Lecture 1 Vectors and the 3-Dimensional Space Sections 12.1-12.

12.1 3D Coordinate Systems

■ 3D Space

Figure 3 Coordinate Planes

■ Points in Space

As numerical illustrations, the points (−4, 3, −5) and (3, −2, −6) are plotted in Figure 6
Lecture 1 Vectors and the 3-Dimensional Space Sections 12.1-12.2

■ Surfaces and Solids

In two-dimensional analytic geometry, the graph of an equation involving x and y is a
curve in R2. In three-dimensional analytic geometry, an equation in x, y, and z represents
a surface in R3.

EXAMPLE 1 What surface in R3 is represented by each of the following equations?

(a) z − 3 (b) y – 5
Solution

NOTE When an equation is given, we must understand from

the context whether it represents a curve in R2 or a surface
in R3. For example, x = 2 represents a plane in R3, but of
course x = 2 can also represent a line in R2 if we are dealing
with two-dimensional
analytic geometry. See Figure 8.

In general, if k is a constant, then x =k represents a plane

parallel to the yz-plane, y = k is a plane parallel to the xz-
plane, and z = k is a plane parallel to the xy-plane.
Lecture 1 Vectors and the 3-Dimensional Space Sections 12.1-12.2

Midpoint Formula in Three Dimensions The midpoint between

The points 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) is
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2 𝑧1 +𝑧2
( 2
, 2
, 2
)

Practice Problem
Find the midpoint between the two points (1, 3, 8) and (2, 5, 6)

Solution
1+2 3+5 8+6 3
( 2
, 2
, 2
) = (2 , 4, 7)
Lecture 1 Vectors and the 3-Dimensional Space Sections 12.1-12.2
Lecture 1 Vectors and the 3-Dimensional Space Sections 12.1-12.2

12.2 Vectors
A vector ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐴𝐵 is a directed line segment from initial point A to terminal pointy B

Equality of Vectors

Vectors of the same length and direction are equal.

Lecture 1 Vectors and the 3-Dimensional Space Sections 12.1-12.2

Vector Subtraction
We define the difference of two vectors as: 𝒖 − 𝒗 = 𝒖 + (−𝒗)

Practice Problem
Let 𝑂 be the origin. Show that the vector that starts at the point 𝐴 and ends at the point
𝐵 can be given by: ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = 𝑂𝐵
𝐴𝐵 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ − 𝑂𝐴
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑

Vector Components
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ in the standard position 𝑂𝑃
Bringing the vector 𝐴𝐵 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ , we define the vector 𝐴𝐵
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = 𝑂𝑃
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ to be
the point P. We write 𝐴𝐵 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = a1, a2, a3.

Alternative Notation

Where,
Lecture 1 Vectors and the 3-Dimensional Space Sections 12.1-12.2

Mathematician’s Addition a + b = a1, a2, a3 + b1, b2, b3

= a1 + b1, a2 + b2, a3 + b3

Scalar Multiplication ca = ca1, a2, a3 = ca1, ca2, ca3

⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
Finding 𝑨𝑩

Example: Are the points A(1, 2, 3), B(2, 3, 5), and C(3, 4, 6) collinear (i.e. lie on a straight
line)?
Solution 𝑨𝑩 = (1,1,2) , 𝑩𝑪 = (1,1,1) So they are not parallel and hence can’t be collinear.
Lecture 1 Vectors and the 3-Dimensional Space Sections 12.1-12.2

The Length of a Vector

The magnitude (length) of a vector a is defined by:
|〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉| = √𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎32

Practice Problem
Show that for any vector a and scalar c,
1) |ca| = |c||a|
2) |a| = 0 if and only if a = 0 = 0, 0, 0.

Question: When does the following hold? |a + b| = |a| + |b|

Unit Vectors
A vector u of unit length, i.e. |u| = 1, is called a unit vector.
Show that if a  0, then the unit vector u in the direction of a is given by:
1
𝐮= a
|a|

The unit vector u above is called the direction of a.

Thus, the equation a = |a|𝐮 expesses the vector a as the product of its magnitude and
direction.
Lecture 2 The Dot Product Section 12.3

12.3 The Dot Product

■ The Dot Product of Two Vectors
Lecture 2 The Dot Product Section 12.3

■ Direction Angles and Direction Cosines

The direction angles of a nonzero vector a are the angles
𝛼, 𝛽, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 (in the interval [0, 𝜋] that a makes with the
positive x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively (see Figure 3).
Lecture 2 The Dot Product Section 12.3

■ Projections

Figure 4 Vector Projection Figure 5 Scalar Projection

Lecture 3 The Cross Product Section 12.4

12.4 The Cross Product

■Determinants

For example

So, in terms of determinants, the cross product can be written as

Lecture 3 The Cross Product Section 12.4
Lecture 3 The Cross Product Section 12.4

Note
The cross product a X b is designed so that it is perpendicular to both a and b as described below,

■The direction of the cross product a X b

The direction of the cross product a X b is given by the figure,

Lecture 3 The Cross Product Section 12.4

■The magnitude of the cross product a X b

The following results arise from the above theorem,

Lecture 3 The Cross Product Section 12.4

■Cross Product is not commutative nor Associative.

In fact, we see that,

Lecture 3 The Cross Product Section 12.4
Lecture 3 The Cross Product Section 12.4

Comparison between dot, cross, and Triple product

Dot Product Cross Product Triple Product
Definition 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝒊 𝒋 𝒌 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
𝒂𝑿𝒃 = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 | 𝒂. (𝒃𝑿𝒄) = |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑐 𝑐2 𝑐3

Kind Scalar Vector Scalar

Angle 𝒂. 𝒃 |𝒂𝑿𝒃| -
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
|𝒂||𝒃| |𝒂||𝒃|
between a, b
Self product a.a = a2 aXa=0 -
If zero a and b are orthogonal a and b are parallel a, b and c are coplanar
Geometrical Scalar projection or The unit normal vector The volume of the
meaning component of a along the to the plane containing parallelepiped determined
𝒂.𝒃 𝒂𝑿𝒃 by a, b and c is: a.(b X c)
direction of b is |𝒃|
a and b = |𝒂||𝒃|

Vector projection of a along The area of the

𝒂.𝒃 triangle determined by
the direction of b is |𝒃|2
𝒃
|𝒂𝑿𝒃|
a and b is
2

Thea area of the

parallelogram
determined by a and b
= |𝒂𝑿𝒃|
Lecture 4 Lines in Space Section 12.5

12.5 Equations of Lines

■ Lines
▪ A line in the xy-plane is determined when a point on the line and the direction of the line
(its slope or angle of inclination) are given. The equation of the line can then be written
using the point-slope form.
▪ Likewise, a line L in three-dimensional space is determined when we know a point P0(x0,
y0, z0) on L and a direction for L, which is conveniently described by a vector v parallel to
the line.
▪ Let P(x, y, z) be an arbitrary point on L and let r0 and r be the position vectors of P0 and P
(that is, they have representations OP0¸ and OP. If a is the vector with representation P0P,
as in Figure 1, then the Triangle Law for vector addition gives,
r = r0 + a

▪ Since a and v are parallel vectors, there is a scalar t such that a = tv. Thus

▪ Equation (1) is the vector equation of the line L.

▪ Parametric Equation of Lines

Expanding the vectors in equation (1) in their components, we get the parametric form equation,

EXAMPLE 1
(a) Find a vector equation and parametric equations for the line that passes through the point
(5, 1, 3) and is parallel to the vector i +4 j - 2k.
(b) Find two other points on the line.
Lecture 4 Lines in Space Section 12.5

▪ Symmetric Equations of lines

Another way of describing a line L is to eliminate the parameter t from Equations 2. If none of a,
b, or c is 0, we can solve each of these equations for t:

Equating the results, we obtain

These equations are called symmetric equations of L. Notice that the numbers a, b, and c that
appear in the denominators of Equations 3 are direction numbers of L, that is, components of a
vector parallel to L. If one of a, b, or c is 0, we can still eliminate t. For instance, if a = 0, we could
write the equations of L as,

This means that L lies in the vertical plane x = x0.

EXAMPLE 2
(a) Find parametric equations and symmetric equations of the line that passes through the points
A(2, 4, -3) and B(3, -1, 1).
(b) At what point does this line intersect the xy-plane?

Solution
Lecture 4 Lines in Space Section 12.5

EXAMPLE 3

are skew symmetric, i.e. not parallel nor intersecting.

Solution
▪ The lines are not parallel because the corresponding direction vectors (1, 3, -1) and
(2, 1, 4) are not parallel. (Their components are not proportional.)
▪ If L1 and L2 had a point of intersection, there would be values of t and s such that,

1+ t = 2s –2 + 3t = 3 + s 4 – t = – 3 + 4s

11 8
But if we solve the first two equations, we get 𝑡 = 5 , 𝑠 = 5 . and these values don’t satisfy the
third equation. Therefore, there are no values of t and s that satisfy the three equations, so L1 and
L2 do not intersect. Thus, L1 and L2 are skew lines.
Lecture 4 Lines in Space Section 12.5

➢ Distance From a Point to a Line

Let P be a point not on the line L that passes through the points Q and R, Let P be a point not
on the line L that passes through the points Q and R, we show that the distance d from the point P
to the line L is,
|𝒂 𝑋 𝒃|
[4] 𝑑= |𝒂|

where, a = QR, and b = QP

Example
Use formula [4] to find the distance between the point P(1, 1, 1) to the line through Q(0, 6, 8)
and R(-1, 4, 7)
Solution

Practice Problems
1- Find symmetric equations for the line that passes through the origin, and parallel to the
line with parametric equations: x = 1 + 4t, y = t, z = 3 − 2t

2- Determine whether the lines:

x = 1 + 2t, y = 3t, z = 3 − 2t, and x = −1 + s, y = 5 + s, z = 1 − s
are: parallel, intersecting, or skew. If they intersect, find their intersection point.
Lecture 5 Planes Section 12.5

12.5 Equation of a Plane

■ Planes
▪ A plane in space is determined by a point P0(x0, y0, z0) in the plane and a vector n that is
orthogonal to the plane. This orthogonal vector n is called a normal vector.
▪ Let P(x, y, z) be an arbitrary point in the plane, and let r0 and r be the position vectors of
P0 and P. Then the vector r - r0 is represented by ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃0 𝑃 (See Figure 6.) The normal vector
n is orthogonal to every vector in the given plane. In particular, n is orthogonal to r - r0
and so we have,

which can be written as,

➢ Vector Equation and Scalar Equation of the Plane

▪ Either Equation 5 or Equation 6 is called a vector equation of the plane. To obtain a scalar
equation for the plane, we write n = (a, b, c), r = ( x, y, z), and r0 = (x0, y0, z0). Then the
vector equation (5) becomes (a, b, c ). (x - x0, y - y0, z - z0 ) = 0
Expanding the left side of this equation gives the following.

23
Lecture 5 Planes Section 12.5

EXAMPLE 4
Find an equation of the plane through the point (2, 4, -1) with normal vector n = (2, 3, 4 ) . Find
the intercepts and sketch the plane.
SOLUTION
Putting a =2, b= 3, c = 4, x0 = 2, y0 = 4, and z0 = − 1 in Equation 7, we see that an equation of the
plane is

To find the x-intercept we set y = z = 0 in this equation and obtain x = 6. Similarly, the y-intercept
is 4 and the z-intercept is 3. This enables us to sketch the portion of the plane that lies in the first
octant (see Figure 7). ■

➢ Linear Equation of the Plane

▪ By collecting terms in Equation 7 as we did in Example 4, we can rewrite the equation of

a plane as

where 𝑑 = −(𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑧0 ). Equation 8 is called a linear equation in x, y, and z.

EXAMPLE 5
Find an equation of the plane that passes through the points P(1, 3, 2), Q(3, -1, 6), and
R(5, 2, 0).

SOLUTION
The vectors a and b corresponding to ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑄 and ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑅 are a = ( 2, -4, 4 ) , b = (4, -1, -2 )

24
Lecture 5 Planes Section 12.5

EXAMPLE 6
Find the point at which the line with parametric equations x =2 + 3t, y = -4t, z = 5 + t intersects
the plane 4x + 5y - 2z = 18.
SOLUTION
We substitute the expressions for x, y, and z from the parametric equations into the equation of
the plane:

This simplifies to
-10t = 20, so t = − 2.
Therefore the point of intersection occurs when the parameter value is t = − 2.
Then x = − 2, y = 8, z = 3 and so the point of intersection is (-4, 8, 3). ■

➢ Angle between Two Planes

The angle between two planes is the acute angle between their normal vectors.
Therefore, two planes are parallel if their normal vectors are parallel.

EXAMPLE 7
(a) Find the angle between the planes x + y + z = 1 and x - 2y + 3z= 1.
(b) Find symmetric equations for the line of intersection L of these two planes.
Solution

25
Lecture 5 Planes Section 12.5

(b) The line of intersection between the planes is found by solving the two equations of the
planes.
Note that we have two equations for three unknowns x, y, and z. This will give us a relation
between them which is the equation of the line. We solve the two equations for y and z in
terms of x.
From the first equation y + z = 1- x (1)
From the second equation - 2y + 3z= 1- x (2)
𝑧 1−𝑥
Eq. (2) + 2 Eq.(1) gives 5𝑧 = 3(1 − 𝑥) → 3 = 5 (3)
5𝑧 2𝑧 𝑦 𝑧
From Eq. (3) in Eq. (1) 𝑦 = 1−𝑥−𝑧 = 3 −𝑧 = 3 → =3 (4)
2
From Eq. (3) and Eq.(4), the equation of line of intersection is
1−𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= =
5 2 3

➢ Distances

From Figure 12 you can see that the distance D from P1 to the plane is equal to the absolute
value of the scalar projection of b onto the normal vector n = (a, b, c).

26
Lecture 5 Planes Section 12.5

EXAMPLE 8
Find the distance between the parallel planes 10x + 2y - 2z = 5 and 5x + y - z = 1.
SOLUTION
First we note that the planes are parallel because their normal vectors (10, 2, -2 ) and (5, 1, -1 ) are
parallel. To find the distance D between the planes, we choose any point on one plane and calculate
its distance to the other plane. In particular, if we put y − z = 0 in the equation of the first plane, we
get 10x = 5 and so (0.5, 0, 0) is a point in this plane. By formula (9), the distance between the point
(0.5, 0, 0) and the plane 5x + y - z = 1 is,

EXAMPLE 9
In example 3 (Lecture 4), we showed that the lines,

are skew. Find the distance between them.

SOLUTION
Since the two lines L1 and L2 are skew, they are lying on two parallel planes P1 and P2. The distance
between L1 and L2 is the same as the distance between P1 and P2, which can be computed as in
Example 8. The common normal vector to both planes must be orthogonal to both v1 =(1, 3, -1)
(the direction of L1) and v2 = (2, 1, 4 ) (the direction of L2). So a normal vector is

If we put s = 0 in the equations of L2, we get the point (0, 3, -3) on L2 and so an equation for P2 is

If we now set t = 0 in the equations for L1, we get the point (1, -2, 4) on P1. So the distance between
L1 and L2 is the same as the distance from (1, -2, 4) to 13x - 6y - 5z + 3 = 0. By Formula 9, this
distance is,

Practice Problems
❑ Find a vector equation of the line that passes through the point (2, −3, 0) and
perpendicular to the plane: 2x – 2y =5

❑ Find an equation of a plane that includes both the point (3, 0, −5) and the line
x = 1 + 4t, y = 5, z = 3 − 2t.

27