Lectures Notices FA 2024 Student Handout
Lectures Notices FA 2024 Student Handout
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implications of climate change, or the pursuit of happiness, philosophical frameworks provide
lenses through which individuals and societies interpret and navigate complex issues.
Philosophy continues to evolve, adapting to new challenges and contexts while drawing on
centuries of inquiry and reflection. By exploring its history through daily life examples, we
appreciate how philosophical ideas shape our understanding of ourselves, our communities, and
the world we inhabit.
Philosophers and scholars throughout history have contributed to the development of ideas that
continue to influence our daily lives. Below are some of the most influential figures in philosophy,
along with an explanation of their key ideas and how these ideas manifest in everyday situations.
1. Socrates (470–399 BCE) – Socratic Method and Ethical Inquiry
Socrates is known for his method of questioning, now referred to as the Socratic Method. He
believed that the best way to arrive at the truth was through persistent questioning, challenging
assumptions, and encouraging deep reflection.
• Daily life example: Imagine a modern classroom where a teacher asks students probing
questions instead of giving direct answers. For instance, if a student says, “Stealing is
wrong,” the teacher may ask, “Why is it wrong? Are there situations where it could be
justified?” By questioning the student’s assumptions, the teacher encourages deeper
thinking, helping the student develop a more nuanced understanding of morality.
2. Plato (427–347 BCE) – Theory of Forms
Plato, a student of Socrates, believed that the material world we perceive is only a shadow of the
real, perfect world of Forms. For Plato, concepts like justice, beauty, and goodness exist in their
ideal forms, and what we encounter in the physical world are merely imperfect representations.
• Daily life example: Consider how people pursue ideals in love, beauty, or justice. When
someone says, “This is not fair!” they are implicitly referring to an ideal notion of fairness.
In relationships, people often compare real-life experiences with an imagined perfect
partner, aligning with Plato’s idea that we are always striving to reach ideal forms.
3. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) – Virtue Ethics
Aristotle, Plato’s student, developed a theory of virtue ethics, which emphasized the importance
of cultivating good habits or virtues. For him, a good life is about finding the right balance, or the
“golden mean,” between extremes.
• Daily life example: If someone is trying to balance their work and personal life, they are
practicing what Aristotle would call the golden mean. Being overly ambitious in work may
lead to burnout, while neglecting work entirely could result in financial instability.
Aristotle would argue that the virtue lies in achieving a balance—being dedicated but not
obsessive.
4. René Descartes (1596–1650) – Cogito, Ergo Sum
Descartes is famous for his statement “Cogito, ergo sum” or “I think, therefore I am.” He
emphasized doubt and skepticism, arguing that the only thing we can be absolutely sure of is the
existence of our own consciousness.
• Daily life example: Imagine you are going through a period of self-doubt, questioning your
beliefs, or the meaning of your life. Descartes' philosophy helps you anchor yourself by
acknowledging that while you may doubt everything around you, the fact that you are
capable of doubting means that you exist. This encourages individuals to trust their
reasoning and inner consciousness when they feel uncertain about the external world.
5. John Locke (1632–1704) – Empiricism and Natural Rights
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Locke’s philosophy of empiricism posited that knowledge comes from experience and that the
human mind is a “blank slate” at birth. He also developed the theory of natural rights, arguing
that individuals inherently possess the right to life, liberty, and property.
• Daily life example: Locke’s idea of the “blank slate” can be seen in modern parenting and
education, where people believe that children are shaped by their environment and
experiences. His influence on natural rights can be observed in conversations about civil
liberties. For instance, debates on property rights or freedom of speech in political contexts
trace back to Locke’s ideas, especially in democratic societies.
6. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) – Categorical Imperative
Kant’s moral philosophy is centered around the categorical imperative, which states that one
should act only according to principles that could be universally applied. In other words, one
should behave in a way that they believe everyone else should also follow.
• Daily life example: Think about the ethics of lying. If someone considers lying to a friend,
Kant’s categorical imperative would ask, “What if everyone lied? Would society still
function?” This line of thinking encourages honesty because the universalization of lying
would destroy trust in relationships. Similarly, the decision to recycle or help a stranger
can be guided by asking whether this behavior should become a universal norm.
7. Karl Marx (1818–1883) – Marxism and Class Struggle
Karl Marx focused on the role of class struggle in society, arguing that history is driven by the
conflict between the bourgeoisie (the capitalist class) and the proletariat (the working class). His
ideas laid the groundwork for communism and influenced labor movements around the world.
• Daily life example: In workplace discussions about fair wages, workers’ rights, or income
inequality, people are often channeling Marxist ideas, whether they realize it or not. A
modern protest for a higher minimum wage is a reflection of Marx’s philosophy of class
struggle and the fight for economic justice.
8. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) – Will to Power
Nietzsche challenged traditional moral values and emphasized the idea of the “will to power,” the
driving force behind human actions. He encouraged individuals to create their own values rather
than follow societal norms blindly.
• Daily life example: Nietzsche’s philosophy resonates with the modern emphasis on self-
empowerment and personal development. For instance, when someone starts their own
business or embarks on a path that society may not fully approve of (e.g., leaving a secure
job to pursue art), they are exercising their will to power by forging their own path and
determining their own values.
9. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) – Existentialism and Freedom
Sartre’s existentialism emphasizes the freedom of individuals to create meaning in their own lives.
According to Sartre, existence precedes essence, meaning that humans are not born with a
predetermined purpose and must define their own essence through actions.
• Daily life example: Sartre’s philosophy is evident in modern views of personal
responsibility and authenticity. For example, when people say, “You are responsible for
your own happiness,” they are reflecting Sartre’s belief that individuals are free to shape
their own lives, whether by choosing their career, lifestyle, or relationships. Sartre’s ideas
also apply to mid-life crises where people re-evaluate their life’s meaning and seek new
directions.
10. Michel Foucault (1926–1984) – Power and Knowledge
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Foucault examined how power operates in society, especially how knowledge is used to control
and regulate behavior. He argued that societal institutions like schools, prisons, and hospitals are
systems of control that impose norms on individuals.
• Daily life example: In daily conversations about surveillance or data privacy, Foucault’s
ideas are often at play. For instance, debates about government monitoring of citizens or
how social media platforms collect personal data reflect Foucault’s insights on how power
operates through knowledge and control. Similarly, questioning the role of standardized
education can also be tied to Foucault’s critique of institutional power shaping individual
behavior.
Epistemology
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge—its nature, sources, and
limits. It explores fundamental questions like: What is knowledge? How do we know what we
know? Can we ever be certain of anything? These questions may seem abstract, but epistemology
is deeply relevant to everyday life, from how we justify our beliefs to how we trust others'
knowledge or doubt information. Let’s delve into some key concepts in epistemology and illustrate
them with daily life examples.
1. What is Knowledge?
In traditional epistemology, knowledge has been defined as "justified true belief." This means
that for someone to claim they know something, three criteria must be met:
Imagine you are planning a picnic, and you believe it will be sunny tomorrow. Your belief is based
on checking the weather forecast (justification), which predicts sunshine. If tomorrow turns out to
be sunny, you would have a justified true belief, meaning you "knew" it would be sunny. However,
if you guessed the weather randomly without checking the forecast and it turned out sunny, your
belief would be true, but not justified—you didn't actually "know" it.
This example highlights that justification is a crucial component of knowledge. Without proper
reasoning or evidence, even a correct belief does not count as true knowledge.
2. Sources of Knowledge
Epistemology also investigates the sources from which we derive knowledge. Common sources
include:
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• Reason (logical thinking)
• Memory (relying on past experiences)
• Testimony (learning from others)
Imagine you’re at a traffic light, and you see the light turn green. Based on this perception, you
know it’s time to go. However, if you see the green light but it’s actually for pedestrians, not cars,
your perception misled you. This shows how perception can be fallible, raising questions about
how much we can trust our senses in gaining knowledge.
Most of what we know comes from others, whether through books, teachers, or friends. Consider
how you know historical facts, like the year a war ended or the details of a scientific theory. These
facts are not known to you through personal experience or observation but through testimony—
you trust reliable sources such as historians or scientists. Yet, the accuracy of testimony can be
questioned, as it depends on the reliability of the source. For instance, getting medical advice from
a qualified doctor versus from an unverified online forum involves different levels of justified
trust.
One of the key debates in epistemology is skepticism, the view that we may not know as much as
we think. Skeptics question whether we can truly have knowledge, arguing that many of our beliefs
could be false or unreliable.
A famous thought experiment from philosopher René Descartes involves doubting whether we can
trust our senses at all. He asked, "How do I know I’m not dreaming right now?" If we cannot
distinguish between dream experiences and waking experiences, how can we be certain about
anything we perceive? This kind of skepticism applies to daily life whenever we doubt our
experiences or question whether things are as they appear.
Think about virtual reality. If you're fully immersed in a virtual environment, you might experience
events that feel real but are not. This makes you question the nature of reality itself—how do we
know that our current experience is "real" and not some sophisticated simulation? This highlights
how skepticism forces us to critically examine the foundations of our knowledge.
Justification refers to the reasons or evidence that support a belief. Different philosophical
traditions offer various approaches to justification:
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• Foundationalism holds that certain beliefs (like “I exist”) are self-evident and don’t
require further justification. Other beliefs can be justified based on these foundational ones.
• Coherentism suggests that beliefs are justified if they fit into a coherent system of
interconnected beliefs.
Suppose you are reading conflicting reports about climate change. One source claims it’s a serious
threat, while another argues it's a hoax. How do you decide what to believe? Foundationalism
would say you could trust beliefs grounded in basic scientific facts and observations. Coherentism
would advise you to look at how well the belief fits with other things you know (scientific
consensus, observable evidence, expert opinions).
This example shows how people justify beliefs in daily life by relying on different sources,
systems, and frameworks of knowledge.
Consider a student researching for a paper. If they rely on peer-reviewed academic journals, their
belief in the information is justified because these sources are generally reliable. On the other hand,
if they base their research on random social media posts, they might lack justification because such
sources are not considered consistently reliable.
In daily life, we constantly rely on reliabilism when determining what information to trust. For
example, we use GPS for directions because we know that the system is generally reliable in
leading us to the right location. However, if the GPS malfunctions (e.g., outdated maps), we realize
that it’s not infallible, reminding us that reliability can vary depending on the situation.
Contextualism is the idea that whether someone "knows" something can depend on the context.
What counts as sufficient justification for a belief may change depending on how much is at stake.
Imagine you are traveling and need to ensure your flight is on time. You check an app, which tells
you the flight is on schedule. In normal circumstances, this information might be enough for you
to "know" that your flight is on time. However, if missing the flight means losing an important job
interview, you might double-check with the airline directly or even call the airport. In this case,
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the stakes are higher, so the standards for knowledge become more stringent. Contextualism
reflects how our confidence in what we "know" shifts based on the importance of the situation.
The Gettier problem challenges the traditional definition of knowledge as justified true belief. It
shows that someone can have a belief that is true and justified but still not count as knowledge
because of luck or coincidence.
Suppose you look at a clock, and it shows 3:00 PM. You believe it's 3:00 PM, and it is indeed 3:00
PM. However, unbeknownst to you, the clock stopped working exactly 24 hours ago. Your belief
is true and justified (based on the clock), but it is only true by coincidence. According to the Gettier
problem, you don’t truly "know" it’s 3:00 PM, because your justification was faulty.
This example illustrates how even in daily life, what seems like knowledge might sometimes just
be a lucky guess, revealing the complexities of epistemology.
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Critical thinking
Critical thinking and reason are closely related concepts that play essential roles in the process of
understanding, evaluating, and making informed judgments about information, arguments, and
beliefs. Here's an overview of critical thinking and reason:
a. Critical Thinking: Critical thinking is the process of actively and skillfully analyzing,
synthesizing, and evaluating information and arguments in order to form well-
reasoned judgments or conclusions.
b. It involves the ability to identify and question assumptions, recognize biases and
fallacies, gather and assess evidence, consider alternative perspectives, and draw
logical inferences.
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1.1 What is Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking is the ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information objectively, in
order to make well-reasoned decisions. It involves questioning assumptions, identifying biases,
and applying logic to understand the validity of claims and arguments.
• Daily Life Example: Imagine receiving an email that claims you’ve won a contest you
didn’t enter. Instead of acting impulsively, a critical thinker would assess the validity of
the claim by asking questions (e.g., "Did I enter this contest?") and researching the
sender's credibility to avoid falling for a scam.
Critical thinking helps in various life aspects, from personal decision-making to professional
problem-solving. It enhances the ability to:
• Avoid manipulation
• Make informed decisions
• Solve complex problems
• Daily Life Example: Before buying a car, a critical thinker would compare models,
assess the long-term costs (insurance, fuel efficiency), and avoid making a decision based
solely on appearance or advertisements.
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Cognitive biases are mental shortcuts that often lead to errors in reasoning. Examples include:
• Confirmation Bias: The tendency to favor information that confirms one’s preexisting
beliefs.
• Anchoring Bias: Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered.
• Daily Life Example: If you believe a particular news source is always accurate, you
might fall prey to confirmation bias by ignoring contradictory evidence from other
reliable sources.
• Inductive Reasoning: Starts with specific instances and draws general conclusions. It is
probabilistic and may not always be valid.
• Deductive Reasoning: Begins with general premises and applies them to specific cases,
producing more definitive conclusions.
• Daily Life Example: In deciding whether to bring an umbrella, you might use inductive
reasoning: “The sky is cloudy, and it usually rains when it’s cloudy,” or deductive
reasoning: “The forecast says it will rain; therefore, I should bring an umbrella.”
4. Logical Fallacies
Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that undermine the validity of an argument. Some
common fallacies include:
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• Slippery Slope: Suggesting that a minor action will lead to a significant, often negative,
outcome without evidence.
• Daily Life Example: In a debate about climate change, someone may use an Ad
Hominem fallacy by saying, “You don’t know anything about science,” instead of
addressing the actual arguments presented.
To avoid fallacies, focus on evaluating the merits of an argument’s premises, avoiding emotional
appeals, and verifying evidence. Learning to spot fallacies is crucial for improving reasoning
skills.
• Daily Life Example: In a family discussion about spending money, someone might say,
"If we buy a new TV, we will waste all our savings and end up in debt," which is an
example of the Slippery Slope fallacy. Recognizing this helps guide the conversation
back to a reasoned analysis.
• Daily Life Example: If your phone battery keeps dying quickly, a problem-solving
approach might involve researching causes (like apps running in the background),
generating solutions (reducing app usage or buying a new battery), and reflecting on the
success of the chosen solution.
Biases like the availability heuristic (relying on recent memories) or overconfidence bias can
distort decision-making. Recognizing and actively mitigating these biases leads to better
decisions.
• Daily Life Example: When investing in stocks, you may avoid overconfidence bias by
acknowledging that past performance doesn’t guarantee future results, and diversifying
your portfolio accordingly.
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6. Critical Thinking in Reading and Writing
Critical reading involves questioning the author’s assumptions, evaluating the evidence, and
considering the implications of their argument. Key steps include:
When writing, critical thinkers ensure their arguments are coherent, evidence-based, and
logically structured. A critical writer:
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Ethical relativism suggests that what’s "right" or "wrong" depends on individual or cultural
perspectives. Critical thinkers evaluate ethical issues with consistency and avoid justifying
unethical actions through relativism.
Groupthink occurs when the desire for harmony or conformity in a group leads to irrational
decision-making. Critical thinkers:
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