CHAPT

3
ER

Problem
Solving

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Section 3 Inductive and
Deductive Reasoning
.1

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Inductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based
on the examination of specific examples is called
inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by
using inductivereasoning is a conjecture, since it
may or may not be correct.

When you examine a list of numbers and predict the

next number in the list according to some pattern
you have observed, you are using inductive
reasoning.
Example 1 – Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a
Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number

in eachof the following lists.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?

Solution:a. Each successive number is 3 larger than

the preceding number. Thus we predict that the
next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which
is 18.
Example 1 – Solution cont
’d

b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second

and the third numbers differ by 3.
It appears that the difference between any two
numbers is always 1 more than the preceding
difference.

Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the

nextnumber in the list will be 6 larger than 15,
which is 21.
Counterexamples
Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement provided that it is
true in all cases.
If you can find one case for which a statement is not
true,called a counterexample, then the statement
is a falsestatement.
In Example 4 we verify that each statement is a
false statement by finding a counterexample for
each.
Example 4 – Find a
Counterexample
Verify that each of the following statements is a
false statement by finding a counterexample.For all
numbers x:

Solution:
A statement may have many counterexamples, but
we need only find one counterexample to verify that
the statement is false.

a. Let x = 0. Then | 0 | = 0. Because 0 is not greater

than 0, we have found a counterexample. Thus
“for all numbers x, | x | > 0” is a false statement.
Example 4 – Solution cont
’d

b. For x = 1 we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not

greater than 1, we have found a counterexample.
Thus “for all numbers x, x2 > x” is a false
statement.

c. Consider x = –3. Then . . Since

3 is notequal to –3, we have found a
counterexample. Thus “for all numbers x,
is a false statement.
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called deductive
reasoning.
Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive
reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a
conclusion by applying general principles and
procedures.
Example 5 – Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a
Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following

procedure produces a number that is four times the
original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by
8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and
subtract 3.
Example 5 – Solution
Let n represent the original number.

Multiply the number by 8:

Add 6 to the product:

Divide the sum by 2:

Subtract 3:
We started with n and ended with 4n. The
procedure givenin this example produces a number
that is four times theoriginal number.
Inductive Reasoning vs.
Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive
Reasoning
In the next Example we will analyze arguments to
determine whether they use inductive or deductive
reasoning.
Example 6 – Determine Types of
Reasoning
Determine whether each of the following arguments
is an example of inductive reasoning or deductive
reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced

plums every other year. Last year the tree did not
produce plums, so this year the tree will produce
plums.

b. All home improvements cost more than the

estimate. The contractor estimated that my home
improvement will cost $35,000. Thus my home
improvement will cost more than $35,000.
Example 6 – Solution
a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on
specific examples, so it is an example of inductive
reasoning.

b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a

generalassumption, this argument is an example
of deductivereasoning.
Logic Puzzles
Logic Puzzles
Logic puzzles, similar to the one in Example 7, can be
solved by using deductive reasoning and a chart that
enables us to display the given information in a visual
manner.
Example 7 – Solve a Logic Puzzle
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and
Brian, hasa different occupation (editor, banker,
chef, or dentist).From the following clues, determine
the occupation of eachneighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but
before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is
not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same
time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
Example 7 – Solution
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In
the following chart, write X1 (which stands for “ruled
out by clue 1”) in the Banker and the Dentist columns
of Maria’s row.

From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled

out by clue 2) in the Editor column of Sarah’s row.
Example 7 – Solution cont
’d

We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last

to get home, and we know from clue 2 that Sarah is
the last to get home; therefore, Sarah is not the
banker. Write X2 in the Banker column of Sarah’s
row.

From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for

this condition. There are now Xs for three of the four
occupations in Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be
the chef.
Example 7 – Solution cont
’d

Place a in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none

of the other three people can be the chef. Write X3
for these conditions. There are now Xs for three of
the four occupations in Maria’s row; therefore, Maria
must be the editor.

Insert a to indicate that Maria is the editor, and

write X3 twice to indicate that neither Sean nor
Brian is the editor.
Example 7 – Solution cont
’d

From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this

condition. See the following table. Since there are three
Xs in the Banker column, Sean must be the banker.

Place a in that box. Thus Sean cannot be the dentist.

Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the Dentist
column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a in that box.

Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the

chef, and Brian is the dentist.
Section 3 Problem Solving with
Patterns
.2

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Terms of a Sequence
Terms of a Sequence
An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65,
...is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence
that are separated by commas are the terms of the
sequence.

In the above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the

second term, 27 is the third term, 44 is the fourth
term, and 65 is the fifth term.

The three dots “...” indicate that the sequence

continues beyond 65, which is the last written term.
It is customary to use the subscript notation an to
designate the nth term of a sequence.
Terms of a Sequence
We often construct a difference table, which
shows the differences between successive terms of
the sequence. The following table is a difference
table for the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...

Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table is the

difference between the two closest numbers just
above it (upper right number minus upper left
number). The differences in row (1) are called the
first differences of the sequence.
Terms of a Sequence
In this case, the first differences are all the same.

Thus, if we use the above difference table to predict

the next number in the sequence, we predict that
14 + 3 = 17 is the next term of the sequence.

This prediction might be wrong; however, the

pattern shown by the first differences seems to
indicate that each successive term is 3 larger than
the preceding term.
Terms of a Sequence
The following table is a difference table for the
sequence 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...In this table, the first
differences are not all the same. In such a situation
it is often helpful to compute the successive
differences of the first differences. These are shown
in row (2).
Terms of a Sequence
These differences of the first differences are called
the second differences.

The differences of the second differences are called

the third differences.

To predict the next term of a sequence, we often

look for a pattern in a row of differences.
Example 1 – Predict the Next Term of a
Sequence

Use a difference table to predict the next term in

the sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, ...

Solution:
Construct a difference table as shown below.
Example 1 – Solution cont
’d

The third differences, shown in blue in row (3), are

all the same constant, 6. Extending row (3) so that
it includes an additional 6 enables us to predict that
the next second difference will be 36.

Adding 36 to the first difference 89 gives us the

next first difference, 125. Adding 125 to the sixth
term 207 yields 332.

Using the method of extending the difference table,

we predict that 332 is the next term in the
sequence.
nth-Term Formula for a
Sequence
nth-Term Formula for a Sequence
In Example 1 we used a difference table to predict
the next term of a sequence.

In some cases we can use patterns to predict a

formula, called an nth-term formula, that
generates the terms of a sequence.
Example 2 – Find an nth-Term
Formula
Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the
following figures continues.
a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of
tiles in the nth figure of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the
sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?
Example 2 – Solution
a. Examine the figures for patterns.

Note that the second figure has two tiles on each of

the horizontal sections and one tile between the
horizontal sections.
a.

The third figure has three tiles on each horizontal

section and two tiles between the horizontal sections.

The fourth figure has four tiles on each horizontal

section and three tiles between the horizontal
sections.
Example 2 – Solution cont
’d
Thus the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by
two groups of n plus a group of n less one.

That is,
an = 2n + (n – 1)

an = 3n – 1

b. The number of tiles in the eighth figure of the

sequence is 3(8) – 1 = 23.

c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have

320 tiles, we solve the equation 3n – 1 = 320.
Example 2 – Solution cont
’d

3n – 1 = 320
Add 1 to each
3n = 321 side.
Divide each side
by 3.
n = 107

The 107th figure is composed of 320 tiles.

The Fibonacci Sequence
The Fibonacci Sequence
Here is a statement of Fibonacci’s rabbit problem.
At the beginning of a month, you are given a pair of
newborn rabbits. After a month the rabbits have
produced no offspring; however, every month
thereafter, the pair of rabbits produces another pair
of rabbits.

The offspring reproduce in exactly the same

manner. If none of the rabbits dies, how many pairs
of rabbits will there be at the start of each
succeeding month?
The Fibonacci Sequence
The solution of this problem is a sequence of
numbers that we now call the Fibonacci
sequence.

The following figure shows the numbers of pairs of

rabbits on the first day of each of the first six
months.

The larger rabbits represent mature rabbits that

produce another pair of rabbits each month.

The numbers in the blue region—1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8—are

the first six terms of the Fibonacci sequence.
The Fibonacci Sequence
The Fibonacci Sequence
Fibonacci discovered that the number of pairs of
rabbits for any month after the first two months can
be determined by adding the numbers of pairs of
rabbits in each of the two previous months.

For instance, the number of pairs of rabbits at the

start of the sixth month is 3 + 5 = 8.

A recursive definition for a sequence is one in

which each successive term of the sequence is
defined by using some of the preceding terms.
The Fibonacci Sequence
If we use the mathematical notation Fn to represent
the nth Fibonacci number, then the numbers in the
Fibonacci sequence are given by the following
recursive definition.
Example 3 – Find a Fibonacci
Number
Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the
seventh and eighth Fibonacci numbers.
Solution:The first six Fibonacci numbers are 1, 1, 2,
3, 5, and 8. The seventh Fibonacci number is the
sum of the two previous Fibonacci numbers.
Thus,
F7 = F6 + F5

=8+5

= 13
Example 3 – Solution cont
’d

The eighth Fibonacci number is

F8 = F7 + F6

= 13 + 8

= 21
Section 3 Problem-Solving
Strategies
.3

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Polya’s Problem-Solving
Strategy
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make
a study of problem solving was George Polya (1887–
1985). He was born in Hungary and moved to the
United States in 1940. The basic problem-solving
strategy that Polya advocated consisted of the
following four steps.
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
In Example 1 we apply Polya’s four-step problem-
solving strategy to solve a problem involving the
number of routes between two points.
Example 1 – Apply Polya’s
Strategy
Consider the map shown in Figure 3.2. Allison
wishes to walk along the streets from point A to
point B. How many direct routes can Allison take?

City
Map
Figure
3.2
Example 1 – Solution
Understand the Problem: We would not be able
to answer the question if Allison retraced her path
or traveled away from point B.

Thus we assume that on a direct route, she always

travels along a street in a direction that gets her
closer to point B.
Example 1 – Solution cont
’d

Devise a Plan: The map in Figure 3.2 has many

extraneous details.

Thus we make a diagram that allows usCityto

Map
concentrate on the essential information.3.2 See the
Figure

figure at the right.

A simple diagram of
the street map in
Figure 3.2
Example 1 – Solution cont
’d

Because there are many routes, we consider the

similar but simpler diagrams shown below.

The number at each street intersection represents

the number of routes from point A to that particular
intersection.

Simple street
diagrams
Example 1 – Solution cont
’d

Look for patterns. It appears that the number of

routes to an intersection is the sum of the number
of routes to the adjacent intersection to its left and
the number of routes to the intersection directly
above.
For instance, the number of routes to the
intersection labeled 6 is the sum of the number of
routes to the intersection to its left, which is 3, and
the number of routes to the intersection directly
above, which is also 3.
Example 1 – Solution cont
’d

Carry Out the Plan: Using the pattern discovered

earlier in the example, we see from the figure below
that the number of routes from point A to point B is
20 + 15 = 35.

A street diagram with the

number of routes to each
intersection labeled
Example 1 – Solution cont
’d

Review the Solution: Ask yourself whether a

result of 35 seems reasonable.
If you were required to draw each route, could you
devise a scheme that would enable you to draw
each route without missing a route or duplicating a
route?
Reading and Interpreting
Graphs
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Graphs are often used to display numerical
information in a visual format that allows the reader
to see pertinent relationships and trends quickly.

Three of the most common types of graphs are the

bar graph, the broken-line graph, and the circle
graph.
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Figure 3.3 is a bar graph that displays the average
U.S. movie theatre ticket prices for the years from
2008 to 2014. The years are displayed on the
horizontal axis. Each vertical bar is used to display
the average ticket price for a given year. The higher
the bar, the greater the average ticket price for that
year.

Average U.S. movie theatre ticket

prices Figure
3.3
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Figure 3.4 shows two broken-line graphs. The red
broken-line graph displays the median age at first
marriage for men for the years from 2005 to 2013.

U.S. median age at first

The green broken-line
marriagegraph
Figure
displays the median
age at first marriage for women
3.4 during the same
time period. The symbol on the vertical axis
indicates that the ages between 0 and 25 are not
displayed.
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
This break in the vertical axis allows the graph to be
displayed in a compact form.

The segments that connect points on the graph

indicate trends. Increasing trends are indicated by
segments that rise as they move to the right, and
decreasing trends are indicated by segments that
fall as they move to the right.

The blue arrows in Figure 3.4 show that the median

age at which men married for the first time in 2006
was 27.5 years, rounded to the nearest half of a
year.
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Figure 3.5 is a circle graph or pie chart that uses
circular sectors to display the percentage of the
180,000,000 U.S. Facebook users in selected age
groups as of January 2014.

Classification of the 180,000,000

U.S.Facebook users by age:
January 2014
Figure
3.5
Example 8 – Use Graphs to Solve
Problems
a. Use Figure 3.3 to determine the minimum
average U.S. movie theatre ticket price for the
years from 2008 to 2014.

Average U.S. movie theatre ticket

prices
Figure
3.3
Example 8 – Use Graphs to Solve
Problems cont
’d

b. Use Figure 3.4 to estimate the median age at

which women married for the first time in 2011.
Round to the nearest half of a year.

U.S. median age at first

marriage Figure
3.4
Example 8 – Use Graphs to Solve
Problems cont
’d

c. Use Figure 3.5 to estimate the number of U.S.

Facebook users in the 18–24 age group. Round to
the nearest hundred thousand.

Classification of the 180,000,000

U.S.Facebook users by age:
January 2014
Figure
3.5
Example 8(a) – Solution
The minimum of the average ticket prices is
displayed by the height of the shortest vertical bar
in Figure 3.3.

Thus the minimum average U.S. movie theatre

ticket price for the years from 2008 to 2014 was
$7.18.

Average U.S. movie theatre ticket

prices
Figure
3.3
Example 8(b) – Solution cont
’d

To estimate the median age at which women

married for the first time in 2011, locate 2011 on
the horizontal axis of Figure 3.4 and then move
directly upward to a point on the green broken-line
graph.

U.S. median age at first

marriage
Figure
3.4
Example 8(b) – Solution cont
’d

The height of this point represents the median age

at first marriage for women in 2011, and it can be
estimated by moving horizontally to the vertical
axis on the left.
Thus the median age at first marriage for women in
2011 was 26.5 years, rounded to the nearest half of
a year.
Example 8(c) – Solution cont
’d

Figure 3.5 indicates that 23.3% of the 180,000,000

U.S. Facebook users were in the 18–24 age group.

0.233 ● 180,000,000 = 41,940,000

Thus, rounded to the nearest hundred thousand, the

number of U.S. Facebook users in this age group
was 41,900,000 in January 2014.

Classification of the 180,000,000

U.S.Facebook users by age:
January 2014
Figure
3.5