MODULE – I PROPERTIES OF MATTER

1. What is meant by elasticity?

The property of a material to return to its original shape and size when the deforming
forces are removed known as elasticity.

2. What is meant by plastic body?

If a body which cannot completely retains its original shape and size when the
deforming force is removed known as plastic body.

3. What is meant by rigid body?

A body is said to be rigid if a force applied to it produces no/negligible change in its
shape and size.

4. Define stress.
When a body is deformed an internal force is developed to restore it to its original
state. This internal or restoring force per unit area is called stress.

5. Define strain.
Strain is a measure of the extent of the deformation. It is defined as ratio of change in
dimension to the original dimension.

6. What is elastic limit?

The maximum stress up to which a body exhibits the property of elasticity is called
elastic limit.

7. State Hooke’s law.

Hooke’s law states that within elastic limit, the stress developed is directly
proportional to the strain.

8. Define modulus of elasticity.

The ratio of stress applied to the strain developed is called modulus of elasticity.

9. What are the three types of elastic moduli?

The three types of elastic moduli are Young’s modulus, Bulk modulus and Rigidity
modulus.

10. Define Young’s modulus.

It is defined as the ratio of longitudinal/tensile stress to the longitudinal/tensile strain,
within the elastic limit.

11. Define Bulk modulus.

It is defined as the ratio of volume stress to the volume strain, within the elastic limit.

12. Define Rigidity modulus.

It is defined as the ratio of tangential/shearing stress to the shearing strain, within the
elastic limit.
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13. Define Possion’s ratio.
Poisson’s ratio of a given material can be defined as the ratio between the lateral
strain (β) to the longitudinal strain (α) within the elastic limit. The limiting values are
0<<0.5.

14. Define lateral strain.

The strain produced in a perpendicular direction of the applied force is known as
lateral strain.
15. Define longitudinal strain.
The strain produced along the direction of the applied force is known as longitudinal
strain.
16. Define yield point.
“The point at which a material loses its elastic properties is known as yield point”.
At this yield point, there is an appreciable in strain without increase in stress. The stress
corresponding to the yield point C is called yield stress (or) yield strength.

17. Define Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS).

“The maximum stress that a material can withstand without fracture is known as
ultimate tensile strength”.

18. What is a beam?

A beam is a rod or bar of uniform cross section of a homogeneous elastic material
whose length is large compared to its thickness.

19. What is moment of force?

The moment of a force is about a point is defined as the product of the magnitude of
the force and the perpendicular distance.

20. Define Torque.

Torque is the rotating force and defined as the product of one of the forces forming
couple and the perpendicular distance between the two opposite forces.

21. What is bending moment?

When a beam is bent, a restoring couple is set up inside the beam due to elasticity. The
moment of this couple is known as bending moment of the beam.

22. How are the various filaments of a beam affected when the beam is loaded?
The middle layer (or) filament of a beam which remains unaltered even with the
presence of load on the beam is called neutral axis. Filaments which are lying above it are
elongated and those are lying below it are compressed.

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23. Define neutral axis.
The line obtained by the intersection of neutral surface & plane of bending of a
beam is called neutral axis.

24. Find the change in depression of a cantilever a if the thickness of the beam is halved.

4Mfl 3
Depression of a cantilever y 
bd 3 y
d
If d 
2
4 Mgl 3 4 Mgl 3  8
y 3

d  bd 3 y
b  y
2
32Mgl 3
y
bd 3 y

30. Differentiate Uniform & non – uniform bending.

S.
Uniform bending Non – uniform bending
No
If the beam is loaded uniformly on If the beam is loaded at its mid-point, a
its both ends, an elevation is depression is produced. This is called
1
observed in the beam. This is known non-uniform bending.
as uniform bending.
The radius of curvature is constant Radius of curvature is not constant.
2
for a given load.
Wa l 2 Wl 3
3 Elevation, y  Depression, y 
8 IY 48YI
For rectangular beam, The young’s modulus is
2
4 3 Mga l Mg l 3
y y
2 bd 3 y 4bd 3 y

31. What are I shaped girders?

The girder is one in which the upper and lower sections are broadened and the middle
of the section is tapered so that it can withstand heavy loads over it. Since the girder looks
like the letter ‘I’ it is called as I shape girders.

32. What are the applications of I shaped girders?

I shape girders are used in the
a) production of railway tracks
b) construction of ceilings in the buildings
c) construction of dams
d) construction of bridges.

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33. Mention the advantages of I-Shape girders.
(a) More stability
(b) More Strength and
(c) High durability

1. With a neat sketch, explain the salient features of a stress-strain diagram.

A graph between stress and strain for a body subjected to an increasing load is
known as stress- strain diagram. Stress – strain curve of a ductile material is shown in Fig.

It features many important points.

(i) Proportional limit (A):
“The point upto which the linear relation between stress and strain is obeyed
known as proportionality limit”.
The region OA is a straight line indicates that the strain is proportional to stress. From
O to A, Hooke’s law is perfectly obeyed and the material behaves as perfectly elastic in
the region OA.
(ii) Elastic limit (B):
“The maximum limit of stress upto which a material can exhibit the property of
elasticity is known as elastic limit”.
In the region AB, stress and strain is not proportional to each other and Hooke’s law is
not perfectly obeyed. But still the material is perfectly elastic. i.e., up to B, a material
shows reversible strain.
(iii) Permanent set (OP):
It is the permanent plastic deformation observed, when loading beyond the
elastic limit.
Beyond the elastic limit, the material does not regain its original configuration even
after the applied stress is removed.
(iv) Yield point (C):
“The point at which a material loses its elastic properties is known as yield point”.
At this yield point, there is an appreciable in strain without increase in stress. The stress

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 corresponding to the yield point C is called yield stress (or) yield strength. Beyond the
point C, the material behaves as perfectly plastic.
(v) Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) (D):
“The maximum stress that a material can withstand without fracture is known as
ultimate tensile strength”.
If the material is subjected to load beyond D, its cross-sectional area decreases and it
begins to thin down called necking.
(vi) Breaking point (E):
“The point at which the fracture/failure takes place is known as breaking point”.
Even a very small load beyond D results in ‘neck’ formation. At point E, necking is
significant and large and the material breaks down completely. The stress corresponding
to the breaking point E is called breaking stress (or) fracture stress.

2. Derive an expression for the internal bending moment.

Let us consider a beam under the action of deforming forces. The beam bends into a
circular arc. Let AB be the neutral axis of the beam. The filaments above AB are elongated
and the filaments below AB are compressed. But the filament AB remains unchanged. Let
P & Q are two points on the neutral axis, AB. R is the radius of curvature of the neutral axis
and θ is the angle subtended at C.
Original length, PQ = R θ ----- (1)
Let us consider a filament P1Q1 at a distance “x” from the
neutral axis.
Extended length, P1Q1 = (R+x) θ ------ (2)
Therefore, the increase in length = P1Q1 – PQ
= (R+x) θ - R θ
Increase in length = x θ ------ (3)
We know that,
Increase in length
Strain=
Original length
xθ
Strain=
Rθ
x
Strain= ------ (4)
R

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 Stress
Young’s modulus of the material, Y= ------ (5)
Strain
 Stress = Y  Strain
Yx
Stress = ------- (6)
R
If “ δA ” is the area of cross section of the filament P1Q1 , then

Tensile force on the area δA = Stress  area

 Tensile Force = Yx
.δA
R
Moment of this force about the neutral axis = Force  perpendicular distance
Yx
= .δA  x
R

Yx 2
= .δA
R
Y
The moment of all the forces about the neutral axis =  x 2 .δA
R
[Sum of the moments acting, on all the elements in the upper & lower halves of the beam]
YIg
The moment of all the forces (or) Internal bending moment = ------ (7)
R

Where, Ig   x2 .δA

Ig is called the geometric moment of inertia.

It is defined as the bending moment capable of producing unit radius of curvature.
Special cases:
bd 3
(a) For a rectangular beam, I g =
12

πr 4
(b) For a circular beam, Ig =
4
3. What is cantilever? Derive an expression for the depression of a cantilever. [OR]
Derive the expression for depression produced on the beam when it is loaded at the
free end.
“A cantilever is a horizontal beam fixed at one end and loaded at the free end”.
Let OA represent the neutral axis of a cantilever of length ‘l’. Under a load ‘W’, the
cantilever suffers a depression from A to A1.
Let us consider an element PQ of the beam of length dx , at a distance OP = x from the

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 fixed end. Let ‘C’ be the centre of curvature of the element PQ and ‘R’ be the radius of
curvature. The external couple is formed between the load ‘W’ at A1 and the force of
reaction at Q due to the load applied at the free end.

External bending moment = W (l - x) -------- (1)

YI g
Internal bending moment = -------- (2)
R
YI g
At equilibrium, W (l  x) = -------- (3)
R
Let Q lie at a distance dx from P.

The arc length PQ= dx  R.d -------- (4)

Two tangents are drawn at points P & Q, which meet the vertical line (AA) at T & S
respectively. (Let TS= dy )
 Vertical depression (TS), dy  (l  x )d -------- (5)
Dividing eqn. (4) by eqn. (5),

dx R.d R
  
dy (l  x).d (l  x)

dx
R (l  x) -------- (6)
dy

YI g
Sub.eqn. (6) in eqn. (3), W (l  x) 
dx
( )(l  x)
dy
W (l  x)2 dx  YI g dy

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 W (l  x ) 2
 dy  dx -------- (7)
YI g

The total depression, is obtained by integration,

l l
W W
y  (l  x) dx   (l  x 2  2lx) dx
2 2

YI g 0
YI g 0
l
W  2 x3 x2 
 l x   2l 
YI g  3 2 0
W  3 l3 3
 l  l 
YI g  3 

Wl 3
y -------- (8)
3YI g

This is the expression for depression of a cantilever at free end.

From this expression, Young’s modulus of the beam can be calculated as,
Wl 3
Y  -------- (9)
3 yI g

Special Cases:
bd 3
(a) For a rectangular beam, I g =
12
W .l 3 4Wl 3
y  
bd 2 bd 3Y
3Y
12
since W  M  g
4Mgl 3
y -------- (10)
bd 3Y

πr 4
(b) For a circular beam, Ig =
4
W .l 3 4Wl 3 4 Mgl 3 -------- (11)
y   y
 r 4 3Y  r 4 3Y  r 4
3Y
4

4. Derive an expression for the depression at the midpoint of a beam loaded at middle of
the beam.
“If the beam is loaded at its midpoint, the depression produced does not form an arc
of a circle. This type of bending is called non-uniform bending”.

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 Consider a beam of length ‘ l ’ kept horizontally on two knife edges A and B. The load ‘W’
is applied at the midpoint of the beam. The beam bends and the depression ‘y’ is at the
midpoint ‘D’.
Due to the applied load ‘W’ at the middle of the beam, the reaction W is acted vertically
2
upwards at knife edges.

The bent beam is considered as two inverted cantilevers of length l at the point D.
2
3
Depression produced in the cantilever, y  Wl
3YI g

But in non-uniform bending, W replaced by W and l replaced by l in the above expression.

2 2
3
 W  l 
  
 y    
2 2
3YI g

Wl 3
y
48YI g

This is the expression for depression.

From this expression, Young’s modulus of the beam can be calculated as,
Wl 3
Y
3 yI g

Special Cases:
bd 3
(a) For a rectangular beam, I g =
12
Wl 3 12Wl 3
y 
bd 3 48Ybd 3
48Y
12

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 Wl 3
y  since W  M  g
4bd 3Y
Mgl 3
y 
4bd 3Y

πr 4
(b) For a circular beam, Ig =
4
Wl 3 4Wl 3
y 
 r 4 48Y  r 4
48Y
4
Wl 3 since W  M  g
y
12Y  r 4
Mgl 3
y 
12Y  r 4

5. Write a short note on I-shaped girders.

The girder is one in which the upper and lower sections are broadened and the middle
of the section is tapered so that it can withstand heavy loads over it. Since the girder looks
like the letter ‘I’ it is called as I shape girders.

A girder is a metallic beam supported at its ends by pillars or opposite walls. It should
be designed that it should not bend too much or break under its weight.
The depression (y) produced at the centre of the beam
of length (l), breadth (b) and thickness (d) under the
given load (Mg) is given by,
Mgl 3
y 
4bd 3Y
Hence to reduce the building for a given load, ‘Y’ of the beam should be large, ‘b’ and‘d’ of
the beam must also be large.
Since the depression ‘y’ is inversely proportional to d3, the depression can be reduced more
effectively by increasing the thickness ‘d’ rather than increasing the breadth ‘b’ of the beam.
1
y
d3
But on increasing the thickness, unless the load is at the centre,
the beam may bend due to its own weight. This is called
buckling of the beam. To prevent buckling, a large load – bearing surface is required.

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 Hence, the beam is designed in the shape of ‘I’ to have a large thickness to minimize
bending and a large load bearing surface to prevent buckling.
The girder cross section then appears as I-shaped, called I-shaped girders.

6. Derive an expression for the elevation at the midpoint of a beam loaded at both ends.
“If the beam is loaded on its both ends, bending of the beam forms an arc of a circle.
This bending is known as uniform bending”.
Consider a beam ‘AB’ supported symmetrically
on two knife edges at C & D. So, AC = BD = ‘a’.
The beam is loaded with equal weights ‘W’ at
each ends A and B.
The applied load ‘W’ acting down along A and B
and the reaction ‘W’ acting up along C and D, constitute a couple.

External bending moment = W a ------- (1)

YIg
Internal bending moment = ------- (2)
R
YIg
At equilibrium, Wa= ------- (3)
R
To find R, by geometry-consider the circle describe by bending as shown
in figure.
Let ‘y’ be the elevation produced in the beam, ‘l’ be the length of the beam between the
supports & ‘R’ the radius of curvature.
From the intersecting chord theorem of a circle,

l l
y  (2 R  y )  
2 2
l2
2 Ry  y 2

4
l2
2 Ry 
4
l2 ------- (4)
R
8y
Substitute eqn. (4) in eqn. (3), we can get

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 YI g
Wa 
 l2 
 8y 
 
8 yYI g
Wa 
l2
Wal 2 ------- (5)
y
8YI g

This is the expression for elevation.

From this expression, Young’s modulus of the beam can be calculated as,
Wal 2 ------- (6)
Y 
8 yI g

Special Cases:
bd 3
(a) For a rectangular beam, I g =
12
Wal 2 Wal 2
y 
8YI g bd 3
8Y
12
12Wal 2 = 3Wal 2 since W  M  g
y
8Ybd 3 2Ybd 3
3Mgal 2
y
2Ybd 3
πr 4
(b) For a circular beam, Ig =
4
Wal 2 Wal 2
y 
8YI g 8Y  r
4

4
4Wal 2
y
8Y  r 4
Wal 2 since W  M  g
y
2Y  r 4
Mgal 2
y
2Y  r 4

7. Derive an expression for the couple required to twist a wire through an angle .
Consider a cylindrical wire of length ‘L’& radius ‘r’ fixed at its top end. Its lower end
is twisted through an angle ‘’ by applying a torque. The cylinder is imagined to consist of

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innumerable thin co-axial cylinders. One such elemental cylinder of radius ‘x’ thickness ‘dx’
is shown in figure.

AB is a line (parallel to axis, PQ) on the surface of the elemental cylinder. The lower end,
when, twisted through an angle, ‘’ (B shifts to B1), the cylinder gets sheared through an
angle, ‘ φ ’ (line AB shifts to AB).

From geometry, BB = xθ = lφ
1
------ (1)

xθ
Shearing strain, φ= ------ (2)
l
We know that,
Stress
Rigidity modulus of elasticity, n= ------ (3)
Strain

xθ
Shearing stress = nφ=n ------ (4)
l
We know that, Shearing stress = Shearing force / Area
 Shearing force = Shearing stress  Area on which force acts
nxθ
= 2πxdx
l
2πnθ 2
Shearing force = x dx ------ (5)
l
 Moment of this force about the axis “PQ” of the cylinder = Force  perpendicular
distance

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 2πnθ 2
= x dx x
l
2πnθ 3
Moment of this force about the axis “PQ” of the cylinder = x dx ------ (6)
l
 The total moment of force is obtained by integrating the eqn. (6) over the whole section.
r 2πnθ 3
Twisting couple, C = 0 l
x dx

2πnθ r 3
l 0
= x dx

r
2πnθ  x 4 
=  
l  4 0

πnr 4 θ
Twisting couple, C = ------ (7)
2l
πnr 4
Couple per unit twist, ( =1 rad) C = ------ (8)
2l
This is the expression for twisting couple in a wire.

8. Describe with relevant theory, how the moment of inertia of the disc of a torsional
pendulum is experimentally determined. Also discuss how the rigidity modulus of
elasticity of the suspension wire.
“A circular metallic disc suspended using a thin wire that executes torsional
oscillations is called a torsional pendulum”.

A torsional pendulum consists of a metal wire suspended vertically with the upper end
fixed.
The lower end of the wire is connected to the centre of a heavy circular disc.
When the disc is rotated by applying a twist, the wire is twisted through an angle .
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 Restoring couple in the wire = Cθ -------- (1)

where, C – Couple per unit twist

If the disc is released, it under oscillation with angular velocity dθ about the axis of the
dt
wire.
d 2θ
Applied / External couple = I 0 2 --------- (2)
dt

where, I0  Moment of inertia of the disc

d 2θ
 Angular acceleration produced in the disc
dt 2

At equilibrium,
d 2θ
I0 =Cθ --------- (3)
dt 2
d 2θ C
= θ --------- (4)
dt 2 I0
d 2θ
This equation represents simple harmonic motion which shows 2 is proportional to θ
dt

(i) Time period of oscillation (T0)

For SHM, Time period

-------- (5)
(ii) Rigidity modulus of elasticity of a wire (n)
From equation (5),

--------- (6)
We know that, Couple per unit twist

--------- (7)
Sub. eqn. (7) in eqn. (6),

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 --------- (8)

For a circular disc, --------- (9)

Mass of the circular disc; Radius of the disc

9. Determination of Rigidity modulus of elasticity of the wire – Torsional pendulum

(Dynamic Method)

To determine the moment of inertia of the disc and the rigidity modulus of the wire, the disc
is set into torsional oscillations with and without any mass over it and the time period of
oscillations are measured.

Time period of oscillation (To)

i) Without any masses
The disc is set into torsional oscillations without any cylindrical masses on the disc.
The mean period of oscillation is

- Moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of the wire.

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 --------- (1)
Time period of oscillation (T1)
ii) With mass at distance d1
Two equal cylindrical masses (m) are placed symmetric at equal distance on the two sides
from the axis of the wire. The mean period of oscillation is

I1 - Moment of inertia of the whole system (disc & symmetrical masses) about the axis of
the wire.

--------- (2)
Time period of oscillation (T2)
iii) With mass at distance d2
Now, the cylindrical masses are placed symmetrically at equal distance d2 from the
axis of the wire. The mean period of oscillation is,

I2 - Moment of inertia of the whole system (disc & symmetrical masses) about the
axis of the wire.

--------- (3)
Subtracting eqn. (2) from eqn. (3)

4 2
T22  T12   I 2  I1  --------- (4)
C

From the parallel axes theorem,

--------- (5)

--------- (6)
i - Moment of inertia of each mass about an axis of the wire

--------- (7)
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 Sub. eqn. (7) in eqn. (4),

--------- (8)
Dividing equation (1) by equation (8),

--------- (9)

Thus, the moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of wire is calculated.
We know that,

Sub. eqn. (9) in the above equation, we can get

--------- (10)

This expression represents the rigidity modulus of the wire.

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