Stable and unstable nuclei

The balance of protons and neutrons in a nucleus determines whether a nucleus will be stable
or unstable.

Too many neutrons or protons can upset this balance making the nucleus unstable.

Elements with fewer protons, such as the ones near the top of the periodic table, are stable if
they have the same number of neutrons and protons.

For example carbon, carbon-12 is stable and has six protons and six neutrons.

However as the number of protons increases, more neutrons are needed to keep the nucleus
stable.

For example lead, lead-206 has 82 protons and has 124 neutrons.

Nuclei with too many, or too few, neutrons do exist naturally but are unstable and will
disintegrate (or decay) by emitting radiation.

This is called radioactive decay.

It is important to realise that radioactive nuclei disintegrate:

 spontaneously;
 and randomly.
 This means that the process of radioactive decay can not be speeded up or slowed down by
artificial means (spontaneous decay).

It also means that we cannot tell when a particular unstable nucleus will decay (random
decay).

Key points

 Some nuclei are unstable.

 They disintegrate, emitting radiation randomly, and spontaneously.
 Such nuclei are described as radioactive.

1.

2. Radioactive decay and half-life - CCEA

3. Radioactivity was first noticed by French physicist, Henri Becquerel, in 1896, when he observed that some photographic plates which had
been stored close to a uranium compound had become partly exposed or ‘fogged’.

Ionising radiation
The radiation emitted from unstable nuclei is called ionising radiation because as it passes
through matter it can dislodge outer electrons from atoms causing them to become ions.

Types of radioactive decay

An unstable nucleus can decay by emitting an alpha particle, a beta particle, a gamma ray.

Alpha particle

An unstable nucleus can emit a ‘package’ of two protons and two neutrons, called an alpha
particle, to become more stable.

Alpha radiation is made up of a stream of alpha particles emitted from unstable nuclei.

An alpha particle is also a Helium-4 nucleus.

It is written as and is also sometimes written as .

Alpha decay causes the mass number of the nucleus to decrease by four and the atomic
number of the nucleus to decrease by two.

Alpha decay

(or )

Note that the mass numbers and atomic numbers are equal (i.e. they balance) on both sides of
the equation.

Example

Alpha decay of Uranium-238

Beta particle

An unstable nucleus can emit a fast-moving electron called a beta (β) particle, to become
more stable.

Beta radiation is made up of a stream of beta particles emitted from unstable nuclei.

Beta radiation is normally emitted from unstable nuclei in which the number of neutrons is
much larger than the number of protons.

A beta particle has a relative mass that can be considered to be zero, so its mass number is
zero, and as the beta particle is an electron, it can be written as . Sometimes, it is also
written as .

The beta particle is an electron but it has come from the nucleus, not the outside of the atom.

Electrons are not normally expected to be found in the nucleus but a neutron can split into a
positive proton and a negative electron.

The proton remains inside the nucleus, but the electron is ejected at high speed.

This is called beta decay..

Beta decay causes the atomic number of the nucleus to increase by one (because there is an
extra proton) but the mass number remains the same (because the total number of protons and
neutrons remains unchanged).

Beta decay

or ( )

Beta decay of carbon-14

1.

Gamma ray
After emitting an alpha or beta particle, the nucleus will often still be ‘excited’ and will need
to lose energy.

It does this by emitting a high energy electromagnetic wave called a gamma ray.

Gamma radiation does not consist of particles but as short wavelength, high energy
electromagnetic radiation emitted from unstable nuclei.

It is normally emitted alongside alpha or beta radiation.

Gamma ray emission causes no change in the number of particles in the nucleus meaning
both the atomic number and mass number remain the same.

It can be written as γ or

Gamma decay

(or γ).

Example

Beta and gamma decay of cobalt-60

Properties of nuclear radiations

The different types of radiation are often compared in terms of their penetrating power,
their ionising power and how far they can travel in the air.

Symbol Penetrating power Ionising power Range in air

Alpha α Skin/paper High < 5 centimetre (cm)

Beta β 3 mm aluminium foil Low ≈ 1 metre (m)

Gamma γ Lead/concrete Very low > 1 kilometre (km)

 All types of radioactive decay can be detected by a Geiger-Muller tube, or G-M tube. The
radiations ionise the gas inside the G-M tube and the resulting charged particles move across
the chamber and get counted as charges rather like an ammeter.

Key points - alpha radiation

 alpha particles are helium nuclei consisting of two protons and two neutrons emitted from
unstable nuclei;
 alpha radiation is stopped by a few centimetres of air or a thin sheet of paper;

 alpha decay: (or )

 Alpha particles are relatively heavy and so produce the most ionisation.
Key points: beta radiation

 beta particles are fast moving electrons emitted from the nucleus of an unstable atom;
 beta radiation is stopped by several metres of air or a thin sheet of aluminium;

 beta decay: or ( )
 beta particles are much lighter than alpha particles and so produce a great deal less
ionisation.
Key points: gamma radiation

 gamma radiation is high energy electromagnetic waves emitted from unstable nuclei;
 gamma radiation easily passes through air, paper, skin and aluminium but can be partly
blocked by thick lead or concrete;
 leaves mass number and atomic number unchanged;
 gamma rays produce the least ionization.
Question
Complete the following decay equation:

Hide answer
Mass number 226 = A + 4

A = 226 - 4 = 222

Atomic number 86 = Z + 2

Z = 86 - 2 = 84

Question
Polonium-210 decays to lead-206. Polonium (Po) has atomic number 84 and lead (Pb) has atomic number 82.

Which type of decay occurs?

Hide answer

Mass number 210 = 206 + A

A = 210 - 206 = 4

Atomic number 84 = 82 + Z

Z = 84 - 82 = 2

X has mass number 4 and atomic number 2 and so is an alpha particle

Measuring amounts of radiation

The activity of a radioactive source is the number of decays per second from the
unstable nuclei present in the source.

The simplest unit of activity is the Becquerel (Bq).

A source that emits one particle per second has an activity of one Bq.

Activity can also be measured in counts per minute.

Since radioactive decay is a random process, it is always good practice to determine the
average count rate rather than to measure the counts that occur in just one second or one
minute.
 Radioactivity can be detected using a Geiger-Muller tube connected to a counter.

When alpha particles, beta particles or gamma rays enter the GM tube the counter clicks and
the count is displayed on the screen.

The number of counts per second or per minute is called the count rate.

Measuring the background radiation

 Remove all known sources of radioactivity from the room.

 Set the counter to zero.
 Switch on and start a stop clock.
 After 20 minutes switch off. Record the count.
 Divide the count by 20 to calculate the count rate per minute.
The background count rate is measured over a period of 20 minutes because of the random
nature of radioactive decay.

Dividing by 20 enables the average count rate per minute to be determined.

Background count rate is typically 18 counts per minute which does not present a serious
health risk to humans.

The background count rate must be subtracted from any other count rate when
measuring the activity of a radioactive source.

Half-life
Radioactive decay is a spontaneous and random process.
A block of radioactive material will contain many trillions of nuclei and not all nuclei are
likely to decay at the same time so it is impossible to tell when a particular nucleus will
decay.

A spontaneous process means that it is not possible to say which particular nucleus will decay
next, but given that there are so many of them, it is possible to say that a certain number will
decay in a certain time.

It also means that the process of radioactive decay cannot be speeded up or slowed down by
any physical changes such as a change of temperature or pressure.

A random process means that scientists cannot tell when a particular nucleus will decay, but
they can use statistical methods to tell when half the unstable nuclei in a sample will have
decayed.

This is called the half-life.

Half-life is the time it takes for the activity of the source to fall to half its original value.
The illustration below shows how a radioactive sample is decaying over time.

From the start of timing it takes two days for the count to halve from 80 Bq down to 40 Bq.

It takes another two days for the count rate to halve again, this time from 40 Bq to 20 Bq.

The half-life of this source is 2 days.

Note that this second two days does not see the count drop to zero, only that it halves again.

A third, two-day period from four days to six days sees the count rate halving again from 20
Bq down to 10 Bq.
 This process continues and although the count rate might get very small, it does not drop to
zero completely.

The half-life of radioactive carbon-14 is 5,730 years.

If a sample of a tree (for example) contains 64 grams (g) of radioactive carbon after 5,730
years it will contain 32 g, after another 5,730 years that will have halved again to 16 g.

Calculating the isotope remaining

It should also be possible to state how much of a sample remains or what the activity or count
should become after a given length of time.

This could be stated as a fraction, decimal or ratio.

For example the amount of a sample remaining after four half-lives could be expressed as:

 a fraction - a of a of a of a remains which is x x x = of the original

sample.

 a decimal - = 0.0625 of the original sample

This could then be incorporated into other data. So, if the half-life is two days, four half-lives
is 8 days.

Question
If a sample with a half-life of 2 days has a count rate of 3,200 Bq at the start, what is
its count rate after 8 days?

Hide answer
If a sample has a count rate of 3,200 Bq at the start, what is its count rate after 8 days?

8 days = 4 half lives.

After 4 half lives the activity remaining would be x x x =

of 3,200 Bq = 200 Bq.

The count rate after 8 days is 200 Bq.

Question
The half-life of cobalt-60 is 5 years. If there are 100 g of cobalt-60 in a sample, how
much will be left after 15 years?

Hide answer

15 years is three half-lives so the fraction remaining would be x x =

 of 100g = 12.5g.

After 15 years the amount remaining will be 12.5 g.

The effects of radiation on the human

body
Radioactive materials are hazardous.

Radioactive emissions cause dangerous ionisation by removing electrons from atoms.

When this happens with molecules in living cells, the genetic material of a cell (the DNA) is damaged.

This can lead to cancer.

Radiation can also deposit large amounts of energy into the body, which can damage or destroy cells completely.

Key points
 alpha radiation is not as dangerous if the radioactive source is outside the body, because it cannot pass through the skin and is
unlikely to reach cells inside the body;

 beta and gamma radiation can penetrate the skin and cause damage to cells inside the body;

 alpha radiation will damage cells if the radioactive source has been breathed in as a gas or dust or if it is swallowed.
Some of the effects that radiation has on a human body are shown below.

Eyes High doses can cause cataracts.

Radioactive iodine can build up and cause cancer, particularly during

Thyroid
growth.

Lungs Breathing in radioisotopes can damage DNA.

Stomach Radioactive isotopes can sit in the stomach and irradiate for a long time.

Reproductive
High doses can cause sterility or mutations.
organs

Skin Radiation can burn skin or cause cancer.

Bone marrow Radiation can cause leukaemia and other diseases of the blood.

Managing the risks

The risk associated with radioactive materials depends on the amount of exposure.
 Being exposed to highly radioactive materials or being exposed to radioactive materials for
long periods of time or on a regular basis increases the dose received which, in turn, increases
the risk.

Given that radioactive materials are hazardous, certain precautions can be taken to reduce the
risk of using radioactive sources.

These include:

 wearing protective clothing to prevent the body becoming contaminated should radioactive
isotopes leak out and also to protect against absorbing radiation e.g. a lead apron, face
masks, etc;
 avoiding contact with bare skin;
 keeping the source as far away from the body as possible by using tongs;
 not attempting to taste or smell the sources;
 being exposed to the source for as short a time as possible;
 keeping radioactive materials in lead-lined containers;
 monitoring exposure times using detector badges, etc.
 Background radiation

Background radiation released by soil, rocks and cosmic rays is always in the environment.

Most of it comes from natural sources but some also comes from artificial sources.

Radioactive sources are found all around us and in our bodies.

Most radioactive background activity comes from natural sources such as:

 An isotope of carbon, Carbon-14, found in carbon dioxide in the air and in the cells of all living
organisms.
 Soils and rocks containing uranium which is radioactive. These may be used for building materials.
When uranium decays radon, a radioactive gas, is released.
 Cosmic rays - radiation reaching the Earth from outer space.
 Human behaviour adds slightly to the background activity that we are exposed to through
medical X-rays, radioactive waste from nuclear power plants and the radioactive fallout from
nuclear weapons testing.

As a result, gas, living things and plants absorb radioactive materials from the soil, which are
then passed along the food chain.

For example, by eating a banana which contains radioactive potassium.

As it passes along the food chain the concentration of radioactivity will increase.

The actual amount of radiation that a person is exposed to depends on where they live, what
job they do and many other things.

There is little we can do about natural background radiation, although people who live in
areas with a high background due to radon gas require homes to be well ventilated to remove
the gas.

In medicine
Sterilisation surgical instruments
Gamma rays are high energy electromagnetic waves which are only stopped by thick lead.

This means they can easily pass through medical equipment, such as syringes.

As gamma rays pass through the packaging and syringe, they will kill viruses and bacteria
which contaminate the syringe.

As long as the equipment remains in a sealed plastic pack it will remain free of viruses and
bacteria and be safe for use with patients.

The gamma ray source used should have a long half-life so that the hospital does not have to
replace it too frequently

Advantages
 sterilisation can be done without high temperatures;
 it can be used to kill bacteria on things that would melt e.g. plastic syringes.

Disadvantages
 it may not kill all bacteria on an object;
 it can be very harmful - standing in the environment where objects are being treated by
radiation could expose people’s cells to damage and possibly cancer.

Radiotherapy: killing cancerous tumours

 A patient undergoing radiotherapy
Although ionising radiation can cause cancer, high doses can be directed at cancerous cells to
kill them.

This is called radiotherapy.

About 40 per cent of people with cancer undergo radiotherapy as part of their treatment.

It is administered in two main ways:

 from outside the body using X-rays or gamma rays from radioactive cobalt;
 from inside the body by putting radioactive materials into the tumour, or close to it.
Gamma knife

 beams of gamma rays, called a gamma knife, can be used to kill the cancerous tumour deep
inside the body;
 these beams are aimed at the tumour from many different directions to maximise the dose
on the tumour but to minimise the dose on the surrounding soft tissue. This technique can
damage healthy tissue, so careful calculations are done to establish the best dose - enough
to kill the tumour, but not so much so that the healthy tissue is damaged.
 The gamma ray source used should have a long half-life so that the hospital does not have to
replace it too frequently

Radioactive Tracers
In some cases, injected radioactive sources (such as technetium-99) can be used
as tracers to make soft tissues, such as blood vessels or the kidneys, show up
through medical imaging processes.

An isotope emits gamma rays that easily pass through the body to a detector outside
the body, for example a ‘gamma camera’.

In this way, the radioactive isotope can be followed as it flows through a particular
organ in the body.

Changes in the amount of gamma emitted from different parts would indicate how
well the isotope is flowing, or if there is a blockage.

The isotope used must:

 be a source of gamma rays so that they pass out through the body to be detected
by the gamma camera or GM tube;
 have very short half-lives - sources used typically have half-lives of hours so after
a couple of days there will hardly be any radioactive material left in a person’s
body;
 not be poisonous.
In industry
To control the thickness of metal or paper

Radioactive isotopes are used in industry to control the thickness of metal or paper as it is
rolled into thin sheet.

An emitter is placed on one side of a sheet and a detector on the other.

If the thickness of the sheet remains constant the activity will not change.

If there is a change in thickness, the activity increases or decreases.

This can trigger the rollers to squeeze harder or less hard to maintain the correct thickness.

A beta source is used because beta radiation can penetrate paper or thin aluminium, but the
amount of penetrating will vary sufficiently as thickness changes.

The source should have a long half-life so that the count rate remains almost constant each
day and so that it does not need to be replaced too frequently.
 To check for leaks in water pipes
Water supplies can be contaminated with a gamma-emitting radioactive isotope to find leaks
in pipes.

Where there is a leak, contaminated water seeps into the ground, causing a build-up of
gamma emissions in that area.

The build-up of gamma emissions can be found using a Geiger-Muller tube.

This makes it easier to decide where to dig to find the leak without having to dig along the
whole length of the pipe.

The isotope used for this purpose must:

 be a gamma emitter to penetrate the ground and road surface;

 have a half-life of at least several days to allow the emissions to build up in the soil but not too
long so that exposure is limited not be poisonous to humans as it will form part of the water
supply.

 In the home

 Smoke detectors
 One type of smoke detector uses Americium-241, an alpha particle source, to detect
smoke.

 The alpha particles pass between the two charged metal plates, causing air particles to
ionise (split into positive and negative ions).

 The ions are attracted to the oppositely charged metal plates causing a current to flow.

 When smoke enters between the plates, some of the alpha particles are absorbed
causing less ionisation to take place. This means a smaller than normal current flows
so the alarm sounds.

 An alpha source is used because alpha radiation does not penetrate very far.

 It is absorbed by a few cm of air.

 This means that as long as the detector is high up on a wall, or the ceiling, it is safe for
humans to be in the same room.

 The source should have a long half-life so that the smoke detector does not have to be
replaced too frequently, and so that the count rate remains almost constant each day.
 Advantages of contamination Disadvantages of contamination

Radioactive isotopes can be used as

Radioactive isotopes may not go where they are wanted.
medical and industrial tracers.

It can be difficult to ensure that the contamination is fully

Use of isotopes with a short half-life
removed so small amounts of radioisotope may still be left
means exposure can be limited.
behind.

Imaging processes can replace some Exposure to radioactive materials can potentially damage
invasive surgical procedures. healthy cells.