ENG 3165 LECTURE

THERMODYNAMICS COMPONENT
12
Refrigeration
 Introduction

❑This lecture provides an introduction to the concept of

Refrigeration and its theoretical working cycle based on the
Reverse Carnot Cycle.
❑In Summary the Refrigeration Cycle or Heat Pump

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
• If a body is to be maintained at a temperature lower than that of its
surrounding, or ambient temperature, then any heat transfer which
will naturally occur down the temperature gradient from the
surroundings to the body (second law of thermodynamics) must be
transferred back to the surroundings.
• Unless this is done, the temperature of the body will increase to that
of its surroundings. Now the transfer of heat from a colder to a hotter
body is contrary to the second law of thermodynamics, which implies
that, if such a transfer of heat is required, then, external energy is
required to facilitate the transfer.
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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
• This external energy can be supplied either by means of a heating
device as a compressor (or pump), the use of either producing the
necessary increase in temperature.
• The cyclic process by which natural heat transfer down a temperature
gradient is returned up the temperature gradient by means of the
supply of external energy is the process of refrigeration.
• In any refrigerator, as the plant is called there will be an amount of
energy removed from the cold body by the refrigeration process. This is
referred to as the refrigerating effect.

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
• The ratio:
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝑬𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅

= 𝑪. 𝑶. 𝑷 (𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆)

• This definition is similar to that used for efficiency. The term efficiency is not
used here, however, because very often C.O.P> 1, and hence the term
coefficient is used rather than efficiency.

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 REFRIGERATION PROCESS

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 REFRIGERATION PROCESS

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REFRIGERATION Compressor
Parts of a Refrigerator

Evaporator Condenser
Throttling/ Expansion
Devices

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 STAGES OF REFRIGERATION
The four stages of refrigeration are:
1. Cooling the refrigerant to a suitable temperature below the surrounding.
This can either be achieved by expanding it (so that part of its heat
energy is converted to mechanical work) or by throttling.
2. Heat transfer by conduction from the body to be cooled to the refrigerant
3. Raising the temperature of the refrigerant by compression (this involves
the input of mechanical energy via a compressor).
4. Heat transfer from the refrigerant by conduction to a condensing media
(normally water or air).

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 REFRIGERATION
• The various heat transfers associated with the
refrigeration process are illustrated.
• The high temperature is higher than the ambient
temperature in order that heat transfer can take
place.
• The heat transfer from the high to the low
refrigeration temperature takes place in two stages.
There is a natural heat transfer to the surroundings
from the high to ambient temperature. This is
followed by a natural heat transfer from ambient to
the low refrigeration temperature.
• The heat transfer from the low to high temperature
requiring external energy is direct.
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 REFRIGERATION
• When working at very low temperatures (generally below -150 ºC) the
term cryogenics is used rather than refrigeration .
• The refrigeration cycle is the reverse of the heat engine cycle. In the
heat engine cycle energy is received at high temperature, rejected at
low temperature and work is obtained from the cycle.
• In the refrigeration cycle, however, energy is received at low
temperature, rejected at high temperature and work (or heat) is
required to perform the cycle.
• Due to the transfer of energy from low to high temperature, the
refrigerator is sometimes referred to as a heat pump.
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 UNITS OF REFRIGERATION
• The capacity of mechanical equipment is normally given in Horse Power
(H.P.):
1 H.P. = 0.746 kW
• The capacity of electrical equipment is normally given in Kilowatts (kW)
• The capacity of refrigeration is normally expressed as ‘Tonne of
Refrigeration’ (T.R.): 1 tonne of refrigeration is the rate of heat removal
required .to freeze a metric ton (1000 kg) of water at 0ºC in 24 hours.
1 T.R. = 13,898 kJ/h = 3.861 kW

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 REFIGERANTS AND THEIR
PROPERTIES
• The working substance which flows through a refrigerator is called a refrigerant.

• It is usual that heat transfer into the refrigerant at low temperature evaporates the
refrigerant. Heat transfer from the refrigerant at high temperature condenses the refrigerant.
Commonly used refrigerants are Ammonia (𝑵𝑯𝟑 ), Methyl Chloride (𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝒍), Freon-l2
(Refrigerant-12) (Dichlorodifluoromethane, 𝑪𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑭𝟐 ), Isobutane and Carbon Dioxide (𝑪𝑶𝟐 ).
• These substances remain as liquids and can be evaporated at suitable pressures and sub-
zero low temperatures which make them suitable for use as refrigerants.
• From about 1940 to the early 1990s, the most common class of refrigerants used in vapor
compression refrigeration systems was the chlorine-containing CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons).
Due to the effects of chlorine in refrigerants on the earth’s protective ozone layer, they have
been phased out.

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 REFIGERANTS AND THEIR
PROPERTIES
• Classes of refrigerants containing various amounts of hydrogen in place of chlorine
atoms have been developed that have less potential to deplete atmospheric ozone
than do more fully chlorinated ones, such as Refrigerant 12.
• One such class, the HFCs - Hydrofluorocarbons, contain no chlorine. Refrigerant
134a (Tetraflouroethane) (𝑪𝑭𝟑 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑭) is the HFC considered by many to be an
environmentally acceptable substitute for Refrigerant 12, and Refrigerant 134a has
replaced Refrigerant 12 in many applications
• Ammonia (NH3), which was widely used in the early development of vapor
compression refrigeration, is again receiving some interest as an alternative to the
CFCs because it contains no chlorine.

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 THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

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 THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE
• As already stated, the coefficient of performance, sometimes 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝛽:

• The above equation, represents the maximum theoretical coefficient of

performance of any refrigeration cycle operating between regions at TC and TH.
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 THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE
• Now, the Carnot cycle is composed of reversible processes which are
the most efficient thermodynamic processes possible. Hence, the
reversed Carnot cycle will have the highest C.O.P possible between
any given limits of temperature. Note that the equation,

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VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATOR

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VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATOR

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VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATOR
• In the vapour-compression refrigerator, liquid refrigerants are used
which are alternately evaporated and condensed.
• Using a liquid refrigerant, the Carnot cycle could be closely
approximated.
• It has been shown in work on two-phase systems that during the
evaporation of a liquid at constant pressure the temperature
remains constant.
• Then, a wet low-pressure, low-temperature refrigerant enters the
evaporator at 4 in which it is evaporated to a nearly dry state at 1.

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VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATOR
• This evaporation process produces the refrigerating effect. The
refrigerant then enters a compressor in which it is compressed,
theoretically isentropically, to 2.
• The refrigerant would then be dry saturated at a higher pressure
and temperature. The refrigerant then passes through a condenser
at constant pressure and temperature and is condensed to liquid at
3. The refrigerant then passes through an expander in which it is
expanded theoretically isentropically, back to its original low-
pressure, low temperature, wet state at 4.

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VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATOR
• It is common practice, however, to use
a throttle valve or regulator in place of
the expander. This is illustrated here
and most vapour compression
refrigerators have this basic
arrangement.
• The throttling process 3-4 moves the
cycle away from the Carnot cycle but
the refrigerator has now become a
more simple and practical
arrangement.
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 VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATOR
• In large refrigeration plant the evaporator may be suspended in a secondary refrigerant such as brine and
the heat exchange then takes place in two stages. This is between the cold chamber and the secondary
refrigerant, which is pumped round the cold chamber, and then between the secondary refrigerant and
the primary refrigerant in the evaporator in the refrigerator.
• Again, in large refrigeration plant, the condenser may be water cooled or have forced-draught air cooling
using fans.
• In small refrigeration plant, such as in the domestic refrigerator, evaporator is suspended directly in the
cold chamber and the condenser is suspended in the surrounding atmospheric air.
• Also, in small refrigeration plants, the throttling process may be accomplished by using a length of
capillary tubing. This produces a fixed low temperature in evaporator.
• The control of the cold chamber temperature is obtained using a thermostat in the cold chamber. When
the required temperature is reached in the cold chamber, controls connected to the thermostat switch off
the motor driving the refrigerator. The temperature in the cold chamber then slowly rises and the
thermostat controls then switch on the motor and the process is then repeated. If a throttle valve is fitted,
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 VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATOR
• The diagrams of the type of cycle more commonly used in the vapour compression refrigerator are
shown.

• The modifications made to the cycle already illustrated in the previous slide produce a more effective
operation of the plant.

• Entry to the compressor at 1, the refrigerant is shown as being dry saturated. Sometimes there is a
slight degree of superheat. The effect of this is to increase the refrigerating effect and also to produce
dry compression in the refrigerator, shown as process 1-2. This means that there is no loss of mass
flow due to evaporation of the liquid refrigerant in the compressor during the induction stroke.

• A further improvement can be obtained by undercooling (or subcooling) the refrigerant after
condensation, shown as process 4-5. Here, the refrigerant is cooled toward the ambient temperature.
This produces a wetter vapour, at 6, after the throttling process and an improved refrigerating effect
follows.

• It should be noted that the refrigerating effect per unit time is called the duty of the refrigerator. This
will depend upon the end states of the refrigerant in the evaporator and also the mass flow rate of the
refrigerant.

• Tables of properties for various refrigerants exist and are similar to the tables for the properties of
steam.
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 CALCULATIONS FOR THE VAPOUR
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATOR

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VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATOR
• As the refrigerant passes through the evaporator, heat
transfer from the refrigerated space results in the
vaporization of the refrigerant

The refrigerant leaving the evaporator is compressed

to a relatively high pressure and temperature by the
compressor.

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VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATOR
Next, the refrigerant passes through the condenser, where
the refrigerant condenses and there is heat transfer from the
refrigerant to the cooler surroundings.

In the vapor-compression system, the net power input is

equal to the compressor power, since the expansion valve
involves no power input or output. Using the quantities and
expressions introduced above, the coefficient of
performance of the vapor-compression refrigeration system
is:

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 Example

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 Example

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 Example

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 Example

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 Example

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 Example

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 THE HEAT PUMP
• The figure shows the objectives of refrigerators and heat
pumps.
• The purpose of a refrigerator is the removal of heat, called
the cooling load, from a low temperature medium.
• The purpose of a heat pump is the transfer of heat to a high
temperature medium, called the heating load.
• When we are interested in the heat energy removed from a
low temperature space, the device is called a refrigerator.
When we are interested in the heat energy supplied to the
high temperature space, the device is called a heat pump.
• In general, the term “heat pump” is used to describe the
cycle as heat energy is removed from the low temperature
space and rejected to the high temperature space.
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 THE HEAT PUMP

Both COPR and COPHP can be larger than 1. Under the same operating conditions,
the COPs are related by

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Example

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 Example

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 Example

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“With the advance of
Refrigeration, I hope that
along with the frozen foods,
someday we will have frozen
conversation. A person will
be able to keep a frozen
promise indefinitely”

FRED ALLEN

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 Thank You

Eng. Flora Chitalu

The University of Zambia
School of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]

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