Zener diodes  in reverse breakdown
Zener breakdown  low reverse voltages
Zener breakdown voltage (VZ)
 create current through K to A
Zener Diode
-VKA >= VZ  ON
Ideal zener diode equivalent circuit model

and the characteristic curve
Zener Diode
+
K
VOUT
A
-
ZENER DIODE APPLICATION IN VOLTAGE REGULATION

Zener Diode
Zener Values:
- VZ
VZ VOUT
- IZ_Max
 RL
 RL  RL  VIN  VZ
 R  R VIN  VZ  R  R VIN  VZ  RL  R
 L  L 
 I I  I I I  VIN  VZ  VZ  I
 Z Z _Max  T L Z _Max  R RL
Z _Max
 VOUT = VZ and IZ <= IZ_Max  In good operation

Zener Diode

Zener Diode
• Determine VL, VR, and IZ.
• Repeat with RL = 3 k

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Chapter 1

Diodes and Applications

Lecturer: Dr. Nguyen Thi Luong

 Diodes and Applications

 Special Purpose Diodes

 What are electronics and electronic circuits?

 List electronic devices and their components

 What do electronic engineers deal with?

 What are the differences between “electrical” and “electronic”

 Diodes and Applications

 Special Purpose Diodes

 The branch of science and technology

 Deal with the motion of electrons in various systems or devices

 Include active electrical components: diodes, transistors, rectifiers …

 Closed system consists of various components (Electronic) linked to

 Very small in size

 Have plenty of circuits present in chips

Semiconductor Electronic Electronic devices

 Information processing  Microcontrollers

 Signal processing  Application specific integrated

 Diodes and Applications

 Special Purpose Diodes

 the simplest of semiconductor devices but plays a very vital role

 have characteristics that closely match those of a simple switch that

 Diodes and Applications

 Special Purpose Diodes

 Resistivity ( , Greek letter rho)

 if the area A = 1 cm2, and the length l = 1cm

 Ge and Si have received the broadest range of interest in the

 Ge and Si have received the broadest range of interest in the

 The outermost shell of atom is capable to hold up to eight electrons (most

 Pure (intrinsic) semiconductors: low conductivity as a result of

 Doping: adding impurity atoms to intrinsic silicon or germanium to

 Two types of elements are used for doping:

Forming covalent bonds with four

 Conduction band electrons > Valence band holes

 Electrons = majority carriers

 Holes = minority carriers

Forming covalent bonds with four

 Conduction band electrons < Valence band holes

 Electrons = minority carriers

 Holes = majority carriers

 Diodes and Applications

 Special Purpose Diodes

 formed by simply bringing n- and p-type materials together

 electrons and holes in the region of the junction will combine

Diodes in Industrial Applications

 The application of a voltage across diode’s terminals leaves three

 the width of the depletion region will be reduced

 the depletion region will be expanded

IS: reverse saturation current

 the voltage across the diode increases in the reverse-bias region

 the avalanche region (VZ) can be brought closer to

 as VZ decreases to very low levels,

Practical curve Ideal curve

Variation in diode characteristics with temperature change

 the operating point of a diode moves from one region to another 

 With applied DC voltage, the operating point on the characteristic

 The resistance of the diode can be found simply by:

 define a specific change in current and