ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

MODULE-II
ATTITUDE:

Definition of Attitude
Attitude is the manner, disposition, feeling and position with regard to a person or thing, tendency or orientation
especially in the mind.

According to Gordon Allport, “An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through
experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations
with which it is related.”

Frank Freeman said, “An attitude is a dispositional readiness to respond to certain institutions, persons or
objects in a consistent manner which has been learned and has become one’s typical mode of response.”

IMPORATANCE OF ATTITUDE IN AN ORGANISATION

It may seem as if skills and experience are the most important characteristics of an employee, but attitude plays
just as big of a role. After all, what good are great professional skills without the attitude to see it all through?
There are five key attitudes that small businesses should seek out in employees to ensure a harmonious
professional environment and a productive staff.
Respect for Others
Respect in the workplace doesn't solely extend to the way employees interact with management. People who
have self-respect don't do managers' biding no matter what; they think for themselves and present alternative
ideas at times, but respectfully. Employees should also have a respectful attitude when interacting with clients
and customers as well as co-workers. Those with this type of attitude are willing to treat other people politely
and professionally, even if they disagree with the other person's point of view.
Infectious Enthusiasm About Life
Someone who is enthusiastic about life in general radiates a positive energy that rubs off on everyone around
her. She dives into every project with interest, eagerly learns new skills and ideas and quickly applies them to
her work. Some people are born with positive energy, but it can also be developed. Teach your staff to approach
every situation, positive or negative, as a challenge and an opportunity.
Adopt a "glass half full" attitude in the company and encourage employees to build on it. Soon they'll extend an
enthusiastic attitude toward co-workers, customers and everything they do.
Commitment to the Job
Small businesses need employees who are not only committed to the goals and initiatives that affect the bottom
line, but who also are committed to their particular positions. Employees project a committed attitude by
showing a willingness to do whatever it takes to fulfill the duties of their positions and via the development of
new ideas to make the company even better. When committed individuals work together as a team towards
company goals, everyone benefits.
Innovative Ideas and Finding New Ways
Employees with an innovative attitude don't shy away from trying something new or finding a different way to
do things. Small businesses need employees who can think outside of the box and innovate new ways to
accomplish existing tasks and approach goals. Employees with this type of attitude know their ideas might not
work out to be the best way to do something, but that the biggest failure is not at least giving new ideas a shot.
Helpfulness with Others
It is important to have a helpful attitude at work, whether that means assisting clients and customers with their
needs or helping co-workers accomplish overall company goals. The more helpful an attitude employees have,
the more people want to be around them at work and the more willing they are to partner with those employees
on key projects and initiatives.
RIGHT ATTITUDE
A positive attitude is essential to happiness, joy, and progress in life. This state of mind brings light, hope and
enthusiasm into the life of those who possess it.
Adopting it in your life does not mean that everything will always move smoothly and there will be no bumps
on the road. However, it ensures that any setback you might encounter will not stop you or change your state of
mind, and that you will go on, try again, and do your best despite any setback.

Individuals who have a positive attitude will pay attention to the good, rather than bad in people, situations,
events. A simple example of a positive attitude; when you are having a very bad run of luck but you still say
“Good Morning” rather than “What's so good about this morning”.

COMPONENTS ATTITUDE
Cognitive Component
The cognitive component of attitudes refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes that we would associate with
an object. It is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. It refers to that part of attitude which is related in
general knowledge of a person.
Typically these come to light in generalities or stereotypes, such as ‘all babies are cute’, ‘smoking is harmful to
health’ etc.
Affective Component
Affective component is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.
It is related to the statement which affects another person.
It deals with feelings or emotions that are brought to the surface about something, such as fear or hate. Using the
above example, someone might have the attitude that they love all babies because they are cute or that they hate
smoking because it is harmful to health.
Behavioral Component
Behavior component of an attitude consists of a person’s tendencies to behave’in a particular way toward an
object. It refers to that part of attitude which reflects the intention of a person in the short-run or long run.
Using the above example, the behavioral attitude maybe- ‘I cannot wait to kiss the baby’, or ‘we better keep
those smokers out of the library, etc.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BEHAVIOUR AND ATTITUDE
While attitude involves mind's predisposition to certain ideas, values, people, systems,
institutions; behaviour relates to the actual expression of feelings, action or inaction orally or/and through body
language. I am sure, others will look at these somewhat differently
In psychology, an attitude refers to a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular object, person,
thing, or event. Attitudes are often the result of experience or upbringing, and they can have a
powerful influence over behavior. While attitudes are enduring, they can also change.
A work attitude behavior is the evaluations of one's job that constitute one's feelings toward, beliefs about, and
attachment to one's job. Overall work attitude attitude can be conceptualized in two ways. Either as effective job
satisfaction that constitutes a general or global subjective feeling about a job, or as a composite of objective
cognitive assessments of specific job facets, such as pay, conditions, opportunities and other aspects of a
particular job. Employees evaluate their advancement opportunities by observing their job, their occupation, and
their employer. While ;

Work behavior attitude often depends on how we feel about being there. Therefore, making sense of how people
behave depends on understanding their work attitudes. An attitude refers to our opinions, beliefs, and feelings
about aspects of our environment

DEVELOPING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AT WORKPLACE

Taking this a step further, we can assemble some ideas of how these three components can impact the
workplace.
The challenge in the workplace is that now these components are tied to work functions, policy, procedures and
organizational structure, as well as the people and individuals present in the organization.
For example, we could have thoughts or beliefs (cognitive) about managers in general, and those thoughts or
beliefs could manifest themselves is not trusting a manager (effective), and thus we would never want to
develop a close relationship with a manager (behavioral).
It is important to make the point here that these are attitudes – and yes, they can be wrong. Just because we have
an attitude that does not mean it is correct. It is just how we feel about a person or situation.
 Obviously not every manager is trustworthy, but if we let our negative attitudes dictate how we view and react
to managers, we will never be able to see if some are really good people and can be trusted.
Certainly having a good relationship based on trust with the manager is a great thing to have in the workplace.

Barriers to Change Attitudes

Employees’ attitudes can be changed and sometimes it is in the best interests of management to try to do so.
For example, if employees believe that their employer does not look after their welfare, the management should
try to change employees’ attitude and help to develop a more positive attitude towards them.
However, the process of changing the attitude is not always easy.
Actually, the barriers are the limits which prevent the organization from achieving its predetermined goals.
So every organization should be aware of these and should take corrective actions.
Barriers to Change Attitudes are;
 Prior Commitment.
 Insufficient Information.
 Balance and Consistency.
 Lack of Resources.
 Improper Reward System.
 Resistance to Change.
Prior Commitment
When people feel a commitment towards a particular course of action that has already been agreed upon and
thus it becomes difficult for them to change or accept the new ways of functioning.
Insufficient Information
It also acts as a major barrier to change attitudes. Sometimes people do not see a reason why they should change
their attitude due to unavailability of adequate information.
Sometimes people do not see a reason why they should change their attitude due to unavailability of adequate
information.
Balance and Consistency
Another obstacle to a change of attitude is the attitude theory of balance and consistency.
That is human beings prefer their attitudes about people and things to be in line with their behaviors towards
each other and objects.
Lack of Resources
If plans become excessively ambitious, they can sometimes be obstructed by the lack of resources on the part of
a company or organization.
So, in this case, if the organization wants to change the attitude of the employees towards the new plan,
sometimes it becomes impossible for the lack of resources to achieve this.
Improper Reward System
Sometimes, an improper reward system acts as a barrier to change attitude.
If an organization places too much emphasis on short-term performance and results, managers may ignore
longer-term issues as they set goals and formulate plans to achieve higher profits in the short term.
If this reward system is introduced in the organization, then the employees are not motivated to change their
attitude.
Resistance to Change
Another barrier is resistance to change.
Basically, change is a continuous process within and outside the organization to achieve the set goal.
When the authority changes a plan of the organization the employees have to change themselves.
But some of them do not like this. If their attitude regarding the change of plan cannot be changed, the
organization will not be successful.

PERSONALITY &VALUE

Definition and importance of personality for performance-

Personality is nothing but the aggregate conglomeration of memories and incidents in an individual’s entire life
span. Environmental factors, family background, financial conditions, genetic factors, situations and
circumstances also contribute to an individual’s personality.
Personality also influences what we think, our beliefs, values and expectations. What we think about others
depends on our personality.
In a layman’s language personality is defined as the personal qualities and characteristics of an individual.
Personality is how we interact with others. Personality is a sum of characteristics of an individual which makes
him different from the others. It is our personality which makes us unique and helps us stand apart from the
crowd.
Determinants of Personality
Following are the factors which help in shaping one’s personality:

1. Heredity - Heredity refers to factors that are determined once an individual is born. An individual’s
physique, attractiveness, body type, complexion, body weight depend on his/her parents biological
makeup.
2. Environment - The environment to which an individual is subjected to during his growing years plays
an important role in determining his/her personality. The varied cultures in which we are brought up
and our family backgrounds have a crucial role in shaping our personalities.
3. Situation - An individual’s personality also changes with current circumstances and situations. An
individual would behave in a different way when he has enough savings with him and his behavior
would automatically change when he is bankrupt.

Importance of Personality Development

An individual’s personality refers to his/her appearance, characteristics, attitude, mindset and behavior with
others.
Let us go through the importance of personality development.
Personality development grooms an individual and helps him make a mark of his/her own. Individuals
need to have a style of their own for others to follow them. Do not blindly copy others. You need to set an
example for people around. Personality development not only makes you look good and presentable but also
helps you face the world with a smile.
Personality development goes a long way in reducing stress and conflicts. It encourages individuals to look
at the brighter sides of life. Face even the worst situations with a smile. Trust me, flashing your trillion dollar
smile will not only melt half of your problems but also evaporate your stress and worries. There is no point
cribbing over minor issues and problems.
Personality development helps you develop a positive attitude in life. An individual with a negative attitude
finds a problem in every situation. Rather than cribbing and criticizing people around, analyze the whole
situation and try to find an appropriate solution for the same. Remember, if there is a problem, there has to be a
solution as well. Never lose your cool. It would make the situation worse.
It is essential for individuals to behave well with people around. Being polite with others will not only make you
popular among other people but also earn you respect and pride. You can’t demand respect by being rude with
people around. Personality development plays an important role in developing not only your outer but also inner
self. Human being is a social animal. One needs people around. An individual needs to have that magnetic
power which attracts people towards him. You need to have that charisma of yours. Personality development
helps you gain recognition and acceptance from the society as well as people around.
Personality development plays an essential role not only in an individual’s professional but also personal lives.
It makes an individual disciplined, punctual and an asset for his/her organization. An in-disciplined individual
finds it difficult to survive in the long run. Personality development teaches you to respect not only your Boss
and fellow workers but also family members, friends, neighbours, relatives and so on. Never make fun of
anyone at the workplace. Avoid criticizing and making fun of your fellow workers.
One should never carry his/her attitude or personal grudges to work. Office is not a place where you can be rude
to others just because you had a fight with your friend last night. Personality development sessions help you
differentiate between your personal as well as professional life. It is really essential to keep a balance between
both the lives to lead a peaceful and stress free life.
Personality development helps an individual to inculcate positive qualities like punctuality, flexible
attitude, willingness to learn, friendly nature, eagerness to help others and so on. Never hesitate to share
information with others. Always reach office on time. Some people have a tendency to work till late. Late
sittings not only increase your stress levels but also spoil your personal life. Sitting till late at the office indicates
that an individual is extremely poor in time management skills.
Personality development helps you develop an impressive personality and makes you stand apart from the rest.
Personality development also plays an essential role in improving one’s communication skills. Individuals ought
to master the art of expressing their thoughts and feelings in the most desired way. Personality development
makes you a confident individual who is appreciated and respected wherever he goes.

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI)

The Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is an instrument designed to evaluate people and provide descriptive
profiles of their personality types. Based on the theories of psychologist Carl Jung, it is widely used in the fields
of business, education, and psychology.
MBTI was developed by Isabel Briggs Meyers and her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, during World War II.
The two women were acquainted with Jung's theories and sought to apply them to help civilians choose wartime
jobs well-suited to their personality preferences. Meyers and Briggs felt that this would make people happier
and more productive in their work. Consulting Psychologists, bought the rights to MBTI in 1975. The company
estimates that it administers MBTI testing to two million people per year worldwide.
The MBTI system begins with a test in which participants respond to questions that provide clues about their
basic outlook or personal preferences. These responses are scored to see where participants' preferences lie
within four sets of attributes: extroversion/introversion; sensing/intuiting; thinking/feeling; and
judging/perceiving.
The attributes extroversion (E) and introversion (I) indicate whether a participant derives his or her mental
energy primarily from other people or from within. Similarly, the attributes sensing (S) and intuiting (N) explain
whether a participant absorbs information best through data and details or through general patterns. The
attributes thinking (T) and feeling (F) show whether a participant tends to make decisions based on logic and
objective criteria or based on emotional intelligence. Finally, the attributes judging (J) and perceiving (P)
indicate whether a participant makes decisions quickly or prefers to take a more casual approach and leave his
or her options open.
The MBTI system organizes the four sets of attributes into a matrix of sixteen different personality types. Each
type is indicated by a four-letter code. For example, ESTJ would designate a person whose primary attributes
were extroversion, sensing, thinking, and judging. For each personality type, the MBTI system includes a profile
which describes the characteristics common to people who fit into that category.
For example, an article in the Harvard Business Review noted that people who fit into the category ISTP tend to
be "cool onlookers—quiet, reserved, and analytical; usually interested in impersonal principles, how and why
mechanical things work; flashes of original humor," while people of type ENFJ are "sociable, popular; sensitive
to praise and criticism; responsive and responsible; generally feel real concern for what others think or want."
MBTI is a popular evaluative tool. Many colleges and universities use it in career counseling to help guide
students into appropriate fields for their personality types. In the business world, companies use it to make
hiring decisions, identify leadership potential among employees, design training for specific employee needs,
facilitate team building, and help resolve conflicts between employees. By giving people an increased
understanding of their behavior and preferences, MBTI is said to help them increase their productivity, build
relationships, and make life choices.
Proponents of MBTI see the testing system as a valuable aid to personal development and growth. But critics of
MBTI argue that its personality profiles are so broad and ambiguous that they can be interpreted to fit almost
anyone. Some also worry that, once a university career counselor or employer knows a person's "type," that
person might tend to be pigeonholed or pushed in a certain direction regardless of his or her desires. Finally,
some psychologists have criticized the MBTI system on the grounds of "confirmation bias," meaning that the
results are self-fulfilling because people tend to behave in ways that are predicted for them. In other words, a
person who learns that he or she is "outgoing" according to MBTI will be more likely to behave that way.
THE BIG 5 PERTSONALITY MODEL
What Are the Big Five Dimensions of Personality?
Today, many researchers believe that they are five core personality traits. 1 Evidence of this theory has been
growing for many years, beginning with the research of D. W. Fiske (1949) and later expanded upon by other
researchers including Norman (1967), Smith (1967), Goldberg (1981), and McCrae & Costa (1987).
The "big five" are broad categories of personality traits. While there is a significant body of literature supporting
this five-factor model of personality, researchers don't always agree on the exact labels for each dimension.
You might find it helpful to use the acronym OCEAN (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism) when trying to remember the big five traits. CANOE (for conscientiousness,
agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion) is another commonly used acronym.
It is important to note that each of the five personality factors represents a range between two extremes. For
example, extraversion represents a continuum between extreme extraversion and extreme introversion. In the
real world, most people lie somewhere in between the two polar ends of each dimension.
These five categories are usually described as follows.
Openness
This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight.1 People who are high in this trait also tend to
have a broad range of interests. They are curious about the world and other people and eager to learn new things
and enjoy new experiences.
People who are high in this trait tend to be more adventurous and creative. People low in this trait are often
much more traditional and may struggle with abstract thinking.
High
Very creative
Open to trying new things
Focused on tackling new challenges

Happy to think about abstract concepts

Low
Dislikes change
Does not enjoy new things
Resists new ideas
Not very imaginative
Dislikes abstract or theoretical concepts
Conscientiousness
Standard features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control, and goal-
directed behaviors.1 Highly conscientious people tend to be organized and mindful of details. They plan ahead,
think about how their behavior affects others, and are mindful of deadlines.
High
Spends time preparing
Finishes important tasks right away
Pays attention to detail
Enjoys having a set schedule
Low
Dislikes structure and schedules
Makes messes and doesn't take care of things
Fails to return things or put them back where they belong
Procrastinates important tasks
Fails to complete necessary or assigned tasks
Extraversion
Extraversion (or extroversion) is characterized by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high
amounts of emotional expressiveness.1 People who are high in extraversion are outgoing and tend to gain energy
in social situations. Being around other people helps them feel energized and excited.
People who are low in extraversion (or introverted) tend to be more reserved and have less energy to expend in
social settings. Social events can feel draining and introverts often require a period of solitude and quiet in order
to "recharge."
High
Enjoys being the center of attention
Likes to start conversations
Enjoys meeting new people
Has a wide social circle of friends and acquaintances
Finds it easy to make new friends
Feels energized when around other people
Say things before thinking about them
Low
Prefers solitude
Feels exhausted when having to socialize a lot
Finds it difficult to start conversations
Dislikes making small talk
Carefully thinks things through before speaking
Dislikes being the center of attention
How Extroversion in Personality Influences Behavior
Agreeableness
This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial
behaviors.1 People who are high in agreeableness tend to be more cooperative while those low in this trait tend
to be more competitive and sometimes even manipulative.
High
Has a great deal of interest in other people
Cares about others
Feels empathy and concern for other people
Enjoys helping and contributing to the happiness of other people
Assists others who are in need of help
Low
Takes little interest in others
Doesn't care about how other people feel
Has little interest in other people's problems
Insults and belittles others
Manipulates others to get what they want
Neuroticism
Neuroticism is a trait characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability. 1 Individuals who are high
in this trait tend to experience mood swings, anxiety, irritability, and sadness. Those low in this trait tend to be
more stable and emotionally resilient.
High
Experiences a lot of stress
Worries about many different things
Gets upset easily
Experiences dramatic shifts in mood
Feels anxious
Struggles to bounce back after stressful events
Low
Emotionally stable
Deals well with stress
Rarely feels sad or depressed
Doesn't worry much
Is very relaxed

Significant personality traits suitable to workplace

Personality development plays a crucial role in enhancing one’s personality. It helps an individual to develop a
positive attitude and look at the brighter sides of life.
Personality development plays an imperative role at workplace as it decides the way an individual interacts with
his fellow workers and responds to various situations. How an individual behaves at the workplace depends on
his/her personality. Personality development helps in polishing and grooming individuals and makes them better
and efficient resources for the organization. Personality development also reduces stress levels and teaches an
individual to face even the worst situations with a smile. Personality reflects how one conducts himself/herself
in the professional environment. Never carry your personal problems to work. Personality development helps an
individual to keep his personal life separate from his professional life.
Differences in opinions and views often lead to conflicts and arguments among employees. Employees with
different attitudes and mindsets find it extremely difficult to adjust with each other and work in unison.
Personality development sessions motivate an individual to think positively and eventually reduce stress at the
workplace. Individuals as a result of personality development tend to behave in a mature way; making the
organization a much better place to work. Personality development is essential to bring a change in an
individual’s attitude, thinking, behavior and mindsets. It also strengthens the relationship among co workers.
Personality development classes at the workplace extract the best out of individuals and encourage them to
deliver their level best. Stress sometimes makes us forget ourselves. Individuals after a tiring day at work
sometimes even forget to smile. Personality development classes bring that smile back to an individual’s life. It
encourages one to put his/her best foot forward and strive hard to perform beyond expectations. Remember your
organization is paying you for your hardwork.You really need to prove yourself and perform well if you wish to
climb the success ladder quickly. Personality development encourages an individual to use his skills and
abilities to the maximum. An individual with a pleasing personality is liked and respected by all.
Marketing and sales professionals need to have an impressive personality to make a mark of their own. You
really need to look presentable and smart at the workplace. No one would take you seriously if you are shabbily
dressed. Avoid being a makeup box at work. Dress smartly at work. Do not wear tight fitting /body hugging and
gaudy clothes to office. Make sure your clothes are clean and properly ironed.
It pays to exude confidence and positive attitude at workplace. Never clutter your mind with negative thoughts.
You will feel frustrated and eventually loose interest in work. Accept challenges with a smile.
Never ever underestimate anyone. Backstabbing, criticizing, dishonesty are negative traits which make you an
unwanted member in the organization. Be very honest and transparent with your seniors and fellow workers.
You really need to respect others to expect the same in return. Personality development, in simpler words makes
you a good human being.
Personality development teaches you to stay calm and composed even at stressful situations. Never over react.
Avoid finding faults in others. Learn to be a little flexible and broad minded. Personality development
differentiates you from others who come to office, fight with fellow workers, are often under stress and find
work monotonous.

A manager needs to carry himself well. Whatever you wear daily to work, your team members would
automatically start following your style. Make sure you dress sensibly; after all you have to set an example
for your team members. Avoid wearing casuals and loud colours to work. Wear clothes which make you feel
confident and look good.
As a manager, one needs to be honest and fully committed towards the organization to expect loyalty
from team members in return. Do not treat your organization as a mere source of earning money. Discourage
your team members to backstab each other and spread unnecessary rumours about fellow workers.
Never be rude to any of your team members. Do not treat your employees as slaves. Appreciate employees who
perform exceptionally well. A pat on their back will go a long way in motivating them to perform even better
the next time. Put their names on notice boards to acknowledge their hard work.
Reach office on time. Being punctual is a great personality trait which makes you successful in a short span of
time. Ask your team members to reach office on time to avoid unnecessary late sittings. Late sittings do not
indicate that an employee is hard working but reflect his/her poor time management skills.
Leave your ego behind the moment you enter office. There is no place for ego and personal problems at
workplace. Do not hold personal grudges against anyone in your team. Avoid criticizing and making fun of
others.
As a manager, you need to be flexible in your approach. Be realistic. Don’t be surprised if your team
member asks for a half day or a full day leave on his/her birthday. After all it is a special day for him. Do not
stop him unless and until there is something really urgent at work.
Respect your team members. Every employee in the organization ought to be treated as one irrespective of
his/her designation or level in the hierarchy.
Be a patient listener. Lend a sympathetic ear to your team members in case of queries. Give them correct
feedbacks and timely monitor their performance.

Personality test and their practical application

Personality tests are techniques designed to measure one's personality. They are used to diagnose
psychological problems as well as to screen candidates for college and employment. There are two types
of personality tests: self-report inventories and projective tests.
Labelling temperament
Creating personality tests and labelling temperaments for a broad audience can be challenging. Most tests are
designed with the empirical data backing them up in mind; they make the assumption that personality is
something genetic, that we are born with. In many ways this is indeed true- we are a product of our DNA. In
other ways, our surroundings, or our environment, influences our personalities. Factors like cultural tradition,
family, and religion can also affect how a person thinks and behaves.
Planning for all these eventualities explains some of the differences and abundance in personality tests and
temperament analyses that exist today. Each of these tests were created for a purpose based on a preferred
psychological theory, of which there are many to choose from.
Some tests were set up to assist with personnel hire for companies. Human Resources departments are looking
for the right people to place in the jobs where they will be the most effective. Certain personality types are
suited for different kinds of work; for instance, an extremely detail-oriented person may find themselves quickly
frustrated in a job where projects are open-ended and their role isn’t clearly defined. Likewise, highly creative
and artistically strong individuals might have trouble adapting to a job that is rigid, not allowing them to utilize
their creative thinking skills to do their job well.
Practical application
Understanding the strengths and unique qualities of different personality types isn’t just the arena of company
hiring squads. Psychologists use their knowledge of human temperaments to assist with therapy to tailor what
they know about their patient to make treatment plans more effective. Personality types are important when
training sports teams, when teaching students in classrooms, and when traveling the world and engaging with
new people.

PERCEPTION
Meaning and concept of Perception

Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory stimuli to meaningful information. It is the process
of interpreting something that we see or hear in our mind and use it later to judge and give a verdict on a
situation, person, group etc.
Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system but subjectively seems mostly effortless
because this processing happens outside of conscious awareness.
According to Joseph Reitz; “Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives information
about his environment—seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling.”

According to B. V. H. Gilmer, “Perception is the process of becoming aware of situations, of adding meaningful
associations to sensations.”

Factors Affecting Perception

Perception is the process by which an individual selects, organizes, and interprets information to create a
meaningful picture. Perception depends not only on the physical stimuli but also on the stimuli’s relation to the
surrounding field and on conditions within the individual. Perception is a process by which individuals organize
and interpret their sensory perceives in order to give meaning to their environment.
However, what one perceives can be substantially different from objective reality. It is the process through
which the information from the outside environment is selected, received, organized and interpreted to make it
meaningful.
This input of meaningful information results in decisions and actions. A number of factors operate to shape and
sometimes distort perception. These factors can reside in the perceiver in the object or target being perceived, or
in the context of the situation in which the perception is made.
When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she sees, that interpretation is heavily
influenced by the personal characteristics of the individual perceiver.
Personal characteristics that affect perception include a person’s attitudes, personality, motives, interests, past
experiences, and expectations.
There are some factors that influence the target such as- novelty, motion, sounds, size, background, proximity,
similarity, etc.
Characteristics of the target being observed can affect what is perceived. Because targets are not looked at in
isolation, the relationship of a target to its background also influences perception, as does our tendency to group
close things and similar things together.
There are also some situational factors like the time of perceiving others, work settings, social settings, etc.
which influence the perception process.
Besides these, there are some other factors like perceptual learning which is based on past experiences or any
special training that we get, every one of us learns to emphasize some sensory inputs and to ignore others.
Another factor is the mental set, which refers to preparedness or readiness to receive some sensory input.
Such expectancy keeps the individual prepared with good attention and concentration. The level of knowledge
we have may also change the way we perceive his or her behaviors.
For example;
if a person knows that her friend is stressed out over family problems then she might overlook her snappy
comments. Learning has a considerable influence on perception.
It creates expectancy in people. The nature of the things which have to be perceived is also an influential factor.
By nature we mean, whether the object is visual or auditory, and whether it involves pictures, people or animals.
Perception is determined by both physiological and psychological characteristics of the human being whereas
sensation is conceived with only the physiological features.
Thus, perception is not just what one sees with the eyes it is a much more complex process by which an
individual selectively absorbs or assimilates the stimuli in the environment, cognitively organizes the perceived
information in a specific fashion and then interprets the information to make an assessment about what is going
on in one’s environment.
When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she sees, that interpretation is heavily
influenced by the personal characteristics of the individual perceiver.
Personal characteristics that, affect perception included a person’s attitudes, personality motives interest, past
experiences, and expectations.
Perceptual Process
The perceptual process allows us to experience the world around us.
In this overview of perception and the perceptual process, we will learn more about how we go from detecting
stimuli in the environment to actually taking action based on that information and it can be organized into our
existing structures and patterns, and are then interpreted based on previous experiences.
Although the perception is a largely cognitive and psychological process, how we perceive the people and
objects around us affects our communication.
Actually perception process is a sequence of steps that begins with the environment and leads to our perception
of a stimulus and action in response to the stimulus.
In order to fully understand how the perception process works, we have to follow each of the following steps.
3 stages of perception process are;
Selection.
Organization.
Interpretation.
Selection
The world around us is filled with an infinite number of stimuli that we might attend, but our brains do not have
the resources to pay attention to everything.
Thus, the first step of perception is the decision of what to attend to.
When we attend to one specific thing in our environment — whether it is a smell, a feeling, a sound, or
something else entirely — it becomes the attended stimulus.
Selecting is the first part of the perception process, in which we focus our attention on certain incoming sensory
information. In selection, we choose stimuli that attract our attention.
We focus on the ones that stand out to our senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch). We take information
through all five of our senses, but our perceptual field includes so many stimuli that it is impossible for our
brains to process and make sense of it all.
So, as information comes in through our senses, various factors influence what actually continues on through the
perception process.

Organization
Once we have chosen to attend to a stimulus in the environment, the choice sets off a series of reactions in our
brain.
This neural process starts with the activation of our sensory receptors (touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing).
Organizing is the second part of the perception process, in which we sort and categorize information that we
perceive based on innate and learned cognitive patterns.
Three ways we sort things into patterns are by using proximity, similarity, and difference (Stanley, mo).
Interpretation
After we have attended to a stimulus, and our brains have received and organized the information, we interpret it
in a way that makes sense using our existing information about the world Interpretation simply means that we
take the information that we have sensed and organized and turn it into something that we can categorize.
By putting different stimuli into categories, we can better understand and react to the world around us.
Perception of others involves sensing, organizing, and interpreting information about people, and what they say
and do. The sensation is a main characteristic of perception as it relates to outside input. In the perceptual
process, firstly the perceiver should select what will be perceived.
Then, the organization takes place when listeners identify the type of sound and compare it to other sounds
heard in the past.
Interpretation and categorization are generally the most subjective areas of perception, as they involve decisions
about whether listeners like what they hear and want to keep listening.
We make immediate evaluations that cause automatic judgments of positive and negative reactions toward
others, which occur outside of our awareness.
The selection, organization, and interpretation of perceptions can differ among different people.
On the basis of these, the perceptual output that means, values, attitudes, behavior, etc. of the perceiver may
differ.
Therefore, when people react differently in a situation, part of their behavior can be explained by examining
their perceptual process, and how their perceptions are leading to their responses.
Errors in Perception
As seen above perception is the process of analyzing and understanding a stimulus as it is.
But it may not be always possible to perceive the stimuli as they are.
Knowingly or unknowingly, we mistake the stimulus and perceive it wrongly.
Many times the prejudices in the individual, time of perception, unfavorable background, lack of clarity of stimulus,
confusion, conflict in mind and such other factors are responsible for errors in perception.
There are some errors in perception;
Illusion.
Hallucination.
Halo Effect.
Stereotyping.
Similarity.
Horn Effect.
Contrast.
Illusion
The illusion is a false perception. Here the person will mistake a stimulus and perceive it wrongly.
For example, in the dark, a rope is mistaken as a snake or vice versa. The voice of an unknown person is mistaken as a
friend’s voice. A person standing at a distance who is not known may be perceived as a known person.
Hallucination
Sometimes we come across instances where the individual perceives some stimulus, even when it is not present.
This phenomenon is known as a hallucination. The person may see an object, person, etc. or he may listen to some voice
though there are no objects and sounds in reality.
Selective Perception
Selective perception means the situation when people selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests,
background, experience, and attitudes.
It means any characteristics that make a person, object, or event stand out will increase the probability that it will be
perceived.
Because it is impossible for us to assimilate everything we see, only certain stimuli can be taken in.
Halo Effect
The individual is evaluated on the basis of perceived positive quality, feature or trait. When we draw a general impression
about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance, a halo effect is
operating.
In other words, this is the tendency to rate a man uniformly high or low in other traits if he is extraordinarily high or low in
one particular trait: If a worker has few absences, his supervisor might give him a high rating in all other areas of work.
Stereotyping
People usually can fall into at least one general category based on physical or behavioral traits then they will be evaluated.
When we judge someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs, we are using the shortcut
called stereotyping.
or example, a boss might assume that a worker from a Middle East country is lazy and cannot meet performance objectives,
even if the worker tried his best.
Similarity
Often, people tend to seek out and rate more positively those who are similar to themselves. This tendency to approve of
similarity may cause evaluators to give better ratings to employees who exhibit the same interests, work methods, points of
view or standards.
Horn Effect
When the individual is completely evaluated on the basis of a negative quality or feature perceived. This results in an overall
lower rating than an acceptable rate.
He is not formally dressed up in the office, that’s why he may be casual at work too.
Contrast
The tendency to rate people relative to other people rather than to the individual performance he or she is doing. Rather will
evaluate an employee by comparing that employee’s performance with other employees.
In the early 20th Century, Wilhelm Wundt identified contrast as a fundamental principle of perception, and since then the
effect has been confirmed in many different areas.
These effects shape not only visual qualities like color and brightness but other kinds of perception, including how heavy an
object feels. One experiment found that thinking of the name “Hitler” led to subjects rating a person as more hostile.
Basically, we use the above shortcuts when we judge others. Perceiving and interpreting what others do is burdensome. As a
result, individuals develop techniques for making the task more manageable.
These techniques are frequently valuable-they allow us to make accurate perceptions rapidly and provide valid data for
making projections. But sometimes it also creates problems.
Because firstly, we have said that these are the shortcuts.
In these ways, we can judge others in a short period of time but sometimes we mistakenly judge others by these shortcuts.

MOTIVATION

Definition and concept of motive and motivation

Concept of Motivation:
The term motivation is derived from the word ‘motive”. The word ‘motive’ as a noun means an objective, as a
verb this word means moving into action. Therefore, motives are forces which induce people to act in a way, so
as to ensure the fulfillment of a particular human need at a time. Behind every human action there is a motive.
Therefore, management must provide motives to people to make them work for the organization.
Motivation may be defined as a planned managerial process, which stimulates people to work to the best of their
capabilities, by providing them with motives, which are based on their unfulfilled needs.
“Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goods.” —William G. Scott
“Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain or
reward.” — Flippo

Theories of Motivation
Content Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s theory of the hierarchy of needs, Alderfer’s ERG theory, McClelland’s achievement motivation
theory, and Herzberg’s two-factor theory focused on what motivates people and addressed specific factors like
individual needs and goals.

Maslow’s theory of the hierarchy of needs

The most recognized content theory of motivation is that of Abraham Maslow, who explained motivation
through the satisfaction of needs arranged in a hierarchical order. As satisfied needs do not motivate, it is the
dissatisfaction that moves us in the direction of fulfillment.

Needs are conditions within the individual that are essential and necessary for the maintenance of life and the
nurturance of growth and well-being. Hunger and thirst exemplify two biological needs that arise from the
body’s requirement for food and water. These are required nutriments for the maintenance of life.

Competence and belongingness exemplify two psychological needs that arise from the self’s requirement for
environmental mastery and warm interpersonal relationships. These are required nutriments for growth and
well-being.

Needs serve the organism, and they do so by:

 generating wants, desires, and strivings that motivate whatever behaviors are necessary for the
maintenance of life and the promotion of growth and well-being, and
 generating a deep sense of need satisfaction from doing so.

Maslow’s legacy is the order of needs progressing in the ever-increasing complexity, starting with basic
physiological and psychological needs and ending with the need for self-actualization. While basic needs are
experienced as a sense of deficiency, the higher needs are experienced more in terms of the need for growth and
fulfillment.

In essence, he believed that once a given level of need is satisfied, it no longer serves to motivate man. Then, the
next higher level of need has to be activated in order to motivate the man. Maslow identified five levels in his
need hierarchy as shown in figure 17.2.
These are now discussed one by one:
1. Physiological Needs
These needs are basic to human life and, hence, include food, clothing, shelter, air, water and necessities of life.
These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of human life. They exert tremendous influence on human
behaviour. These needs are to be met first at least partly before higher level needs emerge. Once physiological
needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate the man.

2. Safety Needs:
After satisfying the physiological needs, the next needs felt are called safety and security needs. These needs
find expression in such desires as economic security and protection from physical dangers. Meeting these needs
requires more money and, hence, the individual is prompted to work more. Like physiological needs, these
become inactive once they are satisfied.

3. Social Needs:
Man is a social being. He is, therefore, interested in social interaction, companionship, belongingness, etc. It is
this socialising and belongingness why individuals prefer to work in groups and especially older people go to
work.

4. Esteem Needs:
These needs refer to self-esteem and self-respect. They include such needs which indicate self-confidence,
achievement, competence, knowledge and independence. The fulfillment of esteem needs leads to self-
confidence, strength and capability of being useful in the organisation. However, inability to fulfill these needs
results in feeling like inferiority, weakness and helplessness.

5. Self-Actualisation Needs
This level represents the culmination of all the lower, intermediate, and higher needs of human beings. In other
words, the final step under the need hierarchy model is the need for self-actualization. This refers to fulfillment.

The term self-actualization was coined by Kurt Goldstein and means to become actualized in what one is
potentially good at. In effect, self- actualization is the person’s motivation to transform perception of self into
reality.
According to Maslow, the human needs follow a definite sequence of domination. The second need does not
arise until the first is reasonably satisfied, and the third need does not emerge until the first two needs have been
reasonably satisfied and it goes on. The other side of the need hierarchy is that human needs are unlimited.
However, Maslow’s need hierarchy-theory is not without its detractors.

The main criticisms of the theory include the following:

1. The needs may or may not follow a definite hierarchical order. So to say, there may be overlapping in need
hierarchy. For example, even if safety need is not satisfied, the social need may emerge.

2. The need priority model may not apply at all times in all places.

3. Researches show that man’s behaviour at any time is mostly guided by multiplicity of behaviour. Hence,
Maslow’s preposition that one need is satisfied at one time is also of doubtful validity.

4. In case of some people, the level of motivation may be permanently lower. For example, a person suffering
from chronic unemployment may remain satisfied for the rest of his life if only he/she can get enough food.

Notwithstanding, Maslow’s need hierarchy theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing
managers. This can be attributed to the theory’s intuitive logic and easy to understand. One researcher came to
the conclusion that theories that are intuitively strong die hard’.

2. Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory:

The psychologist Frederick Herzberg extended the work of Maslow and propsed a new motivation theory
popularly known as Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene (Two-Factor) Theory. Herzberg conducted a widely
reported motivational study on 200 accountants and engineers employed by firms in and around Western
Pennsylvania.

He asked these people to describe two important incidents at their jobs:

(1) When did you feel particularly good about your job, and

(2) When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job? He used the critical incident method of obtaining data.

The responses when analysed were found quite interesting and fairly consistent. The replies respondents gave
when they felt good about their jobs were significantly different from the replies given when they felt bad.
Reported good feelings were generally associated with job satisfaction, whereas bad feeling with job
dissatisfaction. Herzberg labelled the job satisfiers motivators, and he called job dissatisfies hygiene or
maintenance factors. Taken together, the motivators and hygiene factors have become known as Herzberg’s
two-factor theory of motivation

Herzberg’s motivational and hygiene factors have been shown in the Table 17.1
According to Herzberg, the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. The underlying reason, he says, is that
removal of dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He believes in
the existence of a dual continuum. The opposite of ‘satisfaction’ is ‘no satisfaction’ and the opposite of
‘dissatisfaction’ is ‘no dissatisatisfaction’.

According to Herzberg, today’s motivators are tomorrow’s hygiene because the latter stop influencing the
behaviour of persons when they get them. Accordingly, one’s hygiene may be the motivator of another.

However, Herzberg’s model is labeled with the following criticism also:

1. People generally tend to take credit themselves when things go well. They blame failure on the external
environment.

2. The theory basically explains job satisfaction, not motivation.

3. Even job satisfaction is not measured on an overall basis. It is not unlikely that a person may dislike part of
his/ her job, still thinks the job acceptable.

4. This theory neglects situational variable to motivate an individual.

Because of its ubiquitous nature, salary commonly shows up as a motivator as well as hygine.

Regardless of criticism, Herzberg’s ‘two-factor motivation theory’ has been widely read and a few managers
seem untaminar with his recommendations. The main use of his recommendations lies in planning and
controlling of employees work.
THE PROCESS THEORY

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory:

One of the most widely accepted explanations of motivation is offered by Victor Vroom
in his Expectancy Theory” It is a cognitive process theory of motivation. The theory is
founded on the basic notions that people will be motivated to exert a high level of effort
when they believe there are relationships between the effort they put forth, the
performance they achieve, and the outcomes/ rewards they receive.

The relationships between notions of effort, performance, and reward are depicted in
Figure 17.3

Thus, the key constructs in the expectancy theory of motivation are:

1. Valence:
Valence, according to Vroom, means the value or strength one places on a particular
outcome or reward.

2. Expectancy:
It relates efforts to performance.

3. Instrumentality:
By instrumentality, Vroom means, the belief that performance is related to rewards.

Thus, Vroom’s motivation can also be expressed in the form of an equation as follows:
Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality

Being the model multiplicative in nature, all the three variables must have high positive
values to imply motivated performance choice. If any one of the variables approaches to
zero level, the possibility of the so motivated performance also touches zero level.

However, Vroom’s expectancy theory has its critics. The important ones are:
1. Critics like Porter and Lawler lebeled it as a theory of cognitive hedonism which
proposes that individual cognitively chooses the course of action that leads to the
greatest degree of pleasure or the smallest degree of pain.

2. The assumption that people are rational and calculating makes the theory idealistic.

3. The expectancy theory does not describe individual and situational differences.

But the valence or value people place on various rewards varies. For example, one
employee prefers salary to benefits, whereas another person prefers to just the reverse.
The valence for the same reward varies from situation to situation.
In spite of all these critics, the greatest point in me expectancy theory is that it explains
why significant segment of workforce exerts low levels of efforts in carrying out job
responsibilities.

Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory:

In fact, Porter and Lawler’s theory is an improvement over Vroom’s expectancy theory.
They posit that motivation does not equal satisfaction or performance. The model
suggested by them encounters some of the simplistic traditional assumptions made
about the positive relationship between satisfaction and performance. They proposed a
multi-variate model to explain the complex relationship that exists between satisfaction
and performance.

What is the main point in Porter and Lawler’s model is that effort or motivation does not
lead directly to performance. It is intact, mediated by abilities and traits and by role
perceptions. Ultimately, performance leads to satisfaction,. The same is depicted in the
following Fig 17.4.

There are three main elements in this model. Let us briefly discuss these one by one.

Effort:
Effort refers to the amount of energy an employee exerts on a given task. How much
effort an employee will put in a task is determined by two factors-

(i) Value of reward and

(ii) Perception of effort-reward probability.

Performance:
One’s effort leads to his/her performance. Both may be equal or may not be. However
the amount of performance is determined by the amount of labour and the ability and
role perception of the employee. Thus, if an employee possesses less ability and/or
makes wrong role perception, his/her performance may be low in spite of his putting in
great efforts.

Satisfaction:
Performance leads to satisfaction. The level of satisfaction depends upon the amount of
rewards one achieves. If the amount of actual rewards meet or exceed perceived
equitable rewards, the employee will feel satisfied. On the country, if actual rewards fall
short of perceived ones, he/she will be dissatisfied.

Rewards may be of two kinds—intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Examples of intrinsic

rewards are such as sense of accomplishment and self-actualisation. As regards
extrinsic rewards, these may include working conditions and status. A fair degree of
research support that, the intrinsic rewards are much more likely to produce attitudes
about satisfaction that are related to performance.

There is no denying of the fact that the motivation model proposed by Porter and Lawler
is quite complex than other models of motivation. In fact motivation itself is not a simple
cause-effect relationship rather it is a complex phenomenon Porter and Lawler have
attempted to measure variables such as the values of possible rewards, the perception
of effort-rewards probabilities and role perceptions in deriving satisfaction.

They recommended that the managers should carefully reassess their reward system
and structure. The effort-performance-reward-satisfaction should be made integral to
the entire system of managing men in organisation.

Contemporary theories

Equity theory of Motivation

Everyone in the workplace is motivated by something. This motivation could be external in nature, such a
money, and status, or internal, such as a desire to do a good job. Leaders and managers have sought to
understand theories of motivation and then test them in the workplace to increase the productivity and
effectiveness of their workforce.

Stacey Adams equity theory

John Stacey Adams' equity theory helps explain why pay and conditions alone do not determine motivation. It
also explains why giving one person a promotion or pay-rise can have a demotivating effect on others.

When people feel fairly or advantageously treated they are more likely to be motivated; when they feel unfairly
treated they are highly prone to feelings of disaffection and demotivation.

Employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they
receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others. The belief in equity theory is that people
value fair treatment which causes them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the relationships
of their co-workers and the organization.

Words like efforts and rewards, or work and pay, are an over-simplification - hence the use of the terms inputs
and outputs. Inputs are logically what we give or put into our work. Outputs are everything we take out in
return.

Inputs

This equity theory term ecompasses the quality and quantity of the employees contributions to his or her work.
Typical inputs include time, effort, loyalty, hard work, commitment, ability, adaptability, flexibility, tolerance,
determination, enthusiasm, personal sacrifice, trust in superiors, support from co-workers and colleagues, skill...

Outputs

Outputs in equity theory are defined as the positive and negative consequences that an individual perceives a
participant has incurred as a consequence of his/her relationship with another. Outputs can be both tangible and
intangible. Typical outcomes are job security, esteem, salary, employee benefits, expenses, recognition,
reputation, responsibility, sense of achievement, praise, thanks, stimuli...
It's all about the money

Payment however, is the main concern and therefore the cause of equity or inequity in most cases. In any
position, an employee wants to feel that their contributions and work performance are being rewarded with their
pay. According to equity theory, if an employee feels underpaid then it will result in the employee feeling
hostile towards the organization and perhaps their co-workers, which may result the employee not performing
well at work anymore.

It's the subtle variables that also play an important role for the feeling of equity. Just the idea of recognition for
the job performance and the mere act of thanking the employee will cause a feeling of satisfaction and therefore
help the employee feel worthwhile and have more outcomes.

Perception of equity

But Adams' Equity Theory is a far more complex and sophisticated motivational model than merely assessing
effort (inputs) and reward (outputs). Equity Theory adds a crucial additional perspective of comparison with
'referent' others (people we consider in a similar situation). 'Referent' others are used to describe the reference
points or people with whom we compare our own situation, which is the pivotal part of the theory.

Equity does not depend on our input-to-output ratio alone - it depends on our comparison between our ratio and
the ratio of others. We form perceptions of what constitutes a fair ratio (a balance or trade) of inputs and outputs
by comparing our own situation with other 'referents' (reference points or examples) in the market place as we
see it. If we feel are that inputs are fairly rewarded by outputs (the fairness benchmark being subjectively
perceived from market norms and other comparable references) then generally we are happier in our work and
more motivated to continue inputting at the same level.

If we feel, however, that our ratio of inputs to outputs is less beneficial than the ratio enjoyed by referent others,
then we become demotivated in relation to our job and employer.

Examples of equity theory at work

In practice this helps to explain why people are so strongly affected by the situations (and views and gossip) of
colleagues, friends, partners etc., in establishing their own personal sense of fairness or equity in their work
situations.

Equity Theory explains why people can be happy and motivated by their situation one day, and yet with no
change to their terms and working conditions can be made very unhappy and demotivated, if they learn for
example that a colleague (or worse an entire group) is enjoying a better reward-to-effort ratio.

This also explains why and how full-time employees will compare their situations and input-to-output ratios
with part-time colleagues, who very probably earn less, however it is the ratio of input-to-output - reward-to-
effort - which counts, and if the part-timer is perceived to enjoy a more advantageous ratio, then so this will
have a negative effect on the full-timer's sense of Equity, and with it, their personal motivation.