1726815848chief Mate Orals Function 1 FAQ Notes Updated Till July24

Chief Mate Orals F1 – Notes prepared based on FAQs of Surveyors Visit Owaysonline.
com for latest notes
CHIEF MATE
ORALS
Function 1 Notes
NOTES PREPARED BASED ON FAQ’S BY

SURVEYORS
- Last Updated as per questions of July’24

Chief Mate Orals F1 – Notes prepared based on FAQs of Surveyors Visit Owaysonline.com for latest notes
FUNCTION 1 – NAVIGATION SYLLABUS
A) BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT
Voyage planning and Navigation for various conditions such as in restricted Waters/ Meteorological conditions
/ Ice / TSS / Restricted visibility / Gross of extensive tidal effect / Ship routeing and reporting systems criteria.
Position determination in all conditions by celestial terrestrial observations. Various publication of modern
electronic aids with knowledge of principles / error / corrections etc. Knowledge of principles of Magnetic /
Gyro / Compass and Master Gyro Systems and care of all other navigation equipments on the Bridge.
B) TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
Thorough knowledge and addition of collision Regulations / Buoyage system.
Thorough knowledge and application of the principles to be observed in keeping an effective navigation watch
(Senior Officer Duties).
Assist Master with Command decision-making situations on bridge.
C) WEATHER MANAGEMENT
Ability to understand and interpret synoptic chart to forecast area weather taking into account local weather
conditions and information received by Weather Fray and Weather Routing.
Knowledge of characterizes of various weather systems including TRS avoiding actions in storm centers/
dangerous quadrants.
Knowledge of ocean current systems / tidal calculations / publications relating to this.
D) CRISIS MANAGEMENT
Handling of various emergencies beaching, grounding collision / assessment of damage control / emergency
steering / emergency towing arrangements and towing procedures.
Chief Mate Orals F1 – Notes prepared based on FAQs of Surveyors Visit Owaysonline.com for latest notes
Sr. No. INDEX Page No.
1 COLREGs 1
2 TSS 6
3 Traffic Management 8
4 Weather Management 13
5 Crisis Management 23
6 Bridge Equipments 25
7 Ship Reporting Systems 36
8 Passage Planning 39
9 Charts 46
Chief Mate Orals F1 – Notes prepared based on FAQs of Surveyors Visit Owaysonline.com for latest notes 1
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT
COLREG:
RULE 2: Responsibility
Rule 2 of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs) outlines the fundamental responsibility
of mariners to avoid collisions and exercise good seamanship.
Rule 2(a): General Responsibility

➢ Adherence to the Rules: Mariners must comply with the COLREGs and ensure that their vessel is operated in a manner
that avoids collisions.
➢ Special Circumstances: This rule acknowledges that in certain circumstances, a departure from the rules may be
necessary to avoid immediate danger. The rule emphasizes the importance of prudence and sound judgment in
navigating safely.
Rule 2(b): Responsibility for Consequences
➢ Neglect of Precaution: If a vessel or its crew neglects to take any necessary precaution required by the ordinary
practice of seamen or by the special circumstances of the case, they may be held responsible for the consequences.
➢ Obligation Beyond the Rules: Even if a vessel follows the COLREGs, the mariners are still responsible for taking
additional precautions as necessary to avoid collisions and ensure safety. This rule emphasizes that strict adherence
to the rules does not absolve mariners of responsibility if additional actions are required.
RULE 6: Safe Speed

The concept of "safe speed" is defined in Rule 6 of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs).
It refers to the speed at which a vessel can proceed to take proper and effective action to avoid a collision and be stopped
within a distance appropriate to the prevailing circumstances and conditions.
Definition of Safe Speed

Safe speed is a speed at which a vessel can safely navigate, allowing for sufficient time to take the necessary actions to
avoid a collision, stop, or maneuver, considering the following factors:
Factors to Consider When Determining Safe Speed

1. For All Vessels
➢ Visibility: The state of visibility, including fog, mist, rain, or darkness.
➢ Traffic Density: The density of traffic, including the concentration of fishing vessels or any other vessels.
➢ Manoeuverability: The vessel's ability to maneuver, especially the stopping distance and turning ability in the
prevailing conditions.
➢ Background Light: The presence of background light, such as from shore lights or from the backscatter of the
vessel's own lights.
➢ State of Wind, Sea, and Current: Weather conditions, including the sea state, wind, and currents, and the
proximity of navigational hazards.
➢ Draft and Water Depth: The draft of the vessel in relation to the available water depth.
2. For Vessels with Operational Radar
➢ Characteristics and Efficiency of Radar: The limitations and capabilities of radar, including range and the ability
to detect objects.
➢ Range Scale in Use: The selected range scale on the radar and how it affects the detection of vessels and other
objects.
➢ Sea, Weather, and Other Interference: The impact of sea clutter, weather conditions, and other forms of
interference on radar performance.
➢ Possibility of Small Vessels or Floating Objects: The likelihood that small vessels, ice, or other floating objects
may not be detected by radar.
➢ Number of Vessels Detected by Radar: The number and movement of vessels detected by radar, including
their distance, course, and speed.
➢ Radar's Effect on Collision Risk: The implications of radar detection on assessing the risk of collision with other
vessels.
COLREGs Rule 13: Overtaking

When a vessel is overtaking another from directly astern or from close to the stern, specific actions are required under
the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs), particularly under Rule 13: Overtaking.
COLREGs Rule 13: Overtaking

➢ Rule 13(a): Definition of Overtaking
o A vessel is considered to be overtaking when coming up from a direction more than 22.5 degrees abaft the
beam of the vessel being overtaken. This means that the overtaking vessel is within the sector defined by the
stern light of the vessel being overtaken.
➢ Rule 13(b): Responsibility of the Overtaking Vessel
o The overtaking vessel is always required to keep out of the way of the vessel being overtaken. This
responsibility remains with the overtaking vessel even if the overtaken vessel alters course.
➢ Rule 13(c): Continuation of Responsibility
o The overtaking vessel remains the give-way vessel until it is completely past and clear of the overtaken vessel.
Actions When Being Overtaken

As the vessel being overtaken:
1. Maintain Course and Speed
➢ The vessel being overtaken should maintain its course and speed. This is crucial to avoid confusion or collision,
as the overtaking vessel is maneuvering based on the assumption that the overtaken vessel will not change
its course or speed.
2. Monitor the Situation
➢ The officer in charge should carefully monitor the overtaking vessel's actions to ensure that it is taking the
necessary steps to pass safely. The use of radar and visual observations should be utilized to track the
overtaking vessel's position and movements.
3. Communicate if Necessary
➢ If there is any doubt about the intentions of the overtaking vessel or if the situation becomes unsafe, the
vessel being overtaken should communicate with the overtaking vessel, typically via VHF radio, to clarify
intentions and coordinate actions.
4. Sound Signals (if necessary)
➢ In certain circumstances, sound signals may be used to indicate intentions. For example, if the overtaking
vessel is in doubt or needs to signal its intention to overtake, it may use a prolonged blast to signal its
presence.
Actions for the Overtaking Vessel

As the overtaking vessel:
1. Keep Clear
➢ The overtaking vessel must keep well clear of the vessel being overtaken. This includes making a wide enough
alteration of course and ensuring that there is sufficient distance between the vessels.
2. Consider the Sea Room
➢ Ensure that there is adequate sea room to overtake safely without endangering the vessel being overtaken
or other vessels in the vicinity.
3. Communicate if Necessary
➢ If there is any uncertainty about the overtaking maneuver or if you need to coordinate with the vessel being
overtaken, communication via VHF radio should be established.
How will you go about overtaking in a narrow channel?

Overtaking in a narrow channel requires careful consideration of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions
at Sea (COLREGs), particularly Rule 9: Narrow Channels and Rule 13: Overtaking. In such situations, safety is paramount,
and communication between the vessels involved is essential.
Steps to Safely Overtake in a Narrow Channel
1. Assess the Situation
➢ Evaluate the Channel: Determine if the channel is wide enough to safely overtake the other vessel without risking
a collision or running aground. Consider the traffic density, depth of water, and any bends or obstacles in the
channel.
➢ Identify the Other Vessel’s Intentions: Observe the movement of the vessel ahead and ensure it is maintaining a
steady course and speed. Consider the type of vessel, its draft, and its maneuverability.
2. Adhere to COLREGs Rules
➢ Rule 9: Narrow Channels
o Keep to the Starboard Side: As per Rule 9(a), vessels proceeding along a narrow channel or fairway must
keep as near to the outer limit of the channel or fairway that lies on their starboard side as is safe and
practicable.
o Give-Way to Certain Vessels: Larger vessels, vessels constrained by their draft, or vessels engaged in
fishing may have priority in the channel, and smaller or more maneuverable vessels should keep clear.
➢ Rule 13: Overtaking
o Clear Responsibility: The overtaking vessel must keep out of the way of the vessel being overtaken. This
applies regardless of the narrow channel, and the overtaking vessel is responsible for avoiding a collision.
3. Communicate Your Intentions
➢ Use Sound Signals:
o Intent to Overtake: Sound one prolonged blast followed by one short blast (if overtaking on the starboard
side) or two short blasts (if overtaking on the port side) to signal your intention to overtake.
o Acknowledge and Agree: The vessel being overtaken must acknowledge with a similar sound signal. If
there is any doubt or if the situation does not permit safe overtaking, the vessel ahead should sound five
short and rapid blasts (the danger signal).
➢ Use VHF Communication:
o Confirm Intentions: It’s advisable to use VHF radio to confirm overtaking intentions, especially in busy or
challenging conditions. Clearly state your intention to overtake and wait for the other vessel’s response.
o Coordinate the Maneuver: Ensure that both vessels agree on the maneuver and are fully aware of each
other’s intentions and actions.
4. Execute the Overtaking Maneuver
➢ Prepare to Maneuver: Before starting the overtaking maneuver, ensure your vessel is ready to execute it safely,
considering factors like current, wind, and other traffic.
➢ Pass at a Safe Distance:
o Maintain Adequate Speed: Adjust your speed to pass the other vessel efficiently but safely. Avoid
excessive speed, which could create a wake that might affect the vessel being overtaken.
o Maintain a Safe Distance: Ensure there is enough clearance between your vessel and the vessel being
overtaken, considering the narrow channel’s constraints.
o Monitor the Situation: Continuously monitor the position of the vessel being overtaken and any other
traffic in the channel. Be ready to take additional action if necessary.
5. Return to the Channel's Starboard Side
➢ Complete the Overtake: Once you have overtaken the vessel and are well clear, return to the starboard side of
the channel as soon as it is safe to do so.
➢ Monitor the Following Vessel: Keep an eye on the vessel you have overtaken to ensure they are not forced into
an unsafe situation by your maneuver.
Rule 19: Conduct of Vessels in Restricted Visibility

Rule 19 applies to vessels navigating in or near areas of restricted visibility, such as fog, heavy rain, or snow, where visibility
is significantly reduced.
Rule 19(a): Application
➢ Restricted Visibility: This rule applies to vessels not in sight of one another when navigating in or near areas of
restricted visibility.
Rule 19(b): Safe Speed
➢ Safe Speed and Engines Ready: Every vessel must proceed at a safe speed adapted to the prevailing circumstances
and conditions of restricted visibility. Engines should be ready for immediate maneuvering if necessary.
Rule 19(c): Detection of Vessels by Radar
➢ Radar Detection: When a vessel detects another vessel by radar alone, it should determine if a close-quarters situation
or risk of collision exists. If so, it must take avoiding action in ample time. Alterations to port should be avoided unless
overtaking. Similarly, alterations towards a vessel forward of the beam, other than when overtaking, should be
avoided.
Rule 19(d): Action When Hearing Another Vessel
➢ Hearing Fog Signals: If a vessel hears a fog signal from another vessel ahead, or if it cannot avoid a close-quarters
situation with a vessel forward of the beam, it should reduce speed to the minimum at which it can be kept on course.
If necessary, it should stop and navigate with extreme caution until the danger of collision is over.
Rule 19(e): Avoiding Action
➢ Avoiding Action: If a vessel determines that a risk of collision exists, it must take appropriate action in ample time.
The rule emphasizes the importance of taking early and substantial action to avoid collisions, especially in restricted
visibility.
Situation: CBD right-right action (Open Sea):

In a situation where two vessels are on a collision course in an open sea and both are constrained by their draft (CBD), a
right-to-right passing situation can arise. This type of situation is governed by the International Regulations for Preventing
Collisions at Sea (COLREGs), specifically by Rule 18: Responsibilities Between Vessels and Rule 14: Head-on Situation.
1. Constrained by Draft (CBD) – Overview

➢ Constrained by Draft: A vessel constrained by her draft (CBD) is a power-driven vessel that, due to her draft in
relation to the available depth and width of navigable water, is severely restricted in her ability to deviate from
her course. This is defined under Rule 3(h) of the COLREGs.
2. Rule 18: Responsibilities Between Vessels
➢ CBD's Special Status: Vessels constrained by their draft have a special status that requires other vessels to keep
clear of them. However, when two vessels constrained by their draft encounter each other, they must adhere to
the standard rules of the road for power-driven vessels.
3. Rule 14: Head-on Situation
➢ Head-on Situation: When two power-driven vessels (including those constrained by draft) are meeting on
reciprocal or nearly reciprocal courses and there is a risk of collision, each vessel is required to alter her course to
starboard so that they pass port-to-port.
4. Right-to-Right Passing - Deviation from Standard
➢ Right-to-Right Passing: Although the standard action in a head-on situation is to alter course to starboard and
pass port-to-port, there are circumstances where both vessels might agree to pass starboard-to-starboard, also
known as a right-to-right action.
➢ Mutual Agreement: This type of maneuver typically requires mutual agreement between the vessels involved.
Communication via VHF radio is usually established to ensure both vessels understand and agree to the right-to-
right passing.
➢ Navigation Lights: During a right-to-right action, the vessels will see each other's green navigation lights.
5. Actions to Take in a Right-to-Right Passing (CBD)
➢ Establish Communication: As soon as it becomes apparent that the vessels are on a collision course, the officer in
charge should attempt to establish communication with the other vessel, typically via VHF radio, to propose or
confirm a right-to-right passing.
➢ Agreement on Action: Once communication is established, and the right-to-right passing is agreed upon, both
vessels should clearly state their intentions and confirm the action.
➢ Alter Course to Port (if agreed): Both vessels will then alter their course slightly to port to allow for a right-to-right
passing. This maneuver should be conducted with caution, considering the vessels' constrained ability to
maneuver.
➢ Monitor the Situation: Continuously monitor the other vessel's position and movement using radar and visual
observations to ensure the action is being carried out as agreed.
➢ Maintain a Safe Distance: Ensure that a safe distance is maintained during the passing maneuver to avoid any risk
of collision.
6. Additional Considerations
➢ VHF Communication: Ensure that the VHF communication is clear and that there is no ambiguity in the agreed
action. Use standardized marine communication phrases to avoid misunderstandings.
➢ Contingency Planning: Be prepared for any unexpected actions from the other vessel. Maintain situational
awareness and be ready to take additional avoiding action if necessary.
➢ Compliance with COLREGs: While mutual agreement can allow for a right-to-right passing, it's essential to
remember that the vessel must always be ready to comply with the standard COLREGs rules if the situation
changes or if there is any doubt about the other vessel's actions.
Duties of Chief Officer as per STCW:

The duties of a Chief Officer (Chief Mate) as per the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification, and
Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) are comprehensive and cover various aspects of ship operations, safety, and crew
management. The Chief Officer is the head of the Deck Department and the second in command after the Master. Below
are the key duties of a Chief Officer as outlined by STCW:
1. Navigation
➢ Watchkeeping: The Chief Officer must ensure that proper navigational watchkeeping procedures are followed.
This includes maintaining a safe navigational watch, especially during periods of restricted visibility, congested
waters, and during the vessel’s approach to ports or anchorages.
➢ Passage Planning: Responsible for the preparation and execution of passage plans, ensuring safe navigation
according to the best practices and regulations.
➢ Bridge Team Management: Leads and coordinates the bridge team, ensuring effective communication and
teamwork during navigation.
2. Cargo Handling and Stowage
➢ Cargo Planning and Supervision: The Chief Officer is responsible for planning the loading, stowage, securing, and
discharge of cargo. This includes ensuring that the cargo is handled safely and that stability, trim, and stress limits
are within safe parameters.
➢ Compliance with Regulations: Ensures that all cargo operations comply with international regulations, codes, and
industry standards, such as the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code for hazardous cargoes.
➢ Ballast Operations: Oversees ballast operations to maintain stability and ensure compliance with the Ballast Water
Management Convention.
3. Safety and Environmental Protection
➢ Safety Management: Implements and enforces the ship’s safety management system (SMS) as per the
International Safety Management (ISM) Code. This includes conducting safety drills, inspections, and audits.
➢ Lifesaving Appliances and Firefighting Equipment: Ensures that all lifesaving and firefighting equipment is properly
maintained and ready for use. Regularly checks and conducts drills to ensure the crew is familiar with their use.
➢ Pollution Prevention: The Chief Officer is responsible for ensuring compliance with MARPOL regulations, including
proper record-keeping in the Oil Record Book, Garbage Record Book, and Ballast Water Record Book.
4. Crew Management
➢ Training and Familiarization: Ensures that the deck crew is adequately trained and familiarized with the vessel’s
safety procedures, equipment, and emergency protocols as per STCW requirements.
➢ Work and Rest Hours Compliance: Monitors and ensures compliance with work and rest hours regulations to
prevent fatigue among crew members.
➢ Crew Welfare: Oversees the welfare of the deck crew, including their living conditions, health, and safety.
5. Maintenance and Operations
➢ Deck Maintenance: Oversees the maintenance of the ship’s deck, including all deck machinery, cargo gear,
mooring equipment, and hull integrity. Ensures that maintenance is carried out according to the Planned
Maintenance System (PMS).
➢ Mooring and Anchoring Operations: Responsible for supervising mooring and anchoring operations, ensuring that
they are conducted safely and efficiently.
➢ Logkeeping: Maintains accurate records of all deck operations, safety drills, inspections, and other relevant
activities.
6. Emergency Preparedness
➢ Emergency Response: Takes charge in emergencies, such as fire, collision, grounding, or piracy, coordinating the
crew’s response and communicating with the Master and external parties as required.
➢ Contingency Planning: Prepares and drills contingency plans for various emergencies, ensuring that the crew is
ready to respond effectively.
7. Compliance with Regulations
➢ STCW Compliance: Ensures that all duties performed on board are in compliance with STCW regulations, including
certification and training requirements for all deck officers and crew.
➢ ISM Code Compliance: Implements the ISM Code on board, ensuring that all safety management procedures are
followed and that the ship is prepared for internal and external audits.
Engine Failure in a Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS):

If your vessel experiences engine failure while transiting a Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS), it's a critical situation that
requires immediate action to ensure the safety of your vessel and others in the vicinity. Here's how you should proceed:
1. Immediate Actions
➢ Assess the Situation:
o Determine the extent of the engine failure and assess whether it can be quickly rectified. Consider the
current position of your vessel relative to the lanes in the TSS, other traffic, and any navigational hazards.
➢ Sound Appropriate Signals:
o If the vessel is not under command due to engine failure, sound the appropriate sound signal: two
prolonged blasts followed by one short blast (N.U.C. - Not Under Command).
o Display the appropriate day shapes (two black balls) or night signals (two all-round red lights) to indicate
the vessel is not under command.
➢ Engage Emergency Steering:
o If the vessel is drifting and there is a risk of collision, attempt to steer the vessel using emergency steering
if operational.
➢ Alert the Engine Room:
o Notify the engine room immediately of the situation and coordinate with them to determine the best
course of action to restore propulsion.
2. Broadcast a Safety Message
➢ Inform Nearby Vessels:
o Use VHF radio to broadcast a Securité message to inform other vessels in the vicinity of your situation,
including your vessel's position, status, and intentions.
➢ Contact VTS:
o If you are in a TSS monitored by a Vessel Traffic Service (VTS), contact them immediately to report the
situation and seek assistance. Provide your vessel's details, position, nature of the problem, and any
immediate assistance required.
3. Take Preventive Measures
➢ Deploy Anchors:
o If safe to do so and water depth allows, consider deploying anchors to prevent the vessel from drifting
into a hazardous area or out of the TSS. Ensure this action is communicated to nearby vessels.
➢ Prepare for Towing:
o If the engine cannot be restarted and the situation becomes critical, prepare the vessel for a possible tow.
Ensure towlines and other necessary equipment are ready.
➢ Reduce the Risk of Collision:
o Ensure that lookouts are posted and the bridge team is on high alert to monitor the situation. Use all
available means, including radar and AIS, to track nearby vessels and take evasive actions if necessary.
4. Follow-Up Actions
➢ Communicate with Authorities:
o Keep the relevant maritime authorities informed of any developments, especially if the situation
deteriorates or if assistance is required.
➢ Coordinate with Engine Room:
o Work closely with the engineering team to expedite repairs and restore propulsion. Regular updates
between the bridge and engine room are crucial.
➢ Prepare for Assistance:
o Be ready to receive assistance from nearby vessels or tugs. Ensure that crew members are stationed at
key positions for handling lines, and maintain clear communication with assisting vessels.
Man Overboard (MOB) in a Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS):

If a crew member falls overboard in a TSS, immediate action is necessary to recover the person and ensure the safety of
the vessel and others in the area.
1. Immediate Actions
➢ Shout "Man Overboard":
o As soon as the MOB is observed, shout "Man Overboard" to alert the bridge team and crew.
➢ Deploy Lifebuoys and Markers:
o Throw lifebuoys with attached smoke floats or lights in the direction of the MOB. Deploy a MOB marker
(such as a Dan buoy) to aid in locating the person.
➢ Sound Alarm:
o Sound the general alarm to alert all crew members to the emergency. The bridge should immediately
switch to hand steering if on autopilot.
➢ Engage Emergency Steering and Propulsion:
o If safe and the situation allows, execute a Williamson turn or another appropriate maneuver to return to
the MOB position. Be cautious of other traffic in the TSS.
➢ Alert Engine Room:
o Inform the engine room of the situation and prepare for possible maneuvering or stopping of the vessel.
2. Broadcast a Distress Message
➢ Send a Mayday or Pan-Pan Message:
o Depending on the situation's severity, broadcast a Mayday or Pan-Pan message via VHF radio on Channel
16. Include your vessel’s position, the nature of the emergency, and your intentions.
➢ Contact VTS:
o If in a monitored TSS, notify the VTS of the situation. Provide details about the MOB, your vessel's position,
and actions being taken.
3. Coordinate the Recovery Operation
➢ Post Lookouts:
o Assign lookouts to visually track the MOB, especially as the vessel maneuvers back to the MOB position.
Use binoculars and other visual aids.
➢ Launch Rescue Craft:
o Prepare to launch a rescue boat if the situation and conditions permit. Ensure that the rescue team is
properly briefed and equipped with life jackets, radios, and other necessary gear.
➢ Maintain Communication:
o Maintain clear communication between the bridge, rescue team, and any assisting vessels. Use VHF and
hand-held radios for coordination.
4. Consider the TSS Environment
➢ Monitor Traffic:
o Keep a close watch on other vessels in the TSS. Communicate with any vessels that may pose a risk to the
MOB or your vessel during the recovery operation.
➢ Alert Nearby Vessels:
o Use VHF to alert nearby vessels of the MOB situation, advising them to take necessary precautions and
avoid the area if possible.
5. After Recovery
➢ Provide First Aid:
o Once the MOB is recovered, administer first aid as necessary. Check for hypothermia, shock, or injuries
and take appropriate actions.
➢ Report to Authorities:
o Notify the relevant authorities (e.g., coast guard or VTS) of the successful recovery and provide any
requested information.
➢ Log the Incident:
o Record the MOB incident in the ship's logbook, detailing the time, position, actions taken, and outcome.
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
Limitations of Radar:
Radar is a crucial navigational tool, but it has several limitations that mariners must be aware of to ensure safe and
effective operation. Here are the key limitations of radar:
1. Detection Range
➢ Limited by Earth’s Curvature: Radar range is constrained by the curvature of the Earth, particularly for surface
radars. This means that the maximum detection range for objects near the waterline is limited to the radar
horizon.
➢ Weather Conditions: Heavy rain, snow, fog, or other weather conditions can attenuate radar signals, reducing the
effective range and making it difficult to detect targets.
➢ Sea State: High sea states can cause sea clutter, which may mask smaller targets close to the surface, reducing
detection range and accuracy.
2. Resolution
➢ Range Resolution: The ability to distinguish between two objects that are close together at the same bearing.
Limited range resolution can cause nearby targets to appear as a single object.
➢ Bearing Resolution: The ability to differentiate between two targets at similar ranges but on different bearings.
Poor bearing resolution can make it difficult to separate targets that are close together in angle.
3. Interpretation of Returns
➢ False Echoes: Radar can produce false echoes due to reflections from large structures, nearby vessels, or even the
ship’s own superstructure. These can lead to misinterpretation of the radar display.
➢ Shadow Zones: Tall objects like mountains, islands, or large ships can create shadow zones where radar signals
cannot reach, leading to undetected areas.
➢ Multiple Reflections: Radar signals can bounce between objects, creating multiple echoes that may confuse the
radar operator.
4. Blind Spots
➢ Antenna Placement: The radar antenna’s position on the vessel can create blind spots, particularly directly above
and below the antenna. This may prevent detection of nearby small targets.
➢ Hull and Superstructure: Parts of the ship itself, such as the mast, funnel, or other structures, can block radar
signals, creating blind spots.
5. Target Characteristics
➢ Small Targets: Radar is less effective at detecting small targets, such as small boats, buoys, or debris, especially in
rough sea conditions where they may be obscured by waves.
➢ Non-Metallic Objects: Non-metallic objects, like wooden boats or fiberglass vessels, have lower radar reflectivity
and may be difficult to detect.
6. Radar Clutter
➢ Sea Clutter: Returns from the sea surface can create clutter on the radar screen, especially in rough seas. This can
obscure small targets and reduce the radar’s effectiveness.
➢ Rain Clutter: Rainfall can cause significant clutter, as raindrops reflect radar waves, leading to a loss of target
detection in heavy rain.
7. Over-Reliance
1. Human Error: Over-reliance on radar can lead to a neglect of other navigational methods, such as visual lookout
and use of AIS, potentially increasing the risk of collision or grounding.
2. Fatigue and Misinterpretation: Continuous monitoring of the radar can lead to operator fatigue, increasing the
likelihood of misinterpreting radar data.
8. Performance Degradation
➢ Electronic Interference: Radar performance can be affected by electronic interference from other shipboard
systems or external sources, leading to distorted signals or loss of radar functionality.
➢ Antenna Malfunction: Mechanical or electronic issues with the radar antenna, such as misalignment or failure,
can degrade radar performance.
Vessel Aground, Lights and Sound Signals:

When a vessel is aground, specific lights and sound signals must be displayed and made according to the International
Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs). These signals help ensure the vessel's condition is known to others
in the vicinity, aiding in safe navigation and avoiding further incidents.
Lights for a Vessel Aground (Rule 30)

1. At Night:
➢ Two All-Round Red Lights in a Vertical Line: These indicate the vessel is not under command (NUC).
➢ All-Round White Light or Anchor Light(s): If the vessel is less than 50 meters in length, it must display one all-
round white light; if the vessel is 50 meters or more, it must display two all-round white lights—one at the
fore and one at the stern.
➢ No Side Lights: The sidelights and stern lights should not be displayed because the vessel is not making way.
2. In Restricted Visibility (Day or Night):
➢ Day Shape: Three black balls in a vertical line must be displayed to indicate the vessel is aground.
Sound Signals for a Vessel Aground (Rule 35)

1. In Restricted Visibility (Day or Night):
➢ Three Distinct Strokes on the Bell: Followed by the rapid ringing of the bell for about 5 seconds.
➢ Followed by Three Distinct Strokes on the Bell Again: This sequence must be repeated at intervals not
exceeding 1 minute.
➢ In Vessels of 100 Meters or More: In addition to the bell signal, the gong must be sounded immediately after
the ringing of the bell, rapidly, for about 5 seconds.
➢ If Practical: A whistle blast may be sounded, consisting of a prolonged blast followed by two short blasts
(indicating the vessel is NUC).
Pilot vessel at anchor during Fog, Signal:

When a pilot vessel is at anchor during conditions of restricted visibility, such as fog, it must follow specific sound signal
requirements as outlined in the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs).
Fog Signal for a Pilot Vessel at Anchor (Rule 35)
At Anchor:
➢ Rapid Ringing of the Bell: For 5 seconds, every minute.
➢ If the Vessel is 100 Meters or More in Length: After the bell signal, the gong must be sounded rapidly for about 5
seconds in the after part of the vessel.
➢ Pilot Vessel Identification Signal: In addition to the anchor signals, a pilot vessel at anchor may also sound four short
blasts on the whistle, followed by a pause, to indicate that it is a pilot vessel.
Situation: Vessel on your starboard beam and another vessel on your starboard bow, action?
In the situation where you have one vessel on your starboard beam and another vessel on your starboard bow, you are
required to take appropriate actions to avoid collision according to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions
at Sea (COLREGs). Here's how to analyze and act in this situation:
Understanding the Situation
1. Vessel on Your Starboard Beam:
➢ This vessel is in a crossing situation where you are the give-way vessel. As per Rule 15 (Crossing Situation),
you must take action to avoid collision by altering your course to starboard or slowing down.
2. Vessel on Your Starboard Bow:
➢ This vessel is also in a crossing situation but at a different angle, potentially closer to the danger zone directly
ahead. You are again the give-way vessel under Rule 15.
Actions to Take
1. Assess the Closest Point of Approach (CPA) and Time to Closest Point of Approach (TCPA):
➢ Use radar or other means to assess the CPA and TCPA for both vessels. The vessel with the smaller CPA or
shorter TCPA is the more immediate threat.
2. Alteration of Course:
➢ If both vessels are at similar distances but the vessel on the starboard bow is a more immediate risk:
o Consider a Course Alteration to Starboard: Altering course to starboard is generally the preferred
action in a crossing situation, as it will increase the CPA with both vessels.
➢ If the vessel on the starboard beam is closer and more of a threat:
o Consider a Course Alteration to Port or Slowing Down: Altering course to port can help avoid the
vessel on the starboard beam while giving additional clearance to the vessel on the starboard bow.
However, this requires careful judgment and consideration of the actions of the vessel on the
starboard bow.
3. Communicate with the Other Vessels:
➢ If there is any doubt or if the situation is complex, consider using VHF to communicate your intentions to the
other vessels. This can help ensure coordinated actions to avoid collision.
4. Monitor the Situation Continuously:
➢ After taking action, continue to monitor both vessels closely to ensure the CPA increases and that your actions
are effective in avoiding a collision.
What actions to take if vessel sustains bottom damage?

If a vessel sustains bottom damage, it is crucial to take immediate and appropriate actions to mitigate the situation, ensure
the safety of the crew, prevent further damage, and comply with regulations. Here are the steps to follow:
➢ Stop the Vessel: If safe to do so, immediately stop the vessel's engine to prevent further damage.
➢ Sound the Bilges: Check all compartments and tanks, particularly in the area of the damage, for water ingress.
➢ Assess the Damage: Determine the extent of the damage using available means such as sounding pipes, bilge
alarms, or visual inspection if accessible.
➢ Evaluate Stability and Buoyancy: Assess the impact of water ingress on the vessel’s stability and buoyancy.
Consider using stability software if available.
2. Contain the Damage
➢ Activate Bilge Pumps: Start bilge pumps to remove any water ingress. Monitor the rate of ingress and pump
discharge.
➢ Isolate Affected Compartments: Close watertight doors and valves to isolate the damaged area and prevent the
spread of water to other compartments.
➢ Check for Oil Leaks: Inspect the area for any oil leaks. If oil is leaking, initiate pollution prevention measures, such
as deploying booms or absorbent pads.
3. Report the Incident
➢ Notify the Master: Inform the Master of the situation immediately if you are not in command.
➢ Send a Distress Signal (if necessary): If the situation is critical and the vessel is in immediate danger, send a distress
signal (MAYDAY) on the VHF radio.
➢ Inform the Authorities: Notify the nearest coastal authorities, port state control, or relevant maritime rescue
coordination center (MRCC) about the incident, providing details of the damage and the vessel’s position.
➢ Report to the Company: Follow the company’s emergency procedures and report the incident to the company’s
emergency response team.
4. Take Stabilization Actions
➢ Ballasting/De-ballasting: If necessary, carry out ballasting or de-ballasting operations to correct the vessel’s list
and maintain stability.
➢ Shift Cargo (if safe): Consider shifting cargo to improve stability, ensuring that this does not worsen the situation.
➢ Consider Grounding the Vessel: If the vessel’s integrity is severely compromised and sinking is imminent, consider
intentional grounding in a controlled manner to prevent total loss. This decision should be made by the Master in
consultation with the company.
5. Prepare for Possible Evacuation
➢ Ready the Lifeboats and Life Rafts: Ensure that all lifesaving equipment is ready for deployment. Muster the crew
and passengers, if applicable.
➢ Conduct a Headcount: Ensure all crew members are accounted for and ready for possible evacuation.
➢ Prepare Emergency Supplies: Assemble emergency supplies such as food, water, flares, and first aid kits for
evacuation.
6. Navigate to Safety (if possible)
➢ Plot a Course to the Nearest Safe Port: If the vessel can still navigate, plot a course to the nearest port or safe
anchorage.
➢ Reduce Speed: Navigate at a reduced speed to minimize further stress on the damaged area.
➢ Maintain Communication: Keep continuous communication with authorities and the company, updating them on
the vessel's condition and progress.
7. Record and Log the Incident
➢ Log the Events: Record all relevant details of the incident, including the time of occurrence, actions taken, and
communications made.
➢ Photograph the Damage: If possible, document the damage with photographs for insurance and investigative
purposes.
8. Prepare for Survey and Repair
➢ Prepare for an Emergency Dry Docking: Coordinate with the company and port authorities to arrange for an
emergency dry docking or underwater inspection and repairs.
➢ Prepare for Survey: Cooperate with surveyors from classification societies and insurers who will inspect the
damage.
9. Post-Incident Review
➢ Debrief the Crew: Conduct a debriefing session with the crew to review the actions taken and lessons learned.
➢ Review Procedures: Evaluate and update emergency response procedures based on the incident to improve
future preparedness.
When overtaking from starboard quarter in restricted visibility, Action?

When overtaking another vessel from the starboard quarter in restricted visibility, it’s essential to follow the International
Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs) to ensure safety. Here's what you should do:
➢ Identify the Vessel Ahead: Determine the position, course, and speed of the vessel ahead using radar, AIS, and
other available means.
➢ Confirm Overtaking Situation: Ensure you are indeed overtaking, which means you are coming up with another
vessel from a direction more than 22.5 degrees abaft her beam (typically from the starboard quarter in this
scenario).
2. Sound the Proper Sound Signals
➢ Sound Restricted Visibility Signal: As per Rule 35(c), if you are a power-driven vessel making way, sound one
prolonged blast every two minutes.
➢ Overtaking Signal (Optional): In restricted visibility, sound signals specifically for overtaking are not explicitly
required under the COLREGs, but if you deem it necessary for safety, you can sound two prolonged blasts followed
by two short blasts to indicate your intention to overtake on the starboard side. This should be followed by the
overtaken vessel repeating the same signal to acknowledge.
3. Maintain a Safe Speed
➢ Proceed at a Safe Speed: Reduce your speed as necessary to ensure that you can take action to avoid a collision
if required. Rule 6 (Safe Speed) applies, especially in restricted visibility.
➢ Keep Distance: Ensure that a safe distance is maintained from the vessel ahead, giving you enough room to
maneuver if the other vessel takes an unexpected action.
4. Use Radar and AIS Effectively
➢ Continuous Monitoring: Use radar to track the other vessel’s movements and AIS to identify the vessel and obtain
more information on its course and speed.
➢ CPA/TCPA Monitoring: Continuously monitor the Closest Point of Approach (CPA) and Time to Closest Point of
Approach (TCPA) to ensure that the overtaking maneuver is safe.
5. Take Appropriate Action
➢ Alter Course or Adjust Speed: If necessary, adjust your course slightly to starboard to give the overtaken vessel
more room. Do not alter your course to port unless it is unavoidable, as this could bring you closer to the vessel
being overtaken.
➢ Communicate if Necessary: If there is any doubt about the actions of the other vessel or the safety of the
maneuver, use VHF radio to communicate with the vessel ahead to ensure they are aware of your intentions.
6. Monitor the Overtaking Process
➢ Pass with Caution: Proceed with the overtaking maneuver, keeping a close watch on the other vessel to ensure
they maintain their course and speed.
➢ Complete the Overtaking Maneuver: Once safely clear of the overtaken vessel, return to your intended course,
maintaining a safe distance.
7. Continue Vigilant Watchkeeping
➢ Maintain Lookout: Continue to keep a proper lookout by all available means, including radar, AIS, and visual
observations, until the overtaking maneuver is completely finished and you are clear of the other vessel.
Vessel crossing in a narrow channel, port to starboard, Action?

When a vessel is crossing a narrow channel from port to starboard, you must take specific actions in accordance with the
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs), particularly Rule 9, which deals with narrow
channels, and Rule 15, which concerns crossing situations.
➢ Determine the Risk of Collision: Identify the vessel crossing from port to starboard and assess whether there is a
risk of collision. This includes evaluating the vessel's speed, course, and distance.
➢ Identify the Type of Vessel: Consider whether the vessel crossing the channel has any special circumstances (e.g.,
a vessel constrained by her draft or a vessel engaged in fishing) that might affect your actions.
2. Understand Your Obligations
➢ Rule 9 (Narrow Channels): Vessels navigating in a narrow channel or fairway must keep as near to the outer limit
of the channel or fairway which lies on their starboard side as is safe and practicable.
➢ Rule 15 (Crossing Situation): When two power-driven vessels are crossing so as to involve a risk of collision, the
vessel which has the other on her own starboard side shall keep out of the way and avoid crossing ahead of the
other vessel.
3. Actions to Take
➢ Maintain Course and Speed: In a narrow channel, if you are navigating along the channel and the other vessel is
crossing from your port side, you generally have the right of way because the other vessel is the give-way vessel.
➢ Sound the Danger Signal: If you doubt the intentions of the crossing vessel or if there is a risk of collision, sound
at least five short and rapid blasts on the whistle to signal danger (Rule 34(d)).
➢ Prepare to Take Evasive Action: While you are the stand-on vessel, you must be prepared to take action if the
crossing vessel fails to give way. This could include reducing speed, altering course to starboard, or stopping the
vessel, depending on the circumstances.
➢ Communicate if Necessary: If the situation is unclear, use VHF radio to communicate with the crossing vessel and
clarify their intentions.
4. Monitor the Situation Continuously
➢ Keep a Close Watch: Maintain a vigilant lookout to ensure the crossing vessel takes appropriate action.
➢ Reassess Continuously: Continuously reassess the risk of collision as the situation develops, being ready to take
further action if needed.
5. In Case of Immediate Danger
➢ Take Avoidance Action: If a collision seems imminent, take whatever action will best avoid the collision. This may
involve turning to starboard or stopping and reversing engines. Rule 17(b) allows the stand-on vessel to take
action to avoid collision when it becomes apparent that the give-way vessel is not taking appropriate action.
WEATHER MANAGEMENT
Gradient current in Bay of Bengal:

The gradient current in the Bay of Bengal is a type of ocean current influenced by the gradient in sea surface height or
pressure. This gradient is typically caused by factors such as wind, temperature, salinity variations, and the unique
topography of the Bay of Bengal.
1. Characteristics of the Bay of Bengal
➢ Monsoon Influence: The Bay of Bengal is heavily influenced by the monsoon winds, which reverse direction
seasonally. The southwest monsoon (May to September) and the northeast monsoon (October to February) both
significantly impact the region's currents.
➢ Freshwater Influx: The Bay receives a significant amount of freshwater from major rivers such as the Ganges,
Brahmaputra, and Irrawaddy, creating strong salinity gradients.
➢ Temperature Gradient: The temperature of the Bay's surface varies between the northern and southern regions,
contributing to the development of thermal gradients.
2. Formation of Gradient Currents
➢ Pressure Gradient Force: The difference in sea surface height due to wind stress and differential heating leads to
a pressure gradient force. This force drives the gradient currents.
➢ Wind-Driven Currents: During the southwest monsoon, strong winds push water towards the northeast, raising
the sea level near the coast of Bangladesh and Myanmar. The return flow generates a pressure gradient that
drives currents southward.
➢ Thermohaline Circulation: Variations in temperature and salinity can create density gradients that contribute to
thermohaline circulation, influencing the flow of water in the Bay.
3. Seasonal Variation
➢ Southwest Monsoon (Summer): During the summer monsoon, the gradient currents are typically stronger due to
the significant pressure gradient created by the monsoon winds. Currents generally flow clockwise, with strong
westward and southwestward currents along the eastern coast of India.
➢ Northeast Monsoon (Winter): During the winter monsoon, the winds reverse, and the gradient currents tend to
flow more northeastward, with a counterclockwise circulation pattern prevailing.
4. Impact on Navigation and Shipping
➢ Current Speed and Direction: The gradient currents can significantly affect the speed and course of vessels in the
Bay of Bengal. Mariners must account for these currents when planning routes, especially during monsoon
seasons.
➢ Safety Considerations: The strength and variability of these currents, combined with monsoon winds and tropical
cyclones, can pose challenges for safe navigation.
Hazards and Precautions of Navigation in Polar Waters:

Navigating in polar waters, such as the Arctic and Antarctic regions, presents unique hazards due to extreme
environmental conditions, ice-covered waters, and limited infrastructure. Here are the key hazards and precautions to
consider for safe navigation in these challenging environments:
Hazards of Navigation in Polar Waters:
1. Sea Ice and Icebergs
➢ Drifting Sea Ice: Unpredictable movement of sea ice, including pack ice, can block passages, trap ships, or damage
hulls.
➢ Icebergs: Large icebergs calved from glaciers pose significant collision risks, especially in low visibility or at night.
➢ Growlers and Bergy Bits: Smaller ice fragments that are difficult to detect but can still cause considerable damage
to the vessel's hull.
2. Extreme Weather Conditions
➢ Low Temperatures: Sub-zero temperatures can lead to ice accumulation on the vessel, affecting stability, and
operational systems, and posing a danger to crew members.
➢ Poor Visibility: Fog, snowstorms, and long periods of darkness during polar winters can severely reduce visibility,
increasing the risk of collision or grounding.
➢ Storms: Polar regions are prone to sudden and severe storms, which can lead to high winds, rough seas, and
challenging navigational conditions.
3. Magnetic and Navigational Challenges
➢ Magnetic Compass Deviation: The proximity to the magnetic poles causes compass errors, making traditional
navigation methods unreliable.
➢ Electronic Navigation Issues: GPS accuracy may be reduced at high latitudes, and electronic systems may be less
reliable in extreme cold.
➢ Inadequate Charting: Polar regions are often less surveyed, leading to outdated or inaccurate charts, increasing
the risk of grounding.
4. Limited Infrastructure and Search and Rescue (SAR)
➢ Sparse Infrastructure: There are very few ports, refueling stations, or repair facilities in polar regions, complicating
logistics and emergency response.
➢ Limited SAR Resources: Search and rescue operations are difficult due to the remoteness, harsh conditions, and
limited availability of SAR assets.
5. Environmental and Ecological Risks
➢ Sensitive Ecosystems: Polar waters are home to fragile ecosystems, and any pollution or oil spills can have
catastrophic effects.
➢ Regulatory Restrictions: Strict environmental regulations, such as those outlined in the Polar Code, limit
operational activities to protect the environment.
Precautions for Safe Navigation in Polar Waters:

1. Ice Navigation Training and Preparedness
➢ Specialized Training: Ensure that the crew, especially officers, have undergone specialized training in ice
navigation, as required by the Polar Code.
➢ Ice Pilots: Consider employing an ice navigator or ice pilot with extensive experience in polar waters to assist with
navigation.
2. Ice Strengthening and Winterization
➢ Ice-Class Vessels: Use vessels that are ice-strengthened and classified for polar operation, with hulls capable of
withstanding ice impact.
➢ Winterization Measures: Ensure that the vessel's equipment and systems are winterized to function effectively in
extreme cold, including heating systems, fuel, and lubricants.
3. Navigation and Communication Systems
➢ Redundant Navigation Systems: Use multiple navigation systems, including GPS, radar, and gyrocompasses, to
compensate for magnetic compass errors.
➢ Ice Detection: Equip the vessel with ice radar, forward-looking sonar, and other ice detection technologies to
identify and avoid ice hazards.
➢ Enhanced Communication: Use satellite communication systems to maintain reliable contact with shore-based
support and SAR resources.
4. Environmental Precautions
➢ Compliance with the Polar Code: Adhere to the environmental protection measures outlined in the Polar Code,
including waste management, ballast water treatment, and avoiding sensitive areas.
➢ Spill Response Preparedness: Have spill response equipment onboard and ensure the crew is trained in its use to
mitigate any environmental incidents.
5. Voyage Planning
➢ Thorough Planning: Conduct detailed voyage planning, taking into account ice charts, weather forecasts, daylight
hours, and available SAR resources.
➢ Polar Routes: Choose routes with minimal ice coverage and proximity to potential assistance, considering
icebreaker support if necessary.
6. Emergency Preparedness
➢ Emergency Drills: Regularly conduct drills for ice-related emergencies, including abandon ship, fire, and man-
overboard scenarios.
➢ Survival Equipment: Ensure that survival suits, lifeboats, and other lifesaving equipment are suitable for polar
conditions and readily accessible.
TRS formation, Factors and Ideal conditions:

Tropical Revolving Storms (TRS), also known as cyclones, hurricanes, or typhoons depending on the region, are intense
low-pressure systems that form over warm ocean waters. The formation and development of a TRS are influenced by
several factors and require specific ideal conditions. Here's an overview:
1. TRS Formation Process
a. Initial Disturbance:
• Tropical Wave or Low-Pressure Area: TRS formation often begins with a tropical wave or an area of low
pressure in the tropics. This disturbance may come from the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), where
trade winds from both hemispheres meet and create convection.
b. Development Stage:
• Convection: Warm, moist air rises due to the initial disturbance, leading to cloud formation and
thunderstorms. This rising air creates a low-pressure area at the surface.
• Coriolis Effect: As air converges towards the low-pressure center, the Coriolis effect (due to the Earth's
rotation) causes the air to rotate, creating a cyclonic system.
c. Maturation:
• Cyclonic Intensification: The cyclonic system intensifies as the low-pressure area deepens and the wind speed
increases. The storm develops a well-defined structure, often with an eye at the center, surrounded by a wall
of intense thunderstorms.
• Eye Formation: The eye is the calm center of the storm, characterized by low pressure, while the strongest
winds and heaviest rain occur in the eyewall surrounding it.
2. Factors Contributing to TRS Formation
a. Warm Ocean Surface Temperature:
• Threshold Temperature: Sea surface temperatures must be at least 26.5°C (80°F) to provide the necessary
heat and moisture to fuel the storm. This warmth leads to the evaporation of water, supplying latent heat
energy to the storm.
b. High Humidity:
• Moisture Supply: High humidity in the mid-troposphere (around 5,000 to 10,000 feet) is essential to sustain
convection and cloud formation. Low humidity can disrupt the storm's development.
c. Coriolis Force:
• Latitudinal Influence: The Coriolis force is crucial for the rotation of the storm. TRS typically form between 5°
and 20° latitude north or south of the equator, where the Coriolis effect is strong enough to induce cyclonic
rotation.
d. Low Vertical Wind Shear:
• Wind Shear Definition: Wind shear refers to the change in wind speed or direction with height in the
atmosphere. For TRS formation, low vertical wind shear (less than 10-15 knots) is ideal because high shear
can disrupt the storm's structure by tilting or displacing the rising warm air and convection away from the
center.
e. Pre-existing Weather Disturbance:
• Triggering Mechanism: A pre-existing disturbance such as a tropical wave, low-pressure area, or monsoon
trough can act as a seed for TRS formation. These disturbances provide the initial focus for convergence and
convection.
f. Upper-level Divergence:
• Outflow Mechanism: Divergence aloft, where air spreads out at the top of the storm, helps to maintain low
pressure at the surface. This divergence allows rising air from below to be replaced by more warm, moist air
from the ocean surface.
g. Sufficient Distance from the Equator:
• Coriolis Effect Requirement: A TRS cannot form within approximately 5° of the equator because the Coriolis
effect is too weak to initiate and sustain the necessary cyclonic rotation.
3. Ideal Conditions for TRS Formation
a. Warm Sea Surface Temperatures (SST):
• SSTs of 26.5°C or higher over a large area are crucial to provide the energy needed for storm development.
b. High Humidity in the Lower and Middle Troposphere:
• High moisture content in the atmosphere supports convection and the development of cumulonimbus clouds,
which are the building blocks of a TRS.
c. Low Vertical Wind Shear:
• Wind shear less than 10-15 knots allows the storm to maintain its structure and intensify. Low shear ensures
that the vertical alignment of the storm is not disrupted.
d. Presence of a Pre-existing Weather Disturbance:
• A low-pressure system or tropical wave acts as a catalyst, providing a focus for the developing storm.
e. Sufficient Coriolis Effect:
• A minimum distance of 5° from the equator is needed to provide the rotational force required for cyclonic
development.
f. Upper-level High Pressure:
• Favorable upper-level winds and divergence aloft create a vacuum effect, encouraging more air to rise from
below and sustaining the low-pressure system at the surface.
1-2-3 rule of TRS:

The 1-2-3 Rule, also known as the Mariners' 1-2-3 Rule, is a guideline used by mariners to avoid the dangers associated
with the uncertainty of a Tropical Revolving Storm's (TRS) track, particularly when predicting its future position. It accounts
for forecast errors in the storm's projected path.
Explanation of the 1-2-3 Rule
1. 1-Day Forecast Error:
➢ Radius of Uncertainty: For the first day (24 hours) after the storm's forecast position, a mariner should allow
for an error radius of 100 nautical miles around the forecasted position of the storm's center. This radius is
based on the typical forecast error for a 24-hour period.
➢ Radius of Uncertainty: For the second day (48 hours), the mariner should account for a larger error radius of
200 nautical miles. This reflects the increased uncertainty in the storm's position as the forecast extends
further into the future.
➢ Radius of Uncertainty: For the third day (72 hours), the error radius increases to 300 nautical miles. The longer
the forecast period, the greater the potential error in the storm's predicted path.
How to Use the 1-2-3 Rule?
➢ Step 1: Obtain the Latest Forecast: Mariners should obtain the most recent forecast for the TRS, which typically
provides the predicted position of the storm's center for the next 24, 48, and 72 hours.
➢ Step 2: Plot the Forecasted Positions: Plot the forecasted positions of the TRS center for 24, 48, and 72 hours ahead
on the navigational chart.
➢ Step 3: Draw the Circles of Uncertainty:
o Draw a circle with a radius of 100 nautical miles around the 24-hour forecast position.
➢ Step 4: Avoid the Danger Area: The area enclosed by these circles represents the potential area where the storm could
be, considering forecast errors. Mariners should avoid navigating within or near this area to reduce the risk of
encountering the storm.
Purpose of the 1-2-3 Rule
➢ Safety Margin: The rule provides a safety margin that accounts for the inherent uncertainty in predicting a TRS's exact
path, speed, and intensity. By staying clear of the danger area defined by the 1-2-3 Rule, mariners can better ensure
the safety of their vessel and crew.
➢ Decision-Making Tool: The rule aids in making informed decisions about altering course, adjusting speed, or seeking
shelter based on the expected movement of the TRS.
TRS Approach Signs:

The approach of a Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS) can be detected by observing various environmental and meteorological
signs. Mariners should be aware of these indicators, as early recognition is crucial for taking timely action to avoid the
storm's destructive path. Here are the key signs indicating the approach of a TRS:
1. Falling Barometric Pressure
➢ Rapid Drop in Pressure: A significant and continuous drop in barometric pressure is one of the most reliable
indicators of an approaching TRS. The pressure drop may start slowly and then accelerate as the storm gets closer,
often falling by 2-3 millibars per hour as the TRS nears.
2. Change in Wind Direction and Speed
➢ Veering and Backing Winds: As a TRS approaches, the wind direction will change (veer or back) in a manner
consistent with the storm's rotation. In the Northern Hemisphere, the wind will typically veer (shift clockwise),
while in the Southern Hemisphere, it will back (shift counterclockwise).
➢ Increasing Wind Speed: Wind speeds will steadily increase as the storm gets closer, often becoming gale-force
(34-40 knots) or stronger as the TRS nears.
3. Sea State Changes
➢ Long Swells: Long-period swells from the direction of the storm may reach your location well before the storm
itself arrives. These swells are often large and uniform, signaling the presence of a distant but powerful storm.
➢ Increasing Wave Height: As the TRS approaches, wave heights will increase, and the sea state will become more
confused and dangerous.
4. Cloud Formation and Movement
➢ Cirrus Clouds: High-altitude cirrus clouds may be observed moving outwards from the storm, forming a
characteristic “feathered” pattern. These clouds are often the first visual sign of an approaching TRS.
➢ Thickening Clouds: As the TRS gets closer, cloud cover will thicken, with lower clouds forming into bands or spiral
arms that wrap around the storm's center.
5. Weather Deterioration
➢ Rain and Squalls: Periods of heavy rain and squalls will become more frequent as the TRS approaches, often
accompanied by sudden increases in wind speed.
➢ Thunderstorms: The presence of thunderstorms, particularly those associated with cumulonimbus clouds,
indicates the storm's proximity and increasing intensity.
6. Temperature and Humidity Changes
➢ Warm and Humid Air: As the TRS draws nearer, the air temperature may rise, and humidity levels will increase
due to the influx of warm, moist tropical air.
7. Visual and Auditory Cues
➢ Lightning and Thunder: Frequent lightning and the sound of thunder in the distance are indicative of the storm's
active convective activity and approach.
➢ Darkening Sky: The sky will gradually darken as the storm approaches, with the sun and horizon becoming
obscured by thickening clouds.
8. Radar and Satellite Observations
➢ Radar Echoes: Onboard radar may pick up the outer rain bands and strong reflectivity patterns associated with
the TRS well before it is visible to the naked eye.
➢ Satellite Imagery: Modern satellite images can provide early detection of a TRS's formation and track, giving
mariners valuable lead time to prepare.
9. Other Navigational Warnings
➢ Weather Reports and Forecasts: Pay close attention to weather bulletins, navigational warnings, and storm
advisories issued by meteorological authorities. These sources provide critical information about the TRS's
position, intensity, and projected path.
Action in dangerous quadrant of TRS:

When a vessel finds itself in the dangerous quadrant of a Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS), it is essential to take immediate
and effective actions to minimize risk. The dangerous quadrant is typically the right front quadrant of the storm (in the
Northern Hemisphere) or the left front quadrant (in the Southern Hemisphere), where the wind speeds are the highest
due to the combined effects of the storm's forward motion and rotational winds.
Actions to Take in the Dangerous Quadrant of a TRS:
1. Alter Course Away from the Storm
➢ Avoid the Dangerous Quadrant: The primary objective is to maneuver the vessel away from the dangerous
quadrant and, ideally, out of the storm's path entirely. This usually involves steering the vessel to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere (or left in the Southern Hemisphere) to place the wind on the starboard quarter or stern,
moving the vessel towards the navigable or safer quadrant.
➢ Follow the Buys Ballot's Law: In the Northern Hemisphere, if you stand with your back to the wind, the center of
the TRS will be to your left-hand side. In the Southern Hemisphere, the center will be to your right-hand side. Use
this principle to determine the storm's location and maneuver accordingly.
2. Reduce Speed and Secure the Vessel
➢ Slow Down: Reducing speed can help mitigate the impact of heavy seas and prevent excessive stress on the
vessel's structure. However, ensure enough speed is maintained to retain steerage control.
➢ Secure Loose Items: Ensure all loose items on deck and within the vessel are secured to prevent damage or injury
from being tossed around by the heavy seas.
3. Adjust the Vessel’s Heading
➢ Maintain a Safe Heading: Steer the vessel at a heading that minimizes the effects of the wind and sea. Typically,
the vessel should be steered with the wind and seas slightly on the stern quarter, which helps avoid broaching
and reduces the impact of large waves.
➢ Avoid Heading Directly into the Sea: Heading directly into the waves can cause severe pounding and structural
damage to the ship.
4. Ballast and Stability Management
➢ Improve Stability: Ensure the vessel has the appropriate ballast to improve stability. Adjust the ballast tanks to
keep the ship’s GM (metacentric height) at a safe level and prevent excessive rolling.
➢ Reduce Free Surface Effect: Minimize the free surface effect in ballast and fuel tanks by ensuring they are either
full or empty, which helps maintain the vessel’s stability.
5. Communication and Monitoring
➢ Monitor Weather Updates: Continuously monitor the latest weather forecasts and updates, including the storm’s
position, movement, and intensity.
➢ Communicate with Nearby Vessels: Keep in contact with nearby vessels and coastal stations to share information
and coordinate actions if necessary.
➢ Report to Authorities: Report your position, course, and actions taken to the relevant maritime authorities and
the vessel’s owner or operator.
6. Prepare for Emergencies
➢ Emergency Procedures: Ensure all crew members are briefed on emergency procedures, including man-
overboard, abandon ship, and damage control.
➢ Check Lifesaving Equipment: Verify that all lifesaving equipment, such as lifeboats, life rafts, and life jackets, is
ready for use.
➢ Engine Room Readiness: Ensure the engine room is prepared for adverse conditions, including monitoring fuel
levels and ensuring machinery is operating efficiently.
7. Heave-to if Necessary
➢ Heave-to: In extreme conditions, it may be safer to heave-to, which involves adjusting the sails or engine to keep
the vessel positioned at a steady angle into the wind and waves, reducing forward motion and allowing the vessel
to ride out the storm with minimal strain.
Causes of Ocean Currents:

Ocean currents are large-scale movements of water within the world's oceans, driven by various factors that influence
their direction, strength, and pattern. The causes of ocean currents can be categorized into several primary factors:
1. Wind
➢ Trade Winds: Persistent winds, such as the trade winds, drive surface currents in the upper 400 meters of the
ocean. These winds push water across the ocean's surface, creating currents that follow the wind's direction.
➢ Westerlies: In higher latitudes, westerly winds (prevailing from the west) contribute to the formation of currents
in the mid-latitudes.
2. Earth's Rotation (Coriolis Effect)
➢ Coriolis Force: The Earth's rotation causes the Coriolis effect, which deflects the direction of ocean currents to the
right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This deflection influences the
direction of both surface and deep-water currents.
3. Temperature and Salinity (Thermohaline Circulation)
➢ Temperature Differences: Water near the equator is warmed by the sun, making it less dense and causing it to
move toward the poles, where it cools, becomes denser, and sinks. This process drives large-scale vertical and
horizontal currents known as thermohaline circulation.
➢ Salinity Differences: Variations in salinity also affect water density. Higher salinity water is denser and sinks,
contributing to the global "conveyor belt" of ocean currents. For example, in polar regions, the formation of sea
ice increases the salinity of the surrounding water, causing it to sink and drive deep ocean currents.
4. Gravity
➢ Sea Level Differences: Ocean currents are also influenced by gravity, which causes water to flow from areas of
higher sea level to areas of lower sea level. This movement is seen in phenomena such as tides and can contribute
to the formation of currents.
5. Ocean Basin Topography
➢ Shape of the Ocean Floor: The underwater topography, including the shape of ocean basins, ridges, and
continental margins, influences the direction and speed of ocean currents. Currents are often deflected by
underwater mountains and valleys, leading to complex flow patterns.
6. Tides
➢ Tidal Forces: The gravitational pull of the moon and sun on the Earth's oceans generates tidal currents. These
currents are most pronounced near coastlines and in shallow seas, where they can cause significant movement
of water.
7. Differences in Atmospheric Pressure (Pressure Gradients)
➢ High and Low-Pressure Systems: Variations in atmospheric pressure, often associated with weather patterns, can
create pressure gradients that drive ocean currents. For example, during the formation of a high-pressure system,
water may be pushed down and outwards, influencing surface currents.
8. Human Activities
➢ Anthropogenic Influences: Though not a natural cause, human activities such as the construction of dams, canals,
and other structures can alter the natural flow of ocean currents. Additionally, climate change can impact ocean
temperatures and salinity, potentially affecting currents over time.
Differences between Dangerous Quadrant and Dangerous Semicircle: -
Dangerous Quadrant Dangerous Semicircle

Definition The specific area within a TRS where the The entire half-circle area of a TRS where winds and
strongest winds and most severe weather are seas are more dangerous due to the combination of
encountered, typically the front-right the storm's rotational winds and its forward
quadrant in the Northern Hemisphere and movement, typically the right half of the storm in the
front-left quadrant in the Southern Northern Hemisphere and the left half in the Southern
Hemisphere. Hemisphere.
Location in Front-right quadrant in the Northern Right half of the TRS in the Northern Hemisphere (or
TRS Hemisphere (or front-left quadrant in the left half in the Southern Hemisphere).
Southern Hemisphere).
Wind Speed Winds are at their strongest due to the Winds are strong, but not uniformly at their maximum;
additive effect of the storm's forward motion they vary across the semicircle, with the strongest
and rotational winds. winds in the quadrant.
Sea The most severe sea conditions with higher Rough seas with strong waves, but not as extreme as
Conditions waves and more intense storms. in the specific quadrant.
Navigational Avoidance is critical; vessels should alter Vessels should avoid the entire semicircle by steering
Strategy course to steer clear of this quadrant and away, ideally moving into the navigable semicircle or
move towards the safer semicircle or away directly away from the storm's path.
from the storm entirely.
Impacts Highest risk of damage and danger to vessels Significant risk, but less concentrated than in the
due to extreme weather conditions. specific quadrant; still dangerous and requires careful
navigation.
Rotational Strongest rotational winds combined with the Rotational winds combined with the storm's forward
Influence storm's movement lead to extreme movement affect the entire semicircle but are most
conditions. intense in the quadrant.
Path and Movement of a Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS)

➢ Formation Area:
o TRS forms over warm ocean waters (at least 26.5°C).
o Commonly found in tropical regions between 5° and 20° latitude, north or south of the equator.
➢ Initial Movement:
o Typically moves westward or northwestward after formation.
o Driven by the easterly trade winds in the tropics.
➢ Influence of Coriolis Effect:
o The Earth's rotation causes the Coriolis effect, which deflects the storm's path.
o In the Northern Hemisphere, TRS curves to the right (northwest).
o In the Southern Hemisphere, TRS curves to the left (southwest).
➢ Influence of High-Pressure Systems:
o High-pressure systems, like the subtropical ridge, can steer the storm's path.
o If the ridge is strong, the storm may continue westward.
o If the ridge weakens or shifts, the storm may turn poleward (northward in the Northern Hemisphere or
southward in the Southern Hemisphere).
➢ Mid-Latitude Interaction:
o As a TRS moves into higher latitudes, it can interact with mid-latitude weather systems, such as westerly winds
or jet streams.
o These interactions can cause the storm to recurve toward the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere or
southeast in the Southern Hemisphere.
o The storm may also accelerate in speed or change in intensity during this phase.
➢ Dissipation:
o TRS generally weakens as it moves over cooler waters or land, losing its energy source.
o The storm eventually dissipates, either transitioning into a post-tropical cyclone or being absorbed by other
weather systems.
Weather near Eye wall of TRS:
The weather near the eyewall of a Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS) is extremely severe and hazardous. The eyewall is the
region immediately surrounding the eye of the storm, where the most intense and dangerous weather conditions occur.
Here’s what you can expect near the eyewall of a TRS:
➢ Wind Speeds:
o The strongest and most destructive winds in the entire storm are found in the eyewall. Wind speeds can reach
up to 150 mph (240 km/h) or more, depending on the storm's intensity.
o These winds cause massive damage, capable of tearing down structures, uprooting trees, and creating large,
powerful waves at sea.
➢ Precipitation:
o The eyewall experiences torrential rainfall, leading to the possibility of flash flooding. Rainfall rates can exceed
several inches per hour.
o This intense precipitation can cause widespread flooding, both inland and in coastal areas, especially when
combined with storm surges.
➢ Sea Conditions:
o Near the eyewall, sea conditions are extremely rough, with very high waves and storm surges. The wave
heights can be life-threatening for any vessels caught in this region.
o Storm surges, combined with high tides, can lead to catastrophic coastal flooding.
➢ Pressure:
o Atmospheric pressure is extremely low near the eyewall, with a steep gradient from the surrounding areas.
This sharp pressure difference contributes to the high wind speeds.
o The rapid pressure drop as one approaches the eyewall is one of the defining characteristics of a TRS.
➢ Turbulence:
o The eyewall is marked by severe turbulence, both at the surface and in the air. This turbulence can be
dangerous for aircraft and ships, making navigation extremely challenging.
➢ Visibility:
o Visibility near the eyewall is very poor due to heavy rain, spray from high waves, and strong winds. This makes
it difficult to see more than a short distance ahead, increasing the danger for mariners and pilots.
Clouds near Eye of TRS:

The clouds near the eye of a Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS) exhibit distinct and dramatic features. Here’s what you can
observe:
➢ Eye:
o Clear Sky: The eye of the storm is typically a relatively calm and clear area with minimal clouds. It can be a
small, circular region with calm or light winds compared to the surrounding eyewall.
o Cloud-Free Zone: The eye is often surrounded by a region of relatively clear skies or broken clouds. This occurs
because the air in the eye is descending and warming, which reduces cloud formation.
➢ Eyewall:
o Dense, Towering Clouds: The eyewall consists of dense, towering cumulonimbus clouds. These clouds form a
ring around the eye and are characterized by their towering height and vertical development.
o Heavy Precipitation: Within the eyewall, clouds produce intense rainfall, thunderstorms, and lightning. The
cloud tops can reach high into the stratosphere, contributing to the storm's severe weather.
➢ Rainbands:
o Spiral Bands: Outside the eyewall, spiral rainbands extend outward from the center of the storm. These bands
consist of a mix of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds and are associated with periods of heavy rain and
thunderstorms.
o Variable Cloud Cover: The cloud cover in the rainbands can vary from scattered cumulus clouds to more
organized, dense formations.
➢ Clouds Above the Eye:
o Anvil Clouds: Above the eye and extending outward, you may find anvil-shaped cloud tops. These high-
altitude clouds, formed by the upper reaches of the storm, can spread out and create a large, anvil-shaped
cloud canopy.
o Cirrus Clouds: At the top of the storm, cirrus clouds may be present, contributing to the storm’s overall cloud
cover and affecting the visibility of the eye from a distance.
Difference between TRS and TLD:

Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS) Tropical Low-Pressure System (TLD)
Definition A term for intense tropical cyclones, including A broad term for weak low-pressure areas in
hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones. the tropics.
Intensity Highly organized with defined structures; includes Less organized and weaker; does not yet have
hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones. the structure of a cyclone.
Wind Sustained winds exceed 34 knots (39 mph or 63 km/h); Winds are generally below 34 knots (39 mph
Speed can exceed 150 knots (173 mph or 278 km/h) in severe or 63 km/h).
cases.
Structure Features a well-defined eye, eyewall, and spiral Lacks a defined eye and eyewall; generally has
rainbands. Eyewall has the strongest winds and heaviest a broad and less organized circulation.
rainfall.
Formation Forms over warm ocean waters (above 26.5°C or 80°F) Can form over warm waters but does not have
with a pre-existing low-pressure area. the organized structure of a TRS.
Movement Typically moves from east to west, influenced by trade Movement is less predictable and can be
winds and other atmospheric factors. erratic; generally follows the prevailing wind
patterns.
What is Weather Routing?

Weather routing is a strategic approach used to plan the most efficient and safest route for a vessel based on current and
forecasted weather conditions. It involves analyzing weather data and predicting how various weather elements will affect
the vessel's journey to optimize performance and ensure safety. Here’s a breakdown of what weather routing entails:
Weather Routing
➢ Definition:
o Weather routing is the process of planning a ship's course by considering and optimizing for weather
conditions, such as wind, waves, currents, and visibility, to ensure safe and efficient navigation.
➢ Objectives:
o Safety: Minimize risks by avoiding severe weather conditions, such as storms, heavy seas, or ice.
o Efficiency: Optimize fuel consumption and reduce travel time by selecting routes that take advantage of
favorable weather conditions and currents.
o Comfort: Enhance onboard comfort by avoiding extreme weather that could cause excessive rolling, pitching,
or discomfort for the crew and passengers.
➢ Data Utilized:
o Weather Forecasts: Includes predictions for wind speed and direction, wave heights, temperature, and
precipitation.
o Oceanographic Data: Information on currents, sea surface temperatures and tidal patterns.
o Historical Data: Past weather patterns and trends that could influence future conditions.
➢ Techniques:
o Route Optimization: Using weather data to plot the most efficient route, considering factors like headwinds,
crosswinds, and sea state.
o Tactical Decisions: Adjusting the vessel’s course and speed in response to real-time weather conditions.
o Advanced Software: Utilizing specialized weather routing software and tools that analyze complex data and
provide recommendations for optimal routes.
➢ Benefits:
o Reduced Fuel Consumption: By avoiding rough weather and optimizing routes, vessels can save fuel and
reduce operating costs.
o Enhanced Safety: Helps in avoiding dangerous weather conditions and minimizing the risk of accidents.
o Improved Voyage Planning: Provides better planning and forecasting capabilities, leading to more predictable
arrival times and efficient operations.
Synoptic Charts
Definition:
➢ Synoptic charts, also known as weather maps, provide a snapshot of the atmospheric conditions over a large area at
a specific time. They are used to display and analyze various meteorological data, such as pressure systems, fronts,
wind patterns, and precipitation.
Key Features:
➢ Isobars: Lines connecting points of equal atmospheric pressure. Close isobars indicate strong winds, while widely
spaced isobars indicate lighter winds.
➢ Pressure Systems: High-pressure (H) areas are shown where the isobars form closed loops with higher pressure at the
center, and low-pressure (L) areas where the pressure is lower at the center.
➢ Fronts: Boundaries between air masses, including cold fronts, warm fronts, occluded fronts, and stationary fronts, are
depicted with specific symbols.
➢ Weather Symbols: Indicate specific weather conditions, such as rain, snow, fog, and thunderstorms.
Usage:
➢ Synoptic charts are used for real-time weather analysis and short-term forecasting. Mariners, pilots, and
meteorologists use them to understand current weather conditions and make informed decisions regarding
navigation and safety.
Prognosis Charts
Definition:
➢ Prognosis charts, or prog charts, are forecast maps that depict predicted atmospheric conditions for a future time.
They are based on models and meteorological data that project the movement and development of weather systems.
Key Features:
➢ Forecast Data: Shows predicted positions of pressure systems, fronts, and significant weather phenomena at a specific
future time, such as 24, 48, or 72 hours ahead.
➢ Model Output: The data presented on prognosis charts is generated by computer models that simulate atmospheric
processes.
➢ Isobars and Fronts: Similar to synoptic charts, but represent forecasted positions and developments rather than
current conditions.
Usage:
➢ Prognosis charts are essential for planning and decision-making in maritime and aviation operations. They allow users
to anticipate weather changes and adjust plans accordingly to avoid adverse conditions.
CRISIS MANAGEMENT
Calculation of Wheel-Over Point:

The wheel-over point is the position at which the helmsman must begin turning the ship to ensure it follows the desired
course change smoothly and accurately. Calculating the wheel-over point involves understanding the ship's turning
characteristics, including its advance and transfer, and the intended course change. Here's how to calculate it:
Steps to Calculate the Wheel-Over Point
1. Determine the Advance and Transfer:
o Advance: The distance a ship travels in the original direction after the rudder is put over until the ship has
turned 90 degrees.
o Transfer: The distance a ship moves perpendicular to its original direction after the rudder is put over until
the ship has turned 90 degrees.
o These values can be found in the ship's maneuvering booklet or determined through trial maneuvers.
2. Identify the Intended Course Change:
o Determine the angle by which the course needs to change (e.g., 45°, 90°).
3. Calculate the Turning Radius:
o The turning radius can be approximated if not directly available. For a known advance and transfer, the radius
R can be calculated using the formula:
𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟
𝑅=
2
o Alternatively, use R provided in the ship's maneuvering data.

4. Determine the Distance to the Wheel-Over Point:
o Use the ship's speed and the calculated turning radius to determine how far before the desired course change
the turn should begin.
o The distance to the wheel-over point D is given by:
∆𝐶
𝐷 = 𝑅 x 𝑡𝑎𝑛
2
5. Apply the Calculation:
o Calculate the actual distance on the chart from the point where the course change should be completed back
to the wheel-over point using the formula above.
o Mark this point on your navigation chart.
6. Consider External Factors:
o Adjust the wheel-over point based on environmental factors like wind, current, and sea conditions, which
may affect the ship's turning performance.
Example:
➢ Ship Speed: 12 knots
➢ Advance: 600 meters
➢ Transfer: 300 meters
➢ Course Change: 90°
1. Calculate the turning radius R:
600 + 300
𝑅= = 450 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
2
2. Calculate the wheel-over distance DDD using the course change:

90
𝐷 = 450 x 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 450 x 1 = 450 meters
2
In this example, you would start the turn 450 meters before the desired point where the course change should
be completed.
How to resolve a Cocked Hat?

A "cocked hat" occurs when three position lines plotted on a navigation chart don't intersect at a single point but instead
form a small triangle. This triangle indicates uncertainty in the ship's position. Resolving a cocked hat involves determining
the most probable position (MPP) of the vessel within that triangle.
Steps to Resolve a Cocked Hat
1. Assess the Quality of Position Lines:
➢ Review the sources of each position line (e.g., bearings, ranges, celestial observations) to ensure they are accurate
and reliable.
➢ Check for errors such as incorrect plotting, equipment inaccuracies, or environmental factors affecting the
readings.
2. Evaluate the Triangle's Size and Shape:
➢ The smaller the cocked hat, the more reliable the position fix is likely to be.
➢ A large or irregularly shaped triangle may indicate significant errors in one or more of the position lines.
3. Determine the Most Probable Position (MPP):
➢ Center of the Triangle: The simplest method is to take the center of the cocked hat as the MPP, assuming that all
position lines have equal reliability.
➢ Weighted Center: If you have reason to believe that one of the position lines is more reliable than the others (e.g.,
due to more accurate equipment), you can give more weight to that line and place the MPP closer to it.
➢ Use Visual or Instrumental Aids: Sometimes, the ship's actual position may be close to one of the position lines if
external factors (such as current or wind) are known to affect the other readings.
4. Consider Additional Information:
➢ Dead Reckoning (DR) Position: Compare the cocked hat with your DR position. If the DR position is close to one
of the edges or corners of the triangle, it may give an indication of where the MPP should be placed.
➢ Cross-check with Other Navigation Methods: Use radar, GPS, or echo sounder data to cross-check the estimated
MPP. This can help refine the position further.
5. Plot the MPP:
➢ Mark the MPP on your chart within the cocked hat. This point represents your best estimate of the ship’s position
given the available data.
➢ Update your navigation plan based on this position and continue to monitor the vessel’s location as more data
becomes available.
What to do if GPS fails?

If the GPS system fails, it’s important to rely on alternative navigation methods to ensure the safe and accurate
continuation of the voyage. Here's what you should do:
Immediate Actions:
1. Switch to Secondary Navigation Systems:
➢ Use Backup GPS Units: If available, switch to any secondary GPS devices onboard.
➢ Use the Ship’s Radar: Radar can help you identify and track nearby landmasses, coastlines, and other vessels.
➢ Use the Gyrocompass: Maintain your course using the ship’s gyrocompass or magnetic compass.
2. Revert to Traditional Navigation Methods:
➢ Dead Reckoning (DR): Use the ship's last known position, speed, and heading to estimate your current position.
Plot this on the navigation chart.
➢ Celestial Navigation: If you're trained in celestial navigation, take sextant observations of celestial bodies to
establish your position.
➢ Visual Bearings: Take visual bearings of known landmarks or navigational aids and plot them on the chart to fix
your position.
➢ Soundings: Use the echo sounder to compare depth readings with the charted depth to help determine your
position.
3. Reduce Speed and Increase Vigilance:
➢ If visibility is poor or you're in congested waters, consider reducing speed to give yourself more time to react to
potential hazards.
➢ Increase watchkeeping vigilance, and ensure that lookouts are posted to visually identify navigational hazards and
other vessels.
4. Inform the Bridge Team:
➢ Alert the bridge team and other relevant personnel of the GPS failure. This ensures everyone is aware of the
situation and can contribute to safe navigation.
➢ Ensure that all navigation equipment, including radar, echo sounder, and compasses, are functioning correctly.
Ongoing Actions:
1. Contact VTS or Coast Guard:
➢ If you're in coastal or congested waters, consider contacting the nearest Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) or Coast
Guard for assistance and to inform them of your situation.
2. Monitor Environmental Conditions:
➢ Continuously monitor the weather and sea conditions to ensure safe navigation. Adjust your course and speed as
necessary based on the information obtained from alternative navigation methods.
3. Prepare for Manual Position Fixes:
➢ If the GPS outage persists, regularly take manual position fixes using all available means, such as bearings, radar
ranges, and celestial observations, and plot them on the chart.
4. Log the Incident:
➢ Record the GPS failure in the ship’s logbook, including the time of failure, actions taken, and any relevant
information that could help in troubleshooting or post-incident analysis.
Long-Term Considerations:
1. Attempt to Troubleshoot the GPS Failure:
➢ Check power supplies and connections to the GPS unit.
➢ Reset or restart the GPS system to see if it resolves the issue.
➢ Consult the GPS manual or contact technical support if necessary.
2. Plan for Navigation Without GPS:
➢ Review the intended route and identify key navigational hazards and alternate routes using traditional charts and
other navigation aids.
➢ Consider delaying or altering the voyage if safe navigation cannot be assured without GPS.
3. Report the GPS Failure:
➢ If appropriate, report the GPS failure to the relevant maritime authorities, such as the flag state or the ship's
management company, especially if the failure persists or affects your navigation significantly.
What is GNSS compass?

A GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) compass is a navigation device that uses signals from multiple GNSS satellites
(such as GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou) to determine the orientation or heading of a vessel or vehicle. Unlike
traditional magnetic or gyro compasses, a GNSS compass provides heading information based on the relative positions of
satellites rather than relying on the Earth's magnetic field or mechanical gyroscopes.
Key Features of a GNSS Compass:
1. Dual-Antenna System:
➢ A GNSS compass typically uses two or more GNSS antennas placed at a known distance apart on the vessel.
The system calculates the heading by determining the difference in the signals received by these antennas.
2. Accuracy:
➢ GNSS compasses provide highly accurate heading information, often within a fraction of a degree, which is
especially useful in applications requiring precise navigation and alignment.
3. Resilience to Magnetic Interference:
➢ Since GNSS compasses don’t rely on the Earth's magnetic field, they are immune to magnetic disturbances
and interference that can affect traditional magnetic compasses.
4. Integration with Other Systems:
➢ GNSS compasses can be integrated with other onboard systems, such as autopilots, radar, and electronic
chart display and information systems (ECDIS), to enhance overall navigation accuracy.
5. Reliability:
➢ GNSS compasses are highly reliable as long as the system can receive signals from an adequate number of
satellites. However, they can be affected by satellite signal obstructions, such as tall buildings, mountains, or
heavy foliage, as well as interference or jamming.
6. Multiple Functions:
➢ In addition to providing heading, many GNSS compasses can also offer position, speed over ground (SOG),
and course over ground (COG) information, making them versatile tools for navigation.
Applications of GNSS Compass:

➢ Marine Navigation: Used on ships and boats for precise heading information, essential for course-keeping, docking,
and maneuvering.
➢ Land Vehicles: Employed in autonomous vehicles and precision agriculture for accurate direction and alignment.
➢ Surveying and Mapping: Utilized in geospatial surveying to maintain accurate headings during data collection.
Advantages of GNSS Compass:

➢ No Drift: Unlike gyro compasses, GNSS compasses do not experience drift over time, ensuring consistent accuracy.
➢ Easy Installation: No need for complex calibration or alignment with the magnetic meridian.
➢ Maintenance-Free: GNSS compasses require minimal maintenance compared to mechanical systems.
Disadvantages of GNSS Compass:

➢ Dependence on Satellite Signals: The compass’s accuracy and functionality are dependent on receiving strong and
uninterrupted satellite signals.
➢ Potential for Jamming or Spoofing: GNSS signals can be susceptible to jamming or spoofing, which could compromise
the accuracy of the heading information.
Emergency wreck Marking Buoy Identification and Duration:

The Emergency Wreck Marking Buoy is a specific type of buoy used to mark new wrecks or hazards to navigation that
pose an immediate danger, particularly in areas where the wreck or hazard may not be shown on charts yet. These buoys
are designed to provide clear and distinctive marking to warn mariners.
Identification:
➢ Color: The buoy has vertical stripes in alternating yellow and blue.
➢ Top Mark: A vertical yellow cross (often referred to as a St. George's cross).
➢ Light Characteristics:
o Light Color: Alternating blue and yellow.
o Light Pattern: Alternating blue and yellow flashing lights in a sequence of one second each (1 second blue, 1
second yellow), with a gap of 0.5 seconds in between.
➢ Shape: The shape of the buoy can vary, but it’s often a pillar or spar buoy. The critical aspect is the distinctive coloring
and light pattern, not the shape.
➢ Sound Signal: Some buoys may also be equipped with a sound signal to further alert mariners, especially in conditions
of poor visibility.
Duration:
➢ Deployment Time: The Emergency Wreck Marking Buoy is typically deployed as soon as possible after the wreck or
hazard is identified and assessed as an immediate threat to navigation.
➢ Duration of Use:
o The buoy remains in place until the wreck is properly surveyed, charted, and either removed or marked by a
more permanent buoy or navigational aid.
o The duration can vary, but the buoy is intended as a temporary measure until a long-term solution is
implemented.
South cardinal buoy ahead, action:

If you see a South Cardinal Buoy ahead, it indicates that safe water is to the south of the buoy, meaning you should
navigate to the south of the buoy to avoid danger. Here's what you should do:
Actions to Take:
1. Identify the Buoy:
➢ Shape and Color: The South Cardinal Buoy will have black and yellow horizontal bands, with the black band
on the bottom and the yellow band on top.
➢ Topmark: The buoy will have two black cones pointing downward (base to base), indicating the South
Cardinal.
➢ Light Characteristics: If the buoy is lit, it will have a quick flashing or very quick flashing white light in groups
of six flashes followed by a long flash (Q(6) + LFl 15s or VQ(6) + LFl 10s).
2. Adjust Course:
➢ Steer to the South: Alter your course to pass to the south of the buoy. This ensures you remain in safe water
and avoid the hazard that the buoy is marking.
➢ Monitor Surroundings: Ensure there are no obstacles, other vessels, or navigational hazards in the direction
you are steering.
3. Check Your Navigation Plan:
➢ Confirm Position: Verify your current position on the chart to ensure you correctly identify the buoy and the
area it is marking.
➢ Update Course: Adjust your planned route as necessary to account for the safe passage around the buoy.
4. Communicate with the Bridge Team:
➢ Inform the Team: Make sure the bridge team is aware of the buoy and the course change. Clear
communication ensures that everyone on the bridge understands the situation and the actions being taken.
➢ Post Lookouts: Assign lookouts to monitor the buoy and surrounding waters, especially in poor visibility or
congested areas.
5. Maintain Vigilance:
➢ Monitor the Buoy: Keep a close watch on the buoy as you pass it to ensure you maintain a safe distance and
confirm you are on the correct side.
➢ Observe Other Navigational Marks: Be aware of any additional buoys or marks in the area that could further
indicate hazards or safe passage.
Heeling Error:
Heeling error is the deviation or inaccuracy in a ship’s magnetic compass readings caused by the vessel's heel or list (tilting
to one side). This error occurs when the vessel is not level, leading to distortion in the magnetic field around the compass,
which affects its accuracy.
Causes of Heeling Error:
➢ Distortion of Magnetic Field:
o Magnetic Deviation: When a ship heels, the distribution of magnetic materials onboard, such as the ship's
structure or cargo, changes relative to the compass. This change distorts the local magnetic field and causes
the compass needle to deviate from its correct alignment with the Earth's magnetic field.
➢ Vertical Component of Earth's Magnetic Field:
o The Earth's magnetic field has both horizontal and vertical components. When the ship heels, the compass,
which is designed to detect the horizontal component, may start detecting part of the vertical component.
This additional influence can cause the compass to give incorrect readings.
➢ Asymmetry in Ship’s Magnetic Field:
o Normally, the ship’s magnetic field is symmetrical when the ship is upright. However, when the ship heels,
this symmetry is disturbed, which can lead to a shift in the magnetic field detected by the compass.
➢ Relative Position of Magnetic Materials:
o Heeling may bring certain ferromagnetic materials closer to the compass, especially if these materials are
unevenly distributed on the ship. This proximity can increase their magnetic influence on the compass, further
contributing to heeling error.
➢ Impact on Compass Correctors:
o The ship's heeling can also affect the alignment or position of compass correctors (small magnets used to
compensate for deviation). If these correctors shift due to heeling, the correction they provide may no longer
be accurate, leading to additional errors.
Effects of Heeling Error:

➢ Port and Starboard Error:
o When the vessel heels to port, the compass may show a heading that is more to starboard than the true
heading.
o When the vessel heels to starboard, the compass may show a heading that is more to port than the true
heading.
➢ Varying Deviation:
o The degree of error can vary depending on the amount of heel and the distribution of magnetic materials on
the ship. This can make the compass readings unreliable during significant heeling conditions.
Damping Error in Gyrocompass:

Damping error in a gyrocompass refers to the deviation from the true north that occurs when the damping mechanism,
which is designed to stabilize the gyrocompass, causes it to settle incorrectly. The gyrocompass relies on damping to
reduce oscillations and allow it to align with true north. However, if damping is not properly balanced, it can introduce
errors.
Causes of Damping Error:
1. Improper Damping:
➢ The damping system in a gyrocompass is meant to slow down and stabilize the compass as it aligns with true
north. If the damping force is too strong or too weak, the compass may not settle accurately, leading to a
misalignment with true north.
2. Latitude and Speed Effects:
➢ The gyrocompass’s sensitivity to latitude and the vessel’s speed can affect the damping. High latitudes and
high speeds can cause the gyrocompass to over-damp or under-damp, resulting in errors.
3. Mechanical Issues:
➢ Wear and tear, or mechanical defects in the gyrocompass's damping mechanism, can also cause damping
errors. This can include issues with the fluid or air damping systems used to stabilize the gyrocompass.
4. External Influences:
➢ External forces, such as strong accelerations, decelerations, or vibrations from the ship's machinery, can affect
the damping process, leading to errors in the gyrocompass's alignment.
Effects of Damping Error:
1. Incorrect Heading:
➢ The primary effect of damping error is that the gyrocompass may indicate a heading that is slightly off from
true north. This can lead to navigational errors, especially in situations requiring precise course keeping.
2. Course Deviation:
➢ Over time, even a small damping error can cause the ship to drift off course, which may necessitate frequent
corrections and adjustments by the navigation team.
3. Difficulty in Accurate Positioning:
➢ If the gyrocompass is not accurately aligned due to damping error, it can impact the accuracy of positioning
systems that rely on the gyrocompass for heading information, such as GPS or radar.
4. Complications in Maneuvering:
➢ During critical maneuvers, such as docking or navigating in confined waters, damping error can make it
difficult to maintain an accurate heading, increasing the risk of navigational mishaps.
Mitigation:
1. Regular Calibration:
➢ Regular checks and calibration of the gyrocompass can help minimize damping errors. Ensuring the damping
system is properly adjusted for the ship's operating conditions (e.g., latitude and speed) is crucial.
2. Maintenance:
➢ Regular maintenance of the gyrocompass's mechanical components can help prevent issues that might lead
to damping errors, ensuring reliable operation.
Difference between Type A AIS and Type B AIS:

Type A AIS Type B AIS
Purpose and Used on larger vessels like commercial ships, tankers, Used on smaller vessels like leisure boats
Usage and passenger ships; mandatory under SOLAS for and fishing vessels; recommended but not
certain vessels mandatory
Transmission Higher (12.5 watts), allowing greater range (20-30 Lower (2 watts), resulting in shorter range
Power nautical miles) (5-10 nautical miles)
Reporting More frequent (every 2-10 seconds when moving, every Less frequent (every 30 seconds when
Interval 3 minutes when stationary) moving, every 3 minutes when stationary)
Data More detailed information (vessel dimensions, Less detailed information (focuses on
Transmission destination, cargo type, etc.) vessel ID, position, speed, and course)
Messaging Can send and receive text messages, safety-related Limited messaging capabilities; primarily
Capability messages, and AIS-specific information focuses on position reporting
Display and Integrated with advanced navigational systems (e.g., Typically used with simpler displays or as a
Interface ECDIS, radar) standalone unit
Priority in Higher priority in data transmission and reception Lower priority; Type A signals have
Communication precedence in congested areas
Safety settings of ECDIS:

The safety settings on an Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) are crucial for safe navigation. These
settings help ensure that the ECDIS provides warnings and alerts to the navigator about potential dangers based on the
vessel's draft, the surrounding environment, and the planned route.
Key Safety Settings of ECDIS:
1. Safety Depth:
➢ Definition: The minimum depth of water in which the vessel can safely navigate, taking into account the
vessel's draft, squat, and a safety margin.
➢ Function: This setting causes the ECDIS to display depths shallower than the safety depth in a different color,
making them easily distinguishable and helping to avoid grounding.
2. Safety Contour:
➢ Definition: A contour line on the ECDIS that separates safe water from potentially dangerous shallow water.
It is usually set slightly deeper than the safety depth.
➢ Function: The safety contour is highlighted on the ECDIS. If the vessel's track crosses this contour, an alarm
will sound to alert the navigator. The selection of the safety contour is critical for safe passage planning.
3. Shallow Contour:
➢ Definition: A contour that represents an area shallower than the safety depth, usually set at the draft of the
vessel.
➢ Function: The shallow contour is typically depicted in a specific color to provide a clear visual warning of
shallow water. It aids in avoiding areas where the vessel could potentially run aground.
4. Deep Contour:
➢ Definition: A contour set deeper than the safety depth, marking deep water areas. It helps differentiate
between safe navigable waters and deep water where there is no danger of grounding.
➢ Function: This setting can be useful in route planning to identify areas where the vessel can proceed at higher
speeds due to ample water depth.
5. Safety Height:
➢ Definition: The minimum height that a vessel must have to safely pass under overhead obstructions, such as
bridges, cables, or cranes.
➢ Function: If the planned route passes under an obstruction, the ECDIS will check this setting against the
obstruction’s height to alert the navigator if the clearance is insufficient.
6. Chart Alarm Settings:
➢ Cross Track Limit (XTL): Defines the maximum distance the vessel is allowed to deviate from the planned
route. If the vessel moves outside this limit, an alarm is triggered.
➢ Look-Ahead Time/Distance: This setting defines how far ahead the system will check for dangers, ensuring
enough time to take corrective action if necessary.
➢ Dangerous Areas: Areas marked as dangerous can be highlighted, and the ECDIS will provide warnings when
the vessel approaches these areas.
7. Guard Zone:
➢ Definition: An area around the vessel where the ECDIS continuously monitors for potential dangers.
➢ Function: The ECDIS alerts the navigator if an obstacle, such as a shallow area or another vessel, enters the
guard zone.
8. Route Checking:
➢ Function: The ECDIS checks the planned route against the safety settings, ensuring that the vessel will not
enter areas where the depth is less than the safety depth or where other dangers are present.
9. Chart Datum and Vertical Reference:
➢ Definition: The chart datum is the reference level from which depths are measured, usually corresponding to
the lowest astronomical tide (LAT). Vertical reference is related to heights.
➢ Function: Ensuring the correct chart datum is set is crucial for accurate depth readings and safe navigation.
ECDIS Safety Depth:

➢ Definition:
o Safety Depth is a predefined depth value set in the ECDIS to ensure safe navigation by highlighting areas with
depths shallower than this value. It provides a safety margin above the minimum depth required for safe
passage.
➢ Purpose:
o Avoid Grounding: To prevent the vessel from navigating in areas where the water depth is less than the safety
depth, thus avoiding grounding.
o Enhanced Safety: Provides an additional layer of safety by identifying potentially hazardous shallow areas
early.
➢ Usage:
o Settings Adjustment: Safety depth settings are adjusted based on the vessel's draft and operational
requirements. This setting should be regularly reviewed and adjusted according to changes in draft or
operational conditions.
o Automatic Alerts: ECDIS systems use safety depth settings to trigger alarms or visual warnings when the vessel
approaches or enters shallow waters below the safety depth.
Actions when a Pilot Vessel reports an Anchor Drag and Engine Failure:
1. Immediate Response:
➢ Acknowledge Receipt: Confirm receipt of the report from the pilot vessel and acknowledge the situation to
the pilot or vessel.
➢ Assess Situation: Determine the location, status, and potential impact of the anchor drag and engine failure.
2. Notify Relevant Parties:
➢ Inform the Master: Notify the ship’s Master immediately about the pilot vessel’s situation.
➢ Contact Port Authorities: Alert port authorities and any relevant maritime safety organizations about the
situation, as it may impact other vessels and port operations.
3. Verify Safety:
➢ Check Proximity: Ensure that your vessel is not in immediate danger from the affected pilot vessel.
➢ Maintain Safe Distance: If the pilot vessel is in close proximity, take measures to maintain a safe distance to
avoid any potential collision or further complications.
4. Assist if Required:
➢ Offer Assistance: If feasible and safe, offer assistance to the pilot vessel, such as providing information, helping
with navigation, or coordinating with other nearby vessels.
➢ Monitor the Situation: Keep a close watch on the situation to respond quickly if the pilot vessel’s condition
worsens or if there are further developments.
5. Implement Safety Measures:
➢ Adjust Navigation: Alter your vessel's course or speed as necessary to avoid potential hazards caused by the
pilot vessel’s anchor drag or engine failure.
➢ Prepare for Contingencies: Be ready to implement emergency procedures if the situation escalates or if there
is a risk to your vessel or other nearby vessels.
6. Document the Incident:
➢ Record Details: Document the details of the incident, including times, communications, actions taken, and
any observations related to the pilot vessel’s condition.
➢ Report Incident: Prepare a report for internal records and notify the appropriate maritime authorities or
organizations as required.
7. Follow Up:
➢ Monitor Communications: Stay in contact with the pilot vessel and relevant authorities to receive updates on
the situation and any instructions or requests for further assistance.
➢ Review Procedures: After the incident, review the procedures and responses to identify any areas for
improvement in handling similar situations in the future.
Actions When a Vessel Sustains Bottom Damage:

1. Immediate Response:
o Assess the Damage: Quickly determine the extent and location of the bottom damage. Use all available means
such as visual inspection, sounding, or underwater cameras if possible.
o Stop the Ship: If the vessel is still in motion, immediately halt the vessel to prevent further damage or
worsening of the situation.
2. Notify Key Personnel:
o Inform the Master: Notify the Master of the situation immediately. Provide all details regarding the damage
and the current condition of the vessel.
o Alert Crew: Inform the crew about the damage and any immediate actions that need to be taken.
3. Evaluate the Situation:
o Check for Water Ingress: Inspect the vessel’s hull for leaks or breaches. Verify if water is entering the vessel
and assess the rate of ingress.
o Review Stability: Evaluate the vessel’s stability and trim to ensure that it is not compromising safety. Use
stability software or manual calculations if necessary.
4. Implement Emergency Procedures:
o Flooding Control: Activate emergency pumping systems or bilge pumps to control flooding. Seal off
compartments if possible to prevent water from spreading.
o Deploy Emergency Equipment: Use emergency equipment such as portable pumps, inflatable damms, or
patching materials to address leaks or breaches.
5. Communicate and Coordinate:
o Notify Authorities: Inform maritime authorities, such as coast guard or port authorities, about the damage.
Provide details about the vessel's position, damage, and any assistance required.
o Coordinate with Nearby Vessels: Alert nearby vessels of the situation to avoid collisions and request
assistance if needed.
6. Prepare for Further Actions:
o Plan for Salvage or Towing: If the damage is severe, consider arranging for salvage services or towing to a safe
location, such as a port or repair facility.
o Check Cargo: If applicable, assess the condition of the cargo and secure it to prevent shifting or damage.
o Record Details: Document all aspects of the incident, including the extent of the damage, actions taken, and
communications with authorities.
o Prepare Reports: Prepare an incident report for internal records and for submission to relevant maritime
agencies or insurers.
8. Review and Prevent:
o Post-Incident Analysis: After addressing the immediate situation, conduct a thorough analysis to determine
the cause of the damage and evaluate the effectiveness of the response.
o Implement Preventative Measures: Review and update safety and maintenance procedures to prevent similar
incidents in the future.
NAVIGATION (General Knowledge)

Flinders Bar in a Magnetic Compass:
1. Definition:
• Flinders Bar is a magnetic compensating device used in magnetic compasses to correct for errors caused by the
vessel’s magnetic field. It is designed to reduce or eliminate deviations in the compass readings due to the
magnetic influences of the ship’s structure and equipment.
2. Purpose:
• Deviation Correction: The primary purpose of the Flinders Bar is to correct for the magnetic deviation introduced
by the ship’s metallic structure and electrical equipment, ensuring more accurate compass readings.
• Enhance Accuracy: By compensating for these deviations, the Flinders Bar helps in improving the accuracy of the
magnetic compass, making it more reliable for navigation.
3. Placement and Adjustment:
• Location: The Flinders Bar is typically placed near the compass, either inside the compass binnacle or on the
compass card.
• Adjustment: The bar is adjusted during the compass calibration process. It is positioned and oriented to
counteract the magnetic field generated by the vessel’s equipment and structure, thereby reducing deviation.
4. Operation:
• Magnetic Field Compensation: The Flinders Bar works by creating a magnetic field that counteracts the magnetic
influences affecting the compass. This compensating field helps align the compass needle or card with true
magnetic north.
• Alignment: Proper alignment of the Flinders Bar is crucial for effective compensation. It must be adjusted carefully
to achieve the desired reduction in deviation.
5. Maintenance and Calibration:
• Regular Checks: Regular maintenance and checks are necessary to ensure that the Flinders Bar remains effective.
This includes verifying its position and making adjustments as needed.
• Calibration: The magnetic compass, including the Flinders Bar, should be calibrated periodically to account for any
changes in the vessel’s magnetic environment or structural modifications.
6. Importance:
• Accurate Navigation: Accurate compass readings are essential for safe and effective navigation. The Flinders Bar
plays a critical role in ensuring that the magnetic compass provides reliable heading information.
• Regulatory Compliance: Proper use and maintenance of the Flinders Bar help in complying with maritime
regulations and standards for navigational equipment.
Chart Datum:
Chart datum is a reference level from which depths and elevations are measured on nautical charts and hydrographic
surveys. It serves as a baseline for charting and ensures consistency in depth measurements.
1. Purpose:
➢ Consistency: Provides a consistent reference point for depths and elevations on nautical charts, allowing for
accurate navigation and safe operation.
➢ Safety: Ensures that the depths recorded on charts are reliable for determining safe navigation and avoiding
underwater hazards.
2. Types:
➢ Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW): Common in the United States, it represents the average of the lowest low
water heights over a specific period.
➢ Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT): Often used in the UK and other countries, it represents the lowest tide level
that can be predicted under normal meteorological conditions.
➢ Other Local Datums: Different regions may use specific local datums based on local tide gauges and historical
data.
3. Application:
➢ Depths on Charts: Depths shown on nautical charts are measured relative to the chart datum. For instance, a
depth of 10 meters on a chart means it is 10 meters above the chart datum.
➢ Tidal Considerations: Mariners must account for tidal variations above or below the chart datum when
planning navigation and determining safe water depths.
4. Importance:
➢ Navigation: Accurate depth information relative to chart datum helps in safe navigation by avoiding
underwater hazards and ensuring sufficient water under the keel.
➢ Consistency Across Charts: Using a standard chart datum ensures that depth measurements are consistent
across different nautical charts and navigational publications.
Calculating Sun Amplitude:

Sun amplitude is the angle between the horizon and the observed altitude of the sun at sunrise or sunset. It is used to
determine the latitude of a vessel or observer.
Here’s a step-by-step guide to calculating the sun amplitude:
1. Gather Required Information:
➢ Observed Altitude (H): The observed altitude of the sun at the moment of sunrise or sunset.
➢ Declination (D): The sun's declination at the time of observation, which can be obtained from nautical
almanacs or astronomical tables.
➢ Latitude (L): The observer's latitude. If not known, this can be estimated using the sun’s amplitude.
2. Use the Formula: The formula to calculate the sun amplitude is:
A = 90O + (H + D)
Where:
➢ AAA = Sun amplitude
➢ HHH = Observed altitude of the sun
➢ DDD = Sun’s declination
3. Steps to Calculate:
a. Determine the Observed Altitude (H):
o Observe the altitude of the sun at sunrise or sunset using a sextant or other navigational instrument.
b. Find the Declination (D):
o Obtain the sun’s declination for the date of observation from a nautical almanac.
c. Apply the Formula:
o Substitute the values of the observed altitude and declination into the formula to find the sun amplitude.
Correcting Magnetic Compass Errors:

1. Identify the Types of Errors:
➢ Deviation: Errors caused by magnetic influences on the ship itself.
➢ Variation (or Magnetic Declination): The difference between magnetic north and true north, which is geographical
and varies with location.
2. Correcting Deviation:
Deviation errors are due to the ship’s own magnetic fields (e.g., from electrical equipment, metal structures). Here’s how
to correct them:
1. Use of Compensators:
o Quadrant and Vertical Magnets: These are used to correct for deviation caused by the ship’s magnetic
field. Adjust these compensators to counteract the deviation observed at various headings.
o Procedure:
1. Check Deviation: Take compass readings at different headings and note the deviation.
2. Adjust Compensators: Rotate and position the compensators to reduce the deviation to
acceptable limits. Adjustments are made according to specific deviation at different headings.
2. Flinders Bar:
o Purpose: Corrects for magnetic deviations due to ship's inclination or heeling.
o Procedure:
1. Install Properly: Place the Flinders Bar near the compass as per manufacturer’s instructions.
2. Adjust Position: Align the bar to generate a magnetic field that counteracts the deviation due to
heeling.
3. Checking and Adjusting:
o Regular Checks: Regularly check compass readings against known headings and adjust compensators and
Flinders Bar as needed.
o Update Records: Keep accurate records of all adjustments and compass calibrations.
3. Correcting Variation (Magnetic Declination):
Variation refers to the angle between magnetic north and true north and varies with geographic location. It is not
corrected directly on the compass but needs to be accounted for in navigation:
1. Consult Nautical Charts and Almanacs:
o Find Variation: Obtain the magnetic variation for your current location from nautical charts or almanacs.
o Apply Variation: Adjust your compass heading by adding or subtracting the magnetic variation to obtain
the true heading.
2. Update Charts:
o Use Updated Information: Ensure that you are using up-to-date charts that reflect the current magnetic
variation.
4. Calibration and Maintenance:
1. Periodic Calibration:
o Perform periodic calibration checks to ensure that the compass is accurate and deviation is within
acceptable limits.
2. Regular Maintenance:
o Inspect Equipment: Regularly inspect the compass and its components for wear, corrosion, or damage.
o Clean Compass: Keep the compass clean and free from obstructions.
3. Training and Procedures:
o Train Personnel: Ensure that the crew responsible for compass maintenance is trained in adjustment and
calibration procedures.
o Follow Procedures: Adhere to manufacturer’s guidelines for adjustment and calibration.
Magnetic Compass Errors: Heeling Error and Damping Error

1. Heeling Error:
Definition: Heeling error occurs when the magnetic compass is tilted due to the ship’s inclination or heeling. This error is
caused by the magnetic field being distorted as the ship tilts, affecting the compass needle's alignment.
Causes:
➢ Ship’s Tilt: The ship may be leaning or listing to one side, causing the compass needle to be misaligned.
➢ Weight Distribution: Uneven weight distribution or shifts in cargo can affect the ship's angle and introduce heeling
error.
Correction Methods:
➢ Flinders Bar: Adjust or install the Flinders Bar, which creates a compensating magnetic field to counteract the
effects of heeling. The bar is positioned to correct the tilt-induced deviations.
➢ Compass Compensators: Use compensators (such as quadrant or vertical magnets) to adjust for the heeling error.
These compensators are calibrated to correct errors based on the ship’s tilt.
➢ Ballast Adjustment: If feasible, adjust the ship’s ballast to minimize heeling and reduce the heeling error.
2. Damping Error:
Definition: Damping error occurs due to the sluggish response of the compass needle to changes in heading. This is often
caused by the magnetic damping system, which is designed to stabilize the needle but can sometimes lead to inaccuracies.
Causes:
➢ Magnetic Damping System: The damping system might be too strong or too weak, causing the needle to be slow
in responding to heading changes.
➢ Wear and Tear: Over time, the components of the damping system can wear out or become less effective.
Correction Methods:
➢ Adjust Magnetic Damping: Adjust the magnetic damping system to ensure that the compass needle responds
accurately and quickly to heading changes. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for adjusting the damping
system.
➢ Clean Compass Components: Ensure that the compass and damping system components are clean and free of
debris or corrosion, which can affect performance.
➢ Inspect for Wear: Regularly check the damping system for wear and replace any worn-out parts to maintain
accurate response times.
Actions to Take in the Event of Gyro Failure:

1. Identify the Failure:
➢ Check Indicators: Verify that the gyro compass is displaying an error message or if the heading is not aligning
with the known heading.
➢ Verify Power Supply: Ensure that the gyro compass is properly powered and that there are no issues with the
power supply.
2. Switch to Backup Systems:
➢ Activate Standby Compass: If available, switch to a standby or backup compass system, such as a magnetic
compass or a secondary gyro compass.
➢ Manual Correction: Use the manual compass for heading information and course adjustments until the
primary gyro compass is operational again.
3. Verify and Correct:
➢ Check Calibration: Verify the calibration of the backup systems and make necessary corrections to ensure
accurate heading information.
➢ Inspect Equipment: Check the primary gyro compass for visible damage or issues. Inspect the gyro compass
and related components (e.g., power supply, wiring) for faults.
4. Communicate:
➢ Inform the Master: Notify the master or commanding officer about the gyro failure and the actions taken.
➢ Update Crew: Inform the crew about the failure and the use of backup navigation systems. Ensure that all
relevant parties are aware of the situation.
➢ Log Details: Record the gyro compass failure, actions taken, and any observations in the ship’s logbook.
➢ Report: Prepare a detailed report for further investigation and maintenance. Include the cause of the failure
if identified and the impact on navigation.
6. Seek Repairs and Maintenance:
➢ Contact Technical Support: If the failure cannot be resolved onboard, contact technical support or the
manufacturer for assistance and potential repair.
➢ Schedule Maintenance: Arrange for professional maintenance or replacement of the gyro compass as needed
to prevent future failures.
7. Review Procedures:
➢ Conduct Drills: Review and practice emergency procedures for gyro compass failure with the crew to ensure
readiness for future incidents.
➢ Evaluate Systems: Assess the reliability of backup systems and make improvements if necessary to minimize
disruption in case of future failures.
How will you know if your gyro is settled?

To determine if a gyro compass is settled, you need to ensure it has stabilized and is providing accurate and reliable
heading information. Here are the key steps and indicators to check:
1. Check the Stabilization Indicator:
➢ Settling Time: Gyro compasses typically have a settling time during which they stabilize after being powered on.
Check the manufacturer’s specifications for the expected settling time, which can range from several minutes to
hours.
➢ Stabilization Light/Indicator: Many gyro compasses have an indicator light or message that shows when the gyro
is fully settled and operational. Refer to the device’s manual for specific indicators.
2. Monitor Heading Accuracy:
➢ Consistent Reading: Once the gyro compass is supposed to be settled, verify that it provides consistent heading
readings. Any large fluctuations or deviations indicate that the gyro may still be settling.
➢ Cross-Check with Other Instruments: Compare the gyro compass readings with other heading indicators (e.g.,
magnetic compass) to ensure they are in agreement. Consistent readings across instruments suggest that the gyro
is settled.
3. Perform a Calibration Check:
➢ Calibrate the Compass: If applicable, perform a calibration check following the manufacturer’s procedure to
ensure the gyro compass is correctly aligned and settled.
➢ Check for Drift: Observe if there is any drift in the gyro reading over time. A settled gyro should exhibit minimal
or no drift.
4. Review System Messages:
➢ Diagnostic Messages: Check the system diagnostics or error messages on the gyro compass. Any error codes or
warnings may indicate issues preventing proper settling.
➢ Status Indicators: Look for any status indicators or messages that confirm the gyro is operational and has
completed its settling phase.
5. Assess Environmental Factors:
➢ Vibration and Movement: Ensure that the vessel is in stable conditions and not subject to excessive vibrations or
movements, which can affect gyro settling.
➢ Power Supply: Verify that the power supply to the gyro compass is stable and within specified voltage ranges.
6. Follow Manufacturer’s Guidance:
➢ Manual Reference: Consult the gyro compass’s user manual for specific instructions on how to determine if the
device has settled. Different models may have different indicators and procedures.
SHIP REPORTING SYSTEMS
Long Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT): -

PURPOSE OF LRIT:-
➢ The Long Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) system is a designated International Maritime Organization (IMO)
system designed to collect and disseminate vessel position information received from IMO member States ships.
➢ The main purpose of the LRIT ship position reports is to enable a Contracting Government to obtain ship identity and
location information in sufficient time to evaluate the security risk posed by a ship off its coast and to respond, if
necessary, to reduce any risks.
➢ LRIT has also become an essential component of SAR operations and marine environment protection.
➢ It is a satellite-based, real-time reporting mechanism providing almost worldwide coverage (Inmarsat Coverage) that
allows unique visibility to position reports of vessels that would otherwise be invisible and potentially a threat.
CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT: - Ships in international voyages

o Passenger ships
o Cargo ships over 300 t
o Mobile platforms
Ships fitted with AIS and sailing in sea A1 areas do not need to transmit LRIT data.
INFORMATION TRANSMITTED:-
➢ Identity (Ship‟s LRIT Identifier)
➢ Position (Lat/Long)
➢ Date and time (UTC)
UPDATE INTERVAL:-
➢ Default value 6 hourly
➢ Update interval remotely selectable
➢ Minimum interval 15 min
➢ May be switched off by the Master under certain conditions
THE LRIT SYSTEM CONSISTS OF:

1. The ship borne LRIT information transmitting equipment
2. Communications Service Providers (CSPs)
3. Application Service Providers (ASPs)
4. LRIT Data Centres (DC), including any related Vessel Monitoring System(s) (VMSs)
5. The LRIT Data Distribution Plan (DDP)
6. The International LRIT Data Exchange (IDE), and,
7. LRIT Co-Ordinator
LRIT Data Centres:-

➢ The primary purposes of an LRIT Data Centre (DC) are to collect, store and make available to authorised entities the
LRIT information transmitted by ships instructed by their administrations to utilise the services of that DC. In carrying
out these core functions, the DC is required to ensure that LRIT data users are only provided with the LRIT information
they are entitled to receive under the terms of SOLAS Regulation V/19.1.
➢ In addition, the LRIT DC acts as a “clearing house” by receiving requests for LRIT information lodged in other DCs from
its associated Administration(s) and obtaining the data requested. Generally LRIT reports so requested will be
exchanged through the International Data Exchange.
➢ LRIT Data Centres are required to archive their data so that the reports can be recovered, if required, at a later date
and the activities of the DC can be audited by the LRIT Coordinator.
➢ LRIT DCs may make a charge for LRIT data they provide to other DCs.
➢ DCs may be either National (established to provide service to only one Contracting Government); Cooperative
(established to provide services to a number of Contracting Governments) or Regional (established to provide services
to a number of Contracting Governments acting through a regional entity of some kind). The IMO Performance
Standard envisages also an International Data Centre (IDC), to provide LRIT services on an international basis to many
countries that do not wish to establish their own DCs, but the IMO Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) has not yet
decided to establish such an IDC.
International LRIT Data Exchange: -

➢ The International LRIT Data Exchange (IDE) exists to route LRIT information between LRIT DCs using the information
provided in the LRIT Data Distribution Plan. It is therefore connected via the internet to all LRIT DCs and the LRIT Data
Distribution Plan server.
➢ The IDE cannot access and does not archive the LRIT data itself, but it does maintain a journal of message header
information – which can be understood as the “envelope” containing the LRIT information. This journal is used for
invoicing functions and for audit purposes.
➢ The performance of the IDE is audited by the LRIT Coordinator.
AIS: Automatic Identification System:-

➢ Very simply, the Automatic Identification System is a broadcast transponder system, operating in the VHF maritime
mobile band.
➢ It is capable of sending information such as identification, position, course, speed and more, to other ships and to
shore. AIS operates principally on two dedicated VHF frequencies or channels:
o AIS 1 – 161.975 MHz – channel 87B (Simplex, for ship to ship) and
o AIS 2 – 162.025 MHz – channel 88B (Duplex for ship to shore).
➢ AIS uses Self-Organizing Time Division Multiple Access (SOTDMA) technology to meet this high broadcast rate and
ensure reliable ship-to-ship operation. It normally works in an autonomous and continuous mode, regardless of
whether it is operating in the open seas, coastal or inland areas.
➢ Although only one radio channel is necessary, each station transmits and receives over two radio channels to avoid
interference problems and to allow channels to be shifted without communications loss from other ships.
➢ Each station determines its own transmission schedule (slot), based upon data link traffic history and knowledge of
future actions by other stations.
➢ A position report from one AIS station fits into one of 2250 time slots established every 60 seconds.
➢ AIS stations continuously synchronize themselves to each other, to avoid overlap of slot transmissions.
➢ Slot selection by an AIS station is randomized within a defined interval. When a station changes its slot assignment, it
pre-announces both the new location and the timeout for that location.
➢ In this way, new stations including those stations which suddenly come within radio range close to other vessels will
always be received by those vessels.
➢ Each AIS consists of on VHF transmitter, two VHF TDMA receivers, one VHF DSC receiver, and a standard marine
electronic communications link to shipboard display and sensor systems.
➢ Working of AIS:-
• AIS is fitted with two receivers, one transmitter VHF DSC receiver Standard marine electronic communication link
providing the various input data.
• The AIS transmission uses 9.6 kb GMSK FM over 25 or 12.5kHz channel using HDLC Packet control.
• Each AIS transmits and receives over two radio channel to avoid interference problems.
• Each station determines its own transmission slot based on the data link traffic history and knowledge of future
actions by other stations.
• Range of AIS is about 20 NM.
Advantages of AIS:-
➢ AIS helps in collision avoidance with respect to situational awareness, AIS can calculate the CPA & TCPA which can be
compared with ARPA.
➢ Information regarding navigation status cane be beneficial.
➢ By virtue of AIS vessels can be positively identified.
➢ AIS reduced the work load associated with verbal reporting system required by the VTS.
➢ AIS contributes to Maritime security, authorities can monitor the movement of the vessels, multiple AIS coast stations
can be linked together to get the extended surveillance.
➢ AIS can pick up targets even during heavy weather & restricted visibility especially due to rain etc.
➢ AIS can pick up targets beyond small islands & bends.
➢ Problem on target swap (for ARPA) will not be experienced in case of AIS.
➢ No problem of range discrimination or bearing discrimination.
➢ Pseudo AIS can be used to generate virtual buoys to indicate dangers.
➢ AIS can also be installed on light houses, beacons for positive identification of these marks.
➢ Pseudo AIS can also be used to generate target in case of SAR operations.
➢ AIS can be used for meteorological & navigational information.
➢ AIS can be interfaced with VDR, ECDIS & radar.
Limitation of AIS:-
➢ Small crafts may not be fitted with AIS
➢ AIS might have switched off on other ship
➢ Erroneous data might have entered
➢ Accuracy of data received depend on the accuracy of data transmitted
➢ Error in sensor’s input data,
➢ Failure of sensors to provide data
➢ Cell of vessel may be full
➢ Precautions while using AIS in collision avoidance:-
➢ AIS is an additional source of navigational information. It does not replace other nav aids.
➢ Should rely solely on AIS.
➢ Watches must be kept as per STCW.
➢ It does not have any impact on the composition of watch arrangement.
➢ Swapping of targets.
PASSAGE PLANNING
Voyage Planning as a Chief Officer
Voyage planning, also known as passage planning, is a crucial task for a Chief Officer, ensuring the safe and efficient transit
of a vessel from its port of departure to its destination. The process is detailed and involves several steps to anticipate
and mitigate risks. Here’s an overview of the responsibilities and steps involved in voyage planning as a Chief Officer:
1. Appraisal:
➢ Gather Information: Collect all relevant information about the voyage, including:
o Nautical charts and publications (e.g., Admiralty Sailing Directions, Tide Tables, Notices to Mariners).
o Weather forecasts and reports.
o Information about the destination port, including pilotage, tides, currents, and port regulations.
o Ship-specific details such as draft, speed, and cargo stowage plan.
➢ Assess the Route: Evaluate potential routes considering factors like the shortest safe passage, traffic density,
weather conditions, navigational hazards, and any areas to be avoided.
2. Planning:
➢ Determine the Route: Plot the intended route on the nautical chart, including:
o Waypoints: Identify key waypoints along the route, marking each on the chart.
o Courses and Bearings: Calculate the courses between waypoints and the bearings that need to be
followed.
o Distance and Time: Estimate the distance between each waypoint and the expected time to reach each
point.
o Safety Margins: Establish safety margins, including under-keel clearance, minimum depth, and distance
from hazards.
o Contingency Plans: Prepare alternate routes or plans in case of unexpected situations like bad weather,
equipment failure, or a change in the voyage plan.
3. Execution:
➢ Monitor the Passage: Ensure continuous monitoring of the vessel's position, course, and speed relative to the
planned route.
o Position Fixing: Use GPS, radar, visual bearings, and other means to fix the ship’s position at regular
intervals.
o Course Adjustments: Make necessary adjustments to the course to keep the vessel on the planned route,
taking into account currents, wind, and other factors.
o Weather Monitoring: Continuously monitor weather conditions and be prepared to alter the route if
adverse weather is encountered.
o Communication: Maintain communication with the bridge team, engine room, and relevant authorities,
including VTS and pilot stations.
4. Monitoring:
➢ Continuous Positioning: Regularly check the vessel's position to ensure it stays on the planned route. Utilize all
available navigational tools, such as:
o Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS): Continuously monitor the vessel’s position and
update the voyage plan as necessary.
o Radar and ARPA: Monitor surrounding traffic and ensure safe distances from other vessels and
navigational hazards.
o Visual Observations: Use visual landmarks, lights, and aids to navigation for position verification.
➢ Log Keeping: Maintain detailed records of the vessel's position, speed, course, weather conditions, and any
deviations from the plan in the ship’s logbook.
5. Review and Feedback:
➢ Post-Voyage Analysis: After completing the voyage, conduct a review to identify any lessons learned or areas for
improvement.
➢ Debriefing: Discuss the voyage with the bridge team, focusing on what went well and what could be improved for
future passages.
➢ Updating Procedures: Make any necessary updates to the ship's voyage planning procedures based on the review
and feedback.
Loading in Summer, Discharging in Winter, Transiting Tropical Zones:

When planning and executing a voyage that involves loading cargo in summer, discharging in winter, and transiting
through tropical zones, a Chief Officer must carefully consider several factors to ensure the safety and stability of the
vessel. Here’s an overview of the considerations and actions required:
1. Cargo Planning and Stability:
➢ Summer Loading:
o Summer Load Line: Ensure the vessel is not loaded beyond the summer load line mark. Consider the
weight, distribution, and stowage of cargo to maintain the vessel’s stability and prevent overloading.
o Freeboard: Ensure sufficient freeboard is maintained as per the summer load line requirements,
considering the expected increase in draft as the vessel moves to colder waters.
o Cargo Securing: Pay extra attention to the securing of cargo, as shifts in cargo can lead to stability issues,
especially when transitioning between different climates.
➢ Winter Discharge:
o Winter Load Line: As the vessel transits to colder regions, ensure the ship’s draft remains within the winter
load line limits. The colder water temperature increases the density, which may affect the draft and
stability.
o Hull Stress and Stability: Monitor hull stress, especially if encountering heavy seas in winter conditions.
The transition from summer to winter conditions can impact the vessel's stability and overall structural
integrity.
o Icing: Be aware of the potential for icing on deck and superstructures in winter, which can add weight and
affect stability. Ensure anti-icing measures are in place.
2. Transit Through Tropical Zones:
➢ Tropical Weather:
o High Temperatures: Prepare for high temperatures, which can affect both the vessel’s structure and
cargo. Ensure proper ventilation in cargo holds and monitor temperatures regularly to prevent cargo
damage, particularly for temperature-sensitive goods.
o Tropical Storms and TRS: Monitor weather reports for tropical revolving storms (TRS) and other severe
weather conditions. Have a contingency plan in place to alter the vessel’s course if necessary to avoid
these dangerous areas.
o Crew Health: Ensure the crew is prepared for the heat, with adequate hydration, rest, and measures to
prevent heat-related illnesses.
➢ Ballast Management:
o Tropical Ballasting: Manage ballast water carefully to maintain stability while transiting through tropical
zones. Ensure compliance with ballast water management regulations, particularly in environmentally
sensitive tropical areas.
o De-ballasting in Cold Regions: When entering colder regions, be mindful of the changes in ballast water
temperature and density. Adjust ballast operations accordingly to maintain stability.
3. Environmental Considerations:
➢ Humidity and Condensation:
o Ventilation: Properly ventilate cargo holds during transit through tropical zones to manage humidity levels
and prevent condensation, which can damage cargo and affect stability.
o Dew Point: Monitor the dew point temperature to avoid condensation inside cargo holds, especially when
moving from warm to colder climates.
➢ Temperature Changes:
o Cargo Temperature: Be aware of the potential impact of temperature changes on cargo, particularly if
loading in summer and discharging in winter. Certain cargos, like refrigerated or sensitive materials, may
require special handling or monitoring.
4. Navigation and Safety:
➢ Navigational Precautions:
o Routing: Plan the route carefully, considering the possibility of adverse weather conditions in both tropical
and winter zones. Use weather routing services to optimize the route and avoid hazardous conditions.
o Ice Navigation: If the discharge port is in a region prone to ice, prepare for ice navigation. Ensure the
vessel is equipped and the crew is trained for operations in icy conditions.
➢ Safety Drills:
o Emergency Drills: Conduct safety drills relevant to the expected conditions, such as lifeboat drills, fire
drills, and emergency steering drills, considering both tropical and winter scenarios.
5. Documentation and Compliance:
➢ Load Line Certificates: Ensure all relevant certificates, such as the Load Line Certificate, are up to date and in
compliance with the specific load line zones encountered during the voyage.
➢ Cargo Documents: Prepare all necessary cargo documents, including those required for different climate zones,
and ensure compliance with international and local regulations.
Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) Requirements:

Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) is a critical aspect of voyage planning and execution, impacting various operational,
commercial, and safety aspects of a ship's journey. As a Chief Officer, understanding the requirements and responsibilities
associated with ETA is essential. Here’s an overview of the key considerations:
1. Importance of Accurate ETA:
➢ Operational Planning: ETA allows the receiving port to prepare for the vessel’s arrival, including pilotage, berthing
arrangements, cargo operations, and port services.
➢ Logistics Coordination: Shippers, receivers, and other stakeholders rely on ETA to plan cargo handling, storage,
and transportation arrangements.
➢ Fuel Efficiency: Proper ETA planning can optimize fuel consumption by allowing for speed adjustments to meet
the required arrival time.
➢ Safety: Maintaining a safe speed to meet the ETA ensures the vessel navigates within safe parameters, considering
weather, traffic, and other navigational challenges.
2. Factors Affecting ETA Calculation:
➢ Voyage Distance: The distance between the departure point and destination is the primary factor in calculating
ETA.
➢ Vessel Speed: The vessel's speed, considering any limitations due to weather, sea conditions, or engine power,
directly affects the ETA.
➢ Weather Conditions: Adverse weather, such as storms or strong currents, can delay the vessel and require
adjustments to the ETA.
➢ Traffic Separation Schemes (TSS): Navigating through busy shipping lanes or TSS may slow down the vessel,
impacting the ETA.
➢ Port Congestion: Expected delays at the destination port due to congestion should be factored into the ETA.
➢ Canal Transit: If the voyage includes canal transits (e.g., Suez or Panama Canal), delays in scheduling or waiting
times should be included in the ETA.
3. Communication of ETA:
➢ Port Authorities: The ETA must be communicated to the destination port authorities well in advance, as required
by local regulations, often 72 hours, 48 hours, and 24 hours before arrival.
➢ Charterers and Agents: The ship’s agents, charterers, and any relevant parties involved in cargo operations should
be kept informed of the ETA and any changes.
➢ Vessel Traffic Service (VTS): ETA must be communicated to VTS in controlled or congested waters to ensure safe
and efficient navigation.
➢ Periodic Updates: Regular updates of the ETA should be provided, especially if there are significant changes due
to unforeseen circumstances like weather delays or mechanical issues.
4. Adjusting ETA:
➢ Speed Management: Adjusting the vessel's speed to meet the revised ETA is a common practice, particularly when
aiming to avoid early or late arrival.
➢ Weather Routing: Using weather routing services to adjust the course and speed can help in maintaining an
accurate ETA, even in changing weather conditions.
➢ Time Zone Changes: Account for time zone changes during the voyage to ensure the ETA is calculated correctly
and communicated in local time at the destination.
5. Legal and Regulatory Considerations:
➢ International Regulations: Adherence to international regulations, such as SOLAS, requires accurate and timely
communication of ETA, particularly when entering port states.
➢ Local Port Requirements: Each port may have specific requirements for ETA notification and updates, which must
be adhered to avoid delays or penalties.
➢ Customs and Immigration: Early communication of ETA allows for timely customs and immigration clearance,
avoiding delays in port.
6. Contingency Planning:
➢ Unexpected Delays: Have contingency plans in place for unexpected delays, such as mechanical breakdowns or
severe weather, and communicate these promptly to all relevant parties.
➢ Alternative Ports: If the ETA is significantly delayed, consider alternative ports of call as part of the contingency
planning, especially in cases of port congestion or closures.
7. Post-Arrival Actions:
➢ Confirmation of Arrival: Upon arrival, confirm the vessel’s position and the actual time of arrival (ATA) with port
authorities, agents, and other relevant parties.
➢ Logbook Entries: Record the actual time of arrival and any changes to the ETA during the voyage in the ship’s
logbook.
Documents Required as per the Polar Code:

The Polar Code, formally known as the "International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters," sets mandatory
requirements for ships operating in Arctic and Antarctic waters. To comply with the Polar Code, vessels must carry specific
documents on board that demonstrate compliance with safety, environmental, and operational standards. Here’s an
overview of the essential documents required:
1. Polar Ship Certificate:
➢ Issued by: The Flag State Administration or an authorized Recognized Organization (RO).
➢ Purpose: Certifies that the ship complies with the safety and environmental provisions of the Polar Code.
➢ Validity: Typically valid for five years, subject to annual endorsements after surveys.
2. Polar Water Operational Manual (PWOM):
➢ Purpose: Provides detailed guidance on the operational capabilities and limitations of the vessel in polar waters.
It includes procedures for operating safely under the specific conditions of the Arctic and Antarctic environments.
➢ Contents: The PWOM should cover topics such as:
o Risk assessment and mitigation strategies for ice navigation.
o Procedures for avoiding environmental hazards.
o Emergency procedures specific to polar conditions.
o Safe operational limits based on the vessel's ice class and design.
3. Ship Structure Access Manual (SSAM):
➢ Purpose: Details how the crew can safely access various parts of the ship for inspection and maintenance,
particularly under polar conditions where ice accretion and extreme cold can impact ship structure.
➢ Relevance to Polar Code: Ensures that the ship's structure remains sound during operations in polar waters, where
environmental stressors are severe.
4. Ice Navigator’s Certificate or Endorsement:
➢ Issued by: Relevant maritime authority.
➢ Purpose: Certifies that the vessel's officers are qualified to navigate in polar waters. The Ice Navigator is an officer
who has specific training and experience in ice navigation.
➢ Requirement: The Polar Code mandates that an Ice Navigator be present on board during operations in polar
waters, particularly in areas where ice conditions are challenging.
5. Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP):
➢ Polar Specific Requirements: The SOPEP must be adapted to account for the unique risks of oil spills in polar
environments, including the challenges of oil recovery in ice-covered waters.
➢ Purpose: Outlines the steps to be taken in the event of an oil spill, including notification procedures and
coordination with response agencies.
6. Garbage Management Plan:
➢ Purpose: Ensures compliance with MARPOL Annex V and the Polar Code’s specific requirements regarding waste
management in polar waters.
➢ Contents: Procedures for minimizing and properly disposing of garbage in polar regions, where the environmental
impact is particularly severe.
7. Ballast Water Management Plan (BWMP):
➢ Polar Specific Requirements: The BWMP must be adapted to polar conditions, considering the risk of invasive
species and the challenges of ballast water exchange in cold waters.
➢ Purpose: Ensures that the vessel manages its ballast water in compliance with both MARPOL and the Polar Code
to protect the fragile polar marine environment.
8. Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plan (SMPEP) for Noxious Liquid Substances:
➢ Purpose: Similar to the SOPEP, but focused on noxious liquid substances (NLS) under MARPOL Annex II. The plan
should be adapted for the polar environment.
➢ Requirement: Ensures that the vessel can respond effectively to incidents involving hazardous chemicals in polar
waters.
9. Certificates and Documents of Compliance (DOCs) for Ice Class:
➢ Issued by: Classification societies or Flag State.
➢ Purpose: Certify that the vessel has been built or modified to withstand the specific conditions of polar waters,
such as ice pressure.
➢ Relevance: The ice class of the vessel will determine the operational limits set out in the PWOM and influence the
ship's routing and operational decisions.
10. Environmental Compliance Documentation:
➢ MARPOL-related documents: Documentation showing compliance with all relevant MARPOL annexes, especially
those pertaining to discharge and emissions in polar waters.
➢ Environmental Compliance Plan (ECP): If applicable, documentation that outlines the ship’s plan to minimize
environmental impacts, particularly in sensitive polar regions.
11. Ship’s Logbook:
➢ Polar-Specific Entries: Regular logbook entries documenting the vessel’s position, weather conditions, ice
conditions, and operational status are crucial for demonstrating compliance with the Polar Code.
➢ Requirement: Record all relevant activities and incidents that occur while operating in polar waters, as these logs
may be reviewed during inspections or audits.
12. Emergency Plans and Procedures:
➢ Adapted for Polar Conditions: All emergency response plans, including fire, evacuation, and medical emergencies,
must be adapted to consider the unique challenges of polar operations.
➢ Contents: Detailed procedures for managing emergencies in polar regions, where the response time may be
significantly longer due to remote locations.
What to include in a weather report?

A weather report is a crucial element of safe navigation and voyage planning, providing essential information about
current and forecasted weather conditions. Below is a detailed list of the key elements that should be included in a
weather report:
1. Date and Time:
➢ UTC/GMT: The time and date when the observation was made or the forecast was issued, typically in Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC).
➢ Local Time: May also include local time if relevant for the vessel's position.
2. Vessel’s Position:
➢ Latitude and Longitude: Exact geographical coordinates of the vessel at the time of the report.
➢ Course and Speed: The current course (in degrees) and speed (in knots) of the vessel.
3. Wind:
➢ Direction: The direction from which the wind is blowing, given in degrees relative to true north or as cardinal
directions (e.g., N, NE, SW).
➢ Speed: The wind speed, usually reported in knots or meters per second.
➢ Gusts: Maximum wind speeds observed in short bursts, if applicable.
4. Sea State:
➢ Wave Height: The height of the waves, typically measured in meters.
➢ Swell: Direction, height, and period of the swell waves, which are longer and more consistent than wind waves.
➢ Sea Condition: Descriptions of the sea state, such as calm, moderate, rough, or high.
5. Visibility:
➢ Range: The distance at which objects can be clearly seen, typically reported in nautical miles or kilometers.
➢ Obstructions: Any factors reducing visibility, such as fog, mist, haze, rain, snow, or dust.
6. Weather Conditions:
➢ Precipitation: Type and intensity of precipitation, such as rain, snow, sleet, or drizzle.
➢ Cloud Cover: The amount and type of cloud cover, described in terms like clear, scattered, broken, or overcast.
➢ Thunderstorms: Presence of thunderstorms or other severe weather conditions.
7. Barometric Pressure:
➢ Pressure Reading: The atmospheric pressure at the vessel's current location, usually reported in millibars (hPa) or
inches of mercury (inHg).
➢ Pressure Tendency: The change in pressure over the last 3 hours (e.g., rising, falling, steady).
8. Temperature:
➢ Air Temperature: The temperature of the air, reported in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit.
➢ Sea Temperature: The surface temperature of the sea, also in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit.
9. Ice Conditions:
➢ Ice Observations: If operating in polar or cold regions, report the presence, type, and concentration of sea ice.
➢ Ice Accretion: If applicable, report any ice buildup on the vessel.
10. Forecast Information:
➢ Short-Term Forecast: Expected weather conditions for the next 12 to 24 hours, including wind, sea state, visibility,
and significant weather events.
➢ Long-Term Forecast: General weather trends for the next few days, useful for voyage planning.
11. Special Warnings:
➢ Advisories: Any special weather warnings or advisories issued by meteorological authorities (e.g., gale warnings,
storm warnings, fog advisories).
➢ Navigational Warnings: Related to weather, such as warnings about icebergs, tropical storms, or cyclones.
12. Comments:
➢ Observations: Any additional remarks or observations that could be relevant to the vessel's operation, such as
unusual weather patterns or unexpected conditions.
Ship Performance Curves (Speed Curves)

Ship performance curves, often referred to as speed curves, are essential tools used to estimate a vessel’s speed of
advance towards its destination, particularly while transiting through various forecasted sea areas. These curves are
crucial for voyage planning and decision-making in adverse weather conditions.
Key Aspects of Ship Performance Curves:

1. Impact of Sea Conditions:
➢ Head, Beam, and Following Seas: The curves indicate how different sea conditions, such as head seas, beam
seas, and following seas, affect the ship's speed. They take into account various significant wave heights,
showing the ship's performance under different scenarios.
➢ Speed Reduction: By using these curves, mariners can predict how much the vessel's speed will reduce in
adverse conditions, helping them assess the impact on the voyage.
2. Cost of Diversions:
➢ Distance and Time: Ship performance curves allow for the estimation of the cost of diversions in terms of
additional distance and time required. This is vital when deciding whether to alter the course to avoid bad
weather or to continue on the planned route.
➢ Decision-Making: In cases where adverse conditions are temporary, it might be more efficient to ride out the
weather rather than diverting, even if the diversion might seem to maintain normal speed. The curves help in
understanding that the increased distance from a diversion may not compensate for the temporary speed
advantage.
3. Avoiding Adverse Conditions:
➢ Effective Diversions: Sometimes, taking a diversion can be less costly as it avoids an area of severe weather,
allowing the vessel to maintain a normal speed of advance despite the increased distance to the destination.
This can save time in the long run by avoiding areas where the ship's speed would be significantly reduced.
➢ Optimal Routing: Ship performance curves are instrumental in selecting the most efficient route, balancing
between speed, safety, and fuel efficiency.
4. Aid in Voyage Planning:
➢ Routing Agencies: These curves serve as a valuable aid to ship routing agencies, helping them make informed
decisions on the best possible routes under varying sea conditions.
➢ Uniform Response: It’s important to note that the response to deteriorating weather and sea conditions varies
among mariners. While the curves provide a scientific basis for decision-making, experience and judgment
also play significant roles in how these tools are applied.
Use of Routing Charts:

Routing charts are invaluable for strategic voyage planning, helping mariners select the safest, most efficient, and cost-
effective routes based on a comprehensive understanding of environmental factors. They are typically used in conjunction
with other navigational tools and resources, such as weather forecasts, to ensure a well-planned and successful voyage.
Routeing Charts Contents:

Routing charts are specialized nautical charts that provide essential information for voyage planning and navigation. These
charts are particularly useful for long voyages, helping mariners select optimal routes by considering various
environmental and navigational factors.
Contents of Routing Charts:
1. Recommended Shipping Routes:
➢ Primary and Secondary Routes: Clearly marked routes that are commonly used by vessels, taking into account
factors like prevailing winds, ocean currents, and seasonal variations.
➢ Alternate Routes: Routes suggested for different seasons or weather conditions, providing flexibility in
navigation.
2. Ocean Currents:
➢ Direction and Speed: Indications of the prevailing ocean currents, with arrows showing the direction and
numbers indicating the speed (usually in knots). This information is critical for calculating the speed of
advance and fuel consumption.
➢ Seasonal Variations: Changes in current patterns based on different times of the year.
3. Prevailing Winds:
➢ Direction and Force: Information on the average direction and strength of winds in various areas, often
represented by wind roses. This helps in planning routes that minimize headwinds or take advantage of
favorable winds.
➢ Monthly/Seasonal Data: Variations in wind patterns over different months or seasons.
4. Wave Heights:
➢ Average Wave Heights: Data on the average height of waves in different regions, which is crucial for assessing
sea conditions and planning for safe passage.
➢ Seasonal Variation: Differences in wave heights throughout the year.
5. Ice Limits:
➢ Ice Boundaries: Indications of the limits of sea ice during different seasons, which are critical for planning
routes in polar or high-latitude areas.
➢ Seasonal Changes: How the extent of ice coverage changes over the year, guiding vessels in avoiding
dangerous ice conditions.
6. Storm Tracks:
➢ Paths of Cyclones and Storms: Historical data showing the common tracks of tropical cyclones, typhoons, and
other storms, helping mariners avoid hazardous areas during their formation seasons.
➢ Frequency and Intensity: Information on the frequency and typical intensity of storms in different regions.
7. Fog Frequency:
➢ Fog-Prone Areas: Indications of regions where fog is common, along with the frequency of fog occurrence,
which can impact visibility and navigation safety.
➢ Seasonal Variation: Changes in fog frequency over different times of the year.
8. Air and Sea Temperatures:
➢ Temperature Ranges: Average air and sea temperatures for different regions, which are important for
planning purposes, especially in terms of crew safety and machinery performance.
➢ Seasonal Changes: How temperatures vary by season, influencing the choice of route and preparation for the
voyage.
9. Magnetic Variation (Declination):
➢ Isogonic Lines: Lines showing the magnetic variation (difference between true north and magnetic north)
across different areas, essential for accurate compass navigation.
➢ Annual Changes: Information on how magnetic variation changes over time.
10. Geographical Features:
➢ Landmarks: Important coastal features, islands, and other geographical markers that assist in navigation and
route planning.
➢ Navigational Hazards: Areas with known hazards like shoals, reefs, or narrow passages.
11. Ports and Harbors:
➢ Locations of Major Ports: Information on major ports along the route, including their coordinates and the
facilities available.
➢ Distances Between Ports: Approximate distances between major ports, aiding in fuel and time calculations.
12. Climate Data:
➢ Climatic Zones: Information on the different climatic zones the vessel will pass through, including details on
rainfall, humidity, and other weather conditions.
➢ Seasonal Weather Patterns: Data on how the weather patterns change seasonally, affecting sea conditions
and navigation.

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Chief Mate Orals F1 – Notes prepared based on FAQs of Surveyors Visit Owaysonline.

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NOTES PREPARED BASED ON FAQ’S BY

- Last Updated as per questions of July’24

FUNCTION 1 – NAVIGATION SYLLABUS

A) BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT

Thorough knowledge and addition of collision Regulations / Buoyage system.

Assist Master with Command decision-making situations on bridge.

Knowledge of ocean current systems / tidal calculations / publications relating to this.

Sr. No. INDEX Page No.

7 Ship Reporting Systems 36

Rule 2(a): General Responsibility

RULE 6: Safe Speed

Definition of Safe Speed

Factors to Consider When Determining Safe Speed

COLREGs Rule 13: Overtaking

COLREGs Rule 13: Overtaking

Actions When Being Overtaken

Actions for the Overtaking Vessel

How will you go about overtaking in a narrow channel?

Rule 19: Conduct of Vessels in Restricted Visibility

Situation: CBD right-right action (Open Sea):

1. Constrained by Draft (CBD) – Overview

Duties of Chief Officer as per STCW:

Engine Failure in a Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS):

Man Overboard (MOB) in a Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS):

Vessel Aground, Lights and Sound Signals:

Lights for a Vessel Aground (Rule 30)

Sound Signals for a Vessel Aground (Rule 35)

Pilot vessel at anchor during Fog, Signal:

What actions to take if vessel sustains bottom damage?

When overtaking from starboard quarter in restricted visibility, Action?

Vessel crossing in a narrow channel, port to starboard, Action?

Gradient current in Bay of Bengal:

Hazards and Precautions of Navigation in Polar Waters:

Precautions for Safe Navigation in Polar Waters:

TRS formation, Factors and Ideal conditions:

1-2-3 rule of TRS:

TRS Approach Signs:

Action in dangerous quadrant of TRS:

Causes of Ocean Currents:

Differences between Dangerous Quadrant and Dangerous Semicircle: -

Dangerous Quadrant Dangerous Semicircle

Path and Movement of a Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS)

Clouds near Eye of TRS:

Difference between TRS and TLD:

What is Weather Routing?

Calculation of Wheel-Over Point:

o Alternatively, use R provided in the ship's maneuvering data.

2. Calculate the wheel-over distance DDD using the course change:

How to resolve a Cocked Hat?

What to do if GPS fails?

What is GNSS compass?

Applications of GNSS Compass:

Advantages of GNSS Compass:

Disadvantages of GNSS Compass:

Emergency wreck Marking Buoy Identification and Duration:

South cardinal buoy ahead, action:

Effects of Heeling Error: