MODULE 3 (3 Lectures)

Foundations and construction methods are crucial components of any construction project.
Here are the basics of foundation types and construction methods commonly used in the
construction industry:
Foundation Types:
a. Shallow Foundations:
• Strip Foundation: A continuous strip of reinforced concrete that supports load-bearing
walls.
• Pad Foundation: Individual concrete pads that support isolated columns or point loads.
• Raft Foundation: A large concrete slab that spreads the load over a larger area, suitable
for weak or variable soil conditions.
b. Deep Foundations:
• Pile Foundation: Long, slender columns driven into the ground to transfer the load to
deeper, more stable soil or rock layers.
• Caisson Foundation: Large-diameter, watertight cylindrical structures that are
excavated or drilled into the ground and then filled with concrete.
• Pier Foundation: Vertical columns or shafts constructed below the ground to support
loads.
Construction Methods:
a. Masonry Construction:
• Brickwork: Building walls or structures using bricks or blocks held together by mortar.
• Stone Masonry: Constructing walls or structures using natural stones held together by
mortar or without mortar (dry-stone construction).
• Concrete Block Construction: Building walls using concrete blocks, usually reinforced
with steel.
b. Reinforced Concrete Construction:
• Cast-in-Place Concrete: Pouring concrete on-site into formwork, allowing for complex
shapes and customization.
• Precast Concrete: Manufacturing concrete elements off-site and transporting them to
the construction site for installation.
• Post-Tensioned Concrete: Reinforcing concrete with tensioned steel cables or bars to
increase strength and reduce cracking.
c. Steel Construction:
• Steel Frame Construction: Assembling structural steel members (columns, beams, and
trusses) to create a skeleton framework for the building.
• Steel Reinforcement: Using steel reinforcement bars (rebar) embedded in concrete to
enhance its strength and load-bearing capacity.

Asst. Prof Vaibhav Mishra

Dept. Of Civil Engineering
LNJPIT Chapra
d. Timber Construction:
• Timber Frame Construction: Building structures using a framework of wooden posts
and beams.
• Timber Roof Trusses: Constructing roof structures using pre-engineered wooden
trusses.
e. Modular Construction:
• Prefabricated Modules: Manufacturing building components or modules off-site and
assembling them at the construction site.
• Modular Units: Constructing standardized units that can be combined to create larger
structures, commonly used in residential or commercial buildings.
These foundation types and construction methods can be combined or adapted based on the
specific requirements, site conditions, project scale, and local building codes and regulations.
It's important to consult with architects, structural engineers, and construction professionals to
determine the most suitable foundation type and construction method for your project.

Formwork and staging are essential components of construction projects that involve casting
concrete and providing temporary support for workers and materials. Here are the basics of
formwork and staging in construction:
Formwork:
Formwork refers to temporary structures or molds used to shape and support freshly poured
concrete until it hardens and gains sufficient strength. It provides the desired shape and
containment for the concrete during the curing process.
Types of Formwork:
a. Timber Formwork: Constructed using timber boards, plywood, or panels. Commonly
used for small to medium-sized projects and where cost-effectiveness is important.
b. Steel Formwork: Made of prefabricated steel panels or frames. Suitable for large-scale
projects, high-rise buildings, and complex structures.
c. Aluminum Formwork: Lightweight and easy to handle, it comprises aluminum panels
or frames. Ideal for fast-track construction projects.
d. Engineered Formwork: Custom-designed formwork systems based on project
requirements. Utilizes materials like composite materials, plastics, or fiberglass.
Components of Formwork:
a. Form Panels or Sheeting: Provides the facing surface for the concrete and holds it in
place.
b. Shores or Props: Supports the weight of the formwork and the freshly poured concrete.
c. Form Ties: Connects opposite form panels to ensure proper alignment and stability.
d. Formwork Accessories: Includes wedges, nails, form release agents, etc., to facilitate
formwork assembly, support, and removal.

Asst. Prof Vaibhav Mishra

Dept. Of Civil Engineering
LNJPIT Chapra
Formwork Process:
1. Preparation: Design the formwork system based on project requirements. Prepare the
form panels, shores, and accessories.
2. Installation: Erect the formwork, aligning and securing the panels and ensuring proper
support and bracing.
3. Concrete Placement: Pour the concrete into the formwork, ensuring proper
consolidation and vibration to eliminate air pockets.
4. Curing: Allow the concrete to cure and gain strength within the formwork before
removal.
5. Stripping: Remove the formwork carefully, considering the concrete's strength and any
additional curing requirements.
Staging:
Staging, also known as scaffolding, is the temporary framework erected to provide access and
support for workers, tools, and materials during construction, maintenance, or repair work.
Types of Staging:
a. Tube and Coupler Scaffold: Utilizes steel tubes and couplers to create a versatile and
adjustable scaffold structure.
b. System Scaffold: Consists of prefabricated components like frames, braces, and platforms,
allowing for faster assembly.
c. H-frame Scaffold: Comprises vertical and horizontal frames with diagonal braces, forming
a stable and rigid scaffold.
d. Mobile Scaffold: Equipped with casters or wheels for easy movement, commonly used for
short-term work at different locations.
Staging Components:
a. Standards (Uprights): Vertical members that provide vertical support for the scaffold.
b. Ledgers (Horizontal Braces): Horizontal members that connect the standards and provide
horizontal support and rigidity.
c. Diagonal Braces: Cross-braces that add stability and prevent the scaffold from swaying.
d. Platforms: Provide a working surface for workers, tools, and materials. Can be made of
wooden planks, metal, or other materials.
Staging Safety: Staging should be erected, used, and dismantled following safety regulations
and guidelines. It should be regularly inspected for stability, proper assembly, and secure
attachment to the structure. Workers should wear appropriate personal protective equipment
(PPE) and follow safe work practices while using staging.
Both formwork and staging are critical elements in construction projects, ensuring the
successful casting of concrete and providing a safe working environment for construction
activities. They require careful planning, proper design, and adherence to safety standards to
achieve quality construction results.
Asst. Prof Vaibhav Mishra
Dept. Of Civil Engineering
LNJPIT Chapra
Common building construction methods include conventional walls and slabs, as well as
conventional framed structures with blockwork walls. Let's explore each method:
Conventional Walls and Slabs:
Foundation: Construct the foundation according to the chosen foundation type, such as strip
foundation, pad foundation, or raft foundation.
Wall Construction: a. Load-Bearing Walls: Build load-bearing walls using materials like bricks,
concrete blocks, or stone. Mortar is used to hold the units together. b. Non-Load-Bearing Walls:
Construct non-load-bearing walls using lightweight materials like gypsum board, cement
board, or partition blocks.
Slab Construction:
a. Ground Floor Slab: Place a compacted base layer, such as granular fill or hardcore, followed
by a damp-proof membrane (DPM) to prevent moisture infiltration. Reinforcement bars
(rebars) are placed, and concrete is poured and leveled to create the ground floor slab.
b. Upper Floor Slabs: Similar to the ground floor, upper floor slabs are constructed using
formwork, reinforcement, and concrete.
Conventional Framed Structure with Blockwork Walls:
Foundation: Construct the foundation based on the chosen foundation type, such as strip
foundation, pad foundation, or raft foundation.
Frame Construction:
a. Structural Framework: Erect the structural framework using steel or reinforced concrete
columns, beams, and slabs. These elements provide the primary load-bearing structure of the
building.
b. Floor Construction: Place precast concrete or steel floor planks between the beams to create
each floor level.
Wall Construction:
a. Exterior Walls: Construct the exterior walls using blockwork, which involves stacking and
bonding concrete blocks with mortar. The blocks are reinforced with steel bars as necessary.
b. Internal Walls: Construct internal walls using blockwork or lightweight partition materials
like gypsum board or cement board.
Slab Construction: Similar to the conventional walls and slabs method, construct the ground
and upper floor slabs using formwork, reinforcement, and concrete.
In both methods, the construction process typically includes additional steps, such as installing
electrical and plumbing systems, interior finishing, roofing, and external cladding. The choice
between conventional walls and slabs or conventional framed structures with blockwork walls

Asst. Prof Vaibhav Mishra

Dept. Of Civil Engineering
LNJPIT Chapra
depends on factors like structural requirements, project scale, architectural design, budget, and
local construction practices.
It's essential to engage professionals, such as architects, structural engineers, and contractors,
to ensure the chosen construction method is suitable for the project and complies with building
codes and regulations.
Modular construction is an innovative construction method that involves the fabrication and
assembly of prefabricated modules or components in a controlled factory environment. This
method is particularly suitable for repetitive works or projects that require a high degree of
standardization. Here's an overview of modular construction methods for repetitive works:
1.Design and Engineering:
• Develop a modular design strategy that maximizes standardization and modularization
of components.
• Create detailed engineering drawings and specifications for the modular units.
• Determine the size, dimensions, and configurations of the modules based on the project
requirements.
2.Factory Fabrication:
• Fabricate the modular units in a controlled factory environment, where conditions are
optimized for quality, efficiency, and safety.
• Use automated machinery and skilled labor to manufacture the modules, ensuring
precision and consistency.
• Construct the modules using a combination of materials, such as steel, concrete, wood,
or composite materials, based on the project specifications.
• Install interior finishes, electrical wiring, plumbing, HVAC systems, and other
necessary components within the modules.
• Perform rigorous quality control checks and testing during the fabrication process to
ensure compliance with design and regulatory standards.
3.Transportation and Installation:
• Transport the completed modules from the factory to the construction site using
specialized transportation methods, such as flatbed trucks or shipping containers.
• Prepare the site by leveling the ground, installing foundations or support structures, and
utility connections.
• Lift and position the modules into place using cranes or other lifting equipment.
• Securely connect and join the modules together, ensuring proper alignment, structural
integrity, and weatherproofing.
• Complete the interconnections of utilities, such as electrical, plumbing, and HVAC
systems, between the modules.
• Install exterior finishes, roofing, and other necessary components to finalize the
construction.
4. Finishing and Integration:

Asst. Prof Vaibhav Mishra

Dept. Of Civil Engineering
LNJPIT Chapra
 • Complete the interior and exterior finishes of the modular structure, including wall
cladding, flooring, painting, and ceiling installations.
• Install fixtures, fittings, and furnishings to provide a functional and aesthetically
pleasing environment.
• Conduct final inspections and testing to ensure the modules are fully integrated,
functional, and meet all quality standards and regulatory requirements.
The modular construction method offers several advantages for repetitive works, such as
improved efficiency, reduced construction time, enhanced quality control, and minimized
disruption to the surrounding environment. It allows for parallel work processes, with site
preparation and module fabrication occurring simultaneously, leading to faster project
completion. Additionally, modular construction can be cost-effective and offers flexibility for
future expansion or relocation of the structure.
It is important to note that while modular construction is well-suited for repetitive works,
careful planning, coordination, and collaboration between designers, engineers, manufacturers,
and contractors are essential to ensure successful implementation and delivery of the project.
Precast concrete construction is a method where structural components are manufactured off-
site in a controlled environment and then transported to the construction site for assembly. This
construction approach offers numerous advantages, including improved quality control,
accelerated construction schedules, cost savings, and reduced environmental impact. Here are
the key steps involved in precast concrete construction:
1.Design and Engineering:
• Develop the architectural and structural design for the project, considering the precast
elements.
• Create detailed shop drawings and engineering plans for each precast component.
• Specify the required materials, reinforcement, connections, and finishes for the precast
elements.
2.Manufacturing of Precast Elements:
• Formwork Preparation: Construct reusable molds (formwork) in the factory to the
desired shape and size of the precast elements.
• Reinforcement Placement: Place and secure the required reinforcement bars (rebars)
within the formwork based on the design specifications.
• Concrete Casting: Pour the concrete mix into the formwork, ensuring proper
consolidation and vibration to eliminate air pockets.
• Curing: Allow the precast elements to cure and gain sufficient strength within the
controlled factory environment.
• Stripping: Remove the formwork once the concrete has reached the desired strength
and the precast element is ready for transportation.
3.Transportation and Installation:
• Transport: Load the precast elements onto specialized trucks or trailers, considering
proper handling and securing methods to prevent damage during transportation.

Asst. Prof Vaibhav Mishra

Dept. Of Civil Engineering
LNJPIT Chapra
 • Site Preparation: Prepare the construction site by leveling the ground, installing
necessary foundations or support structures, and utilities connections.
• Lifting and Placement: Use cranes or other lifting equipment to position and secure the
precast elements into their designated locations.
• Connection and Finishing: Connect the precast elements to each other and to the
supporting structure using various methods, such as welding, bolting, or grouting.
Finish the joints to ensure structural integrity and weatherproofing.
• Integration: Complete the interconnections of utilities, such as electrical, plumbing, and
HVAC systems, between the precast elements.
• Finishing: Apply final finishes to the precast elements, such as painting, coatings, or
architectural treatments.
4.Other Construction Activities:
• Complete the remaining construction activities, such as interior finishing, roofing, and
installation of windows, doors, and other building components.
• Conduct final inspections and tests to ensure the structural integrity, quality, and
compliance with building codes and regulations.
• Handover the completed project to the client, including necessary documentation and
maintenance guidelines.
Precast concrete construction offers versatility in design, allowing for a wide range of
architectural styles and structural configurations. It is commonly used in various building types,
including residential, commercial, industrial, and infrastructure projects. The precast elements
can include wall panels, slabs, beams, columns, stairs, facades, and more.

Slip forming is a construction technique used to continuously pour and shape concrete to form
tall structures, such as towers, chimneys, bridges, and high-rise buildings. It involves the use
of a moving formwork system that gradually rises as the concrete is poured and sets. Here are
the basics of slip forming for tall structures:
1.Design and Planning:
• Develop a detailed design for the structure, considering the architectural and structural
requirements.
• Determine the height, shape, and dimensions of the structure to be built using slip
forming.
• Consider factors such as concrete mix design, reinforcement requirements, and the need
for internal or external formwork.
2.Formwork System:
• Construct a continuous formwork system that consists of metal or wooden forms that
are connected and supported by vertical jacks or hydraulic systems.
• The formwork system includes a sliding mechanism that allows for vertical movement
as the concrete is poured and set.
• Install necessary reinforcement bars (rebars) within the formwork to provide strength
and structural integrity to the slip-formed structure.
Asst. Prof Vaibhav Mishra
Dept. Of Civil Engineering
LNJPIT Chapra
3.Concrete Placement:
• Prepare the concrete mix based on the design specifications and project requirements.
• Establish a continuous supply of concrete to the slip form system, usually using
concrete pumps or conveyor belts.
• The concrete is poured into the bottom of the formwork, and as the formwork rises, the
concrete gradually sets and gains strength.
4.Continuous Slip Forming Process:
• The slip form system is continuously raised at a controlled rate using hydraulic jacks
or other lifting mechanisms.
• As the formwork rises, the concrete is poured at the base and spreads upward to fill the
formwork cavity.
• Vibrators are used to ensure proper consolidation and eliminate air voids within the
concrete.
• The formwork may have openings or windows to allow for workers to install embedded
items, such as electrical conduits or plumbing pipes, as the slip forming progresses.
5.Finishing and Curing:
• As the slip form rises, workers may apply finishing techniques to smoothen the surface,
such as troweling or brushing.
• Curing methods, such as water spraying or application of curing compounds, are
employed to ensure proper hydration and strength development of the concrete.
6.Completion and Demobilization:
• Once the desired height of the structure is achieved, the slip form is halted.
• Allow the concrete to fully cure and gain sufficient strength before demobilizing the
formwork system.
• Remove the formwork system, revealing the completed slip-formed structure.
Slip forming allows for the efficient and continuous construction of tall structures by
eliminating the need for traditional formwork and time-consuming manual labor. However, it
requires careful planning, coordination, and expertise to ensure proper concrete placement,
formwork movement, and structural integrity. Professional engineers, contractors, and
specialized slip forming teams are typically involved in slip-formed construction projects to
ensure safety, quality, and successful completion.

Steel structures offer strength, durability, and versatility, making them popular for various
construction projects. Here are some basic construction methods used for steel structures:
1.Steel Frame Construction:
• Steel frame construction involves the assembly of steel columns, beams, and other
structural members to create the framework of the building.
• Columns and beams are typically fabricated off-site and transported to the construction
site for assembly.
Asst. Prof Vaibhav Mishra
Dept. Of Civil Engineering
LNJPIT Chapra
 • Connections between the steel members can be made using welding, bolting, or a
combination of both.
• Steel frame construction is commonly used for commercial buildings, industrial
facilities, and high-rise structures.
2.Bolted Steel Construction:
• Bolted steel construction involves the use of steel plates and bolts to connect structural
members together.
• Steel plates with holes are attached to the ends of beams, columns, or other members,
and bolts are inserted through the holes and tightened to create connections.
• Bolted connections allow for easy disassembly and reassembly, making it suitable for
temporary structures or projects requiring future modifications.
3.Welded Steel Construction:
• Welded steel construction involves the fusion of steel members using heat and pressure
to create strong and permanent connections.
• Welding is performed on-site or in a fabrication shop, depending on the size and
complexity of the project.
• It provides excellent structural integrity and is commonly used for high-load-bearing
structures, such as bridges and heavy industrial facilities.
4.Pre-engineered Steel Buildings:
• Pre-engineered steel buildings (PEBs) are factory-built structures where the steel
components are designed, fabricated, and assembled according to predefined
specifications.
• PEBs are highly customizable and offer cost-effective and efficient solutions for various
applications, such as warehouses, factories, and sports arenas.
• The steel components of PEBs are pre-fabricated and delivered to the site for easy and
quick assembly, reducing construction time.
5.Steel Composite Construction:
• Steel composite construction combines steel and concrete to create a structural system
with enhanced load-bearing capacity and fire resistance.
• Steel beams or columns are encased in concrete to form composite members, often
referred to as composite columns or composite beams.
• This method is commonly used for constructing composite floors and composite
bridges, taking advantage of the benefits of both materials.
6.Steel Truss Construction:
• Steel trusses are structural frameworks composed of steel members arranged in
triangular or other geometric patterns.
• Trusses provide strength and stability, allowing for the creation of large, open spaces
without the need for intermediate columns.
• Steel truss construction is widely used in applications such as roofs, bridges, and large-
span structures.
Asst. Prof Vaibhav Mishra
Dept. Of Civil Engineering
LNJPIT Chapra
These are some of the basic construction methods for steel structures. Each method has its
advantages and considerations, depending on the project requirements, design complexity,
budget, and timeline. Professional expertise from architects, structural engineers, and
construction teams specializing in steel construction is essential to ensure proper design,
fabrication, and installation of steel structures.

Constructing bridges involves various methods and techniques to ensure the stability,
durability, and functionality of the structure. Here are the basics of construction methods for
bridges:
1.Foundation Construction:
• Site Preparation: Clear the construction site and excavate the area for the bridge
foundation.
• Foundation Type: Choose the appropriate foundation type based on soil conditions,
such as spread footings, pile foundations, caissons, or drilled shafts.
• Foundation Installation: Construct the foundations according to the chosen type,
including excavation, reinforcement placement, and pouring of concrete.
• Substructure Construction: Build the bridge substructure components, such as
abutments and piers, which provide support for the superstructure.
2.Superstructure Construction:
• Precast Segmental Construction: Prefabricate individual segments off-site and transport
them to the construction site for assembly. Typically used for bridges with multiple
spans.
• Cast-in-Place Construction: Pour concrete directly on-site to form the bridge
superstructure. Commonly used for smaller bridges or when site conditions make
transportation of precast segments challenging.
• Steel Girder Construction: Erect steel girders on-site and connect them to form the
bridge deck. Steel girders can be prefabricated or assembled on-site.
• Cable-Stayed Construction: Utilize cables anchored to pylons or towers to support the
bridge deck. The deck is typically constructed using cast-in-place or precast segments.
3.Bridge Deck Construction:
• Concrete Deck Construction: Pour concrete to form the bridge deck, either as a
continuous slab or as separate segments joined together.
• Steel Deck Construction: Install prefabricated steel deck panels, typically composed of
steel girders or steel orthotropic plates.
• Orthotropic Deck Construction: Construct the bridge deck using prefabricated steel
plates and stiffeners, providing high strength and durability.
4.Erection and Assembly:
• Lift and Place: Use cranes or specialized equipment to lift and place precast segments,
steel girders, or other bridge components onto the substructure.

Asst. Prof Vaibhav Mishra

Dept. Of Civil Engineering
LNJPIT Chapra
 • Alignment and Connection: Ensure proper alignment of the bridge components and
make necessary adjustments. Connect the components using bolts, welding, or other
appropriate methods.
• Temporary Supports: Use temporary supports, such as falsework or scaffolding, to
provide stability and support during construction.
5.Finishing and Ancillary Work:
• Expansion Joints: Install expansion joints to accommodate bridge movement caused by
temperature changes and other factors.
• Waterproofing and Surfacing: Apply waterproofing membranes and protective
surfacing on the bridge deck to enhance durability and prevent corrosion.
• Railings and Parapets: Install guardrails, parapets, and other safety features to ensure
the safety of pedestrians and vehicles.
• Utility Integration: Accommodate utilities such as lighting, drainage systems, electrical
conduits, and communication cables within the bridge structure.
Throughout the construction process, it is crucial to adhere to engineering designs, safety
regulations, and quality control measures. Bridge construction requires the expertise of
structural engineers, bridge designers, construction managers, and skilled construction crews
to ensure the successful completion of the project.

Asst. Prof Vaibhav Mishra

Dept. Of Civil Engineering
LNJPIT Chapra