Syntax and Semantics

Linguistic
 Scientific study of language
 Based on theoretical study language
 Modern linguistic (applied science)
Syntax
 Greek roots “coordination
 Refers to the set of rules that determines the arrangement of words in a sentence
Some Fundamental Rules

• The subject comes first, and the verb comes second. If the sentence has object, they
come third, after the verb.
• Subordinates clauses (dependent clauses) also require a subject and verb.
• Adjectives and adverbs goes in front of the word they describe. If multiple adjectives
describing the same noun use proper adjective (royal order).
• All sentences require subject and a verb. But, imparative sentences do not need to
include their subject because its assumed to be the person of the sentence is directed
at.
• A single sentence should include one idea. If a sentence contains two or more ideas, it's
best to break up into multiple sentences.

TYPES OF SYNTAX

 Subject - Verb (S-V)

 Subject - Verb - Direct Object (S-V-DO)
 Subject - Linking Verb - Subject Complement (S-V-SC)
 Subject - Verb - Adverbial Complement (S-V-AC)
 Subject - Verb - Indirect Object - Direct Object (S-V-IO-DO)
 Subject - Verb - Direct Object - Object Complement (S-V-DO-OC)
 Subject - Verb - Direct Object - Adverbial Complement (S-V-DO-AC)

1. Subject - Verb (S-V):

- The cat sleeps.

- Subject (S): The cat - Verb (V): sleeps

- This structure simply consists of a subject performing an action.

2. Subject - Verb - Direct Object (S-V-DO)

- She reads a book.

- Subject (S): She

- Verb (V): reads

- Direct Object (DO): a book

- The subject performs an action that directly affects an object.

3. Subject - Linking Verb - Subject Complement (S-V-SC):

- He is a teacher.

- Subject (S): He

- Linking Verb (LV): is

- Subject Complement (SC): a teacher

- A linking verb connects the subject to additional information about the subject.

4. Subject - Verb - Adverbial Complement (S-V-AC):

- They went home.

- Subject (S): They

- Verb (V): went

- Adverbial Complement (AC): home

- The subject performs an action that is complemented by an adverbial phrase providing additional
details about the action.

5. Subject - Verb - Indirect Object - Direct Object (S-V-IO-DO):

- I gave her a gift.

- Subject (S): I

- Verb (V): gave

- Indirect Object (IO): her

- Direct Object (DO): a gift

- The subject performs an action that affects an indirect object and a direct object.

6. Subject - Verb - Direct Object - Object Complement (S-V-DO-OC):

- They named the puppy Max.

- Subject (S): They

- Verb (V): named

- Direct Object (DO): the puppy

- Object Complement (OC): Max

- The subject performs an action that affects a direct object, and the object complement renames or
describes the direct object.

7. Subject - Verb - Direct Object - Adverbial Complement (S-V-DO-AC):

- She placed the book on the table.

- Subject (S): She

- Verb (V): placed

- Direct Object (DO): the book

- Adverbial Complement (AC): on the table

- The subject performs an action that affects a direct object, with an adverbial complement providing
additional details about the action.

sentences can be organized into four groups

Simple: Includes the minimum requirements for a sentence, with just a single independent clause.

(Ex.) We go to the beach in summer.

Complex: An independent clause combined with one or more subordinate clauses.

(Ex.) We go to the beach in summer when school is finished.

Compound: Two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon.

(Ex.) We go to the beach in summer, but my cat stays home.

Compound-complex: Two independent clauses combined with one or more subordinate clauses.

(Ex.) We go to the beach in summer, but my cat stays home because he doesn’t own a swimsuit.

Semantics

 Study of relationships between linguistic forms and entities in the world

 Study of meaning and how languages faces create meaning (Examples: slangs, idiom,
methaphor, irony, sargon)
 Semantics studies meaning in language, which is limited to the meaning of linguistic expressions.
It concerns how signs are interpreted and what information they contain.
 Semantics is the study of linguistic meaning. It examines what meaning is, how words get their
meaning, and how the meaning of a complex expression depends on its parts.
 Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It deals with the interpretation and significance
of words, phrases, sentences. Semantics examines how meaning is constructed, interpreted,
clarified, obscured, and negotiated in various contexts. It is a crucial aspect of linguistics,
philosophy, and cognitive science, focusing on the relationship between signifiers (like words
and phrases) and what they stand for in reality or thought.

o TYPES OF SEMANTICS

1. CONNOTATION- emotional and imaginative association surrounding a word

(Connotation semantics deals with the additional meanings, emotions, and

associations that words carry beyond their basic dictionary definitions
(denotations). These connotations can evoke feelings, cultural references, or
personal associations, and they vary depending on the context and the
individual's experiences.

Example:

1. Denotation (Literal Meaning):

- "Home": A place where one lives.

- "House": A building for human habitation.

2. Connotation (Associated Meanings):

- "Home": Often associated with warmth, family, comfort, and safety.

- "House": May evoke a more neutral image, focusing on the physical structure
without the emotional or familial aspects.

Why It Matters:

- Communication: Choosing words with the right connotations can help convey
the desired emotional tone and nuance.

- Context Sensitivity: The same word can have different connotations in

different cultures or situations. For example, "snake" might connote danger and
deceit in one culture, but wisdom and transformation in another. In summary,
connotation semantics explores how words can carry additional meanings and
emotions beyond their straightforward definitions, enriching communication
and understanding).
 2. DENOTATION- strict dictionary meaning of a word. Represents referential
meaning of a sign/literal meaning.

(Denotation semantics focuses on the exact, literal meaning of words

and phrases—the definition you would find in a dictionary.

Simple Breakdown:

1. Literal Meaning: Denotation is about what a word explicitly refers

to.

For example: - "Tree": Denotation is a perennial plant with an

elongated stem or trunk that supports branches and leaves.

2. Objective Definition: It does not consider any emotional or cultural

associations that might come with the word. It’s about the
straightforward, factual definition.

Example: - Word: "Apple" - Denotation: A round fruit with red,

green, or yellow skin and a sweet taste, commonly grown on apple
trees.

In contrast to connotation, which includes the emotional and

cultural nuances of a word, denotation is purely about the clear, specific
meaning of the term. This helps in ensuring that communication is
precise and universally understood).

o SUB-CATEGORIES OF SEMANTICS
1. 1. Formal-grammatical meaning in natural language, precise meaning of words and
phrases.
2. 2. Lexical- concerned with the meaning of words and phrases
3. 3. Conceptual- theoretical framework that explores the relationship between
language and thought.

Formal Semantics

 Definition: Formal semantics uses mathematical and logical tools to analyze and
represent the meanings of sentences and their logical relations.

Key Concepts:
o Truth-Conditional

Semantics: Determines the conditions under which a statement is true

or false.

For example, the sentence "The cat is on the mat" is true if and only if there is a cat and it is on the mat.

o Predicate Logic:
Represents the structure of sentences in terms of subjects, predicates, and quantifiers.

For example, the sentence "The cat is on the mat" is true if and only if there is a cat and it is on the mat.

- Predicate Logic: Represents the structure of sentences in terms of subjects, predicates, and quantifiers.

For example, the sentence "All dogs bark" can be represented as ∀x (Dog(x) → Bark(x)).

- Model Theory: Studies how linguistic expressions relate to aspects of the world they describe, using
formal models.
Example:

- Sentence: "John loves Mary."

- Formal Representation: Love (John, Mary), where "Love" is a predicate that takes two arguments:
"John" and "Mary."

Lexical Semantics

Definition: Lexical semantics focuses on the meaning of individual words and the
relationships between them.

Key Concepts:

- Synonymy: Words with similar meanings (e.g., "happy" and "joyful").

- Antonymy: Words with opposite meanings (e.g., "hot" and "cold").

- Polysemy: A single word with multiple related meanings (e.g., "bank" as a financial
institution and the side of a river).

- Homonymy: Words that sound alike but have different meanings (e.g., "bat" as a flying
mammal and "bat" used in sports).

Example:

- Word: "Light"

- Synonymy: "Illumination"

- Antonymy: "Darkness"

- Polysemy: "Light" can mean "not heavy" and "visible illumination."

Conceptual Semantics

Definition: Conceptual semantics examines the mental representations and cognitive

structures underlying the meanings of words and sentences.

Key Concepts:

- Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Explains how we understand one domain of experience

in terms of another (e.g., understanding time in terms of money, as in "spending time").

- Frames and Schemas: Cognitive structures that help us organize and interpret
information. For example, the word "restaurant" activates a schema involving a place, servers,
menus, food, etc.

- Prototypes: The most typical or representative examples of a category. For example, a

robin is a prototypical bird, whereas an ostrich is less typical.

Example: - Concept: "Journey"

- Conceptual Metaphor: Life is understood as a journey, with expressions like "reach a

milestone" or "at a crossroads."

- Frame: The concept of a journey involves a traveler, a starting point, a destination, and
a path.

These subcategories highlight different dimensions of meaning in language, from the

formal structures that determine truth conditions, to the relationships between
individual words, to the mental concepts that underpin our understanding of the world.

o BRANCHES OF SEMANTICS
 Polysemy - when a symbol, word, or phrase means many different things.
 Homograph - words that are written the same meaning, they always have the same
spelling but different meaning.
 Homonyms - words with identical pronounciations but different spellings and meanings.
 Homophones - two or more words having the same pronounviation but different
meanings, origin, spellings.