Chapter Two: Transducers and

Measuring Instruments
Transducers
Temperature Measurements
Measurement of pressure
Transducers
Variable-resistance transducer elements
Sliding-contact devices
The resistance strain gage
Thermistors
Thermocouple
Variable-inductance transducers
The differential transformer
Variable-reluctance transducers
Capacitive transducers
Piezoelectric sensors
Semiconductor sensors
Light-detecting transducers
Hall-effect sensors
Many of the mechanical sensors transduce the input to displacement.
Many of the electrical sensors change displacement to an electrical
output.
The mechanical sensor serves as the primary transducer.
The electrical sensor as the secondary.
The most commonly used electrical means are: variable resistance,
variable inductance, photoelectric, and piezoelectric effects
Variable Resistance Transducer

The variable resistance transducers are one of the most commonly used
types of transducers.

The variable resistance transducers are also called as resistive

transducers or resistive sensors.
These transducers are usually used as the secondary transducers, where
the output from the primary mechanical transducer acts as the input for
the variable resistance transducer.
The variable resistance transducer elements work on the principle that
the resistance of the conductor is directly proportional to the length of
the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor.

R = ρL/A

L is the length of the conductor (in m) and A is area (in m square), R is

resistance (in ohms),and ρ is resistivity of the material in ohm-m.
Examples of Variable Resistance Transducers
1) Sliding contact devices:
There is a long conductor whose effective length is variable.

One end of the conductor is fixed, while the position of the other end is
decided by the slider or the brush that can move along the whole length
of the conductor
The slider is connected to the body whose displacement is to be
measured.

When the body moves the slider also moves along the conductor so its
effective length changes, due to which it resistance also changes.

The effective resistance is measured as the resistance between the fixed

position of the conductor and the position of the sliding contact.
The value of the resistance is calibrated against the input quantity,
whose value can be measured directly.

One of most popular sliding contact type of variable resistance

transducer is the potentiometer. These devices can be used to measured
linear as well as angular displacement.
potentiometer

Convert a mechanical displacement into a voltage difference.

Work on the principle that as we vary the length of the wire over a fixed
distance, the corresponding resistance changes.

Provided that the wire has a constant current flowing through it.
Two points are fixed A and B.

A movable wiper (point C) placed at point A initially which can move

along the fixed length.

As the wiper moves, it changes the resistance.

With a change in resistance, a potential differences developed.

This potential difference help us to measure the displacement.

2). Wire resistance strain gauge

This is an interesting devise used for the measurement of force, stress

and strain. When the tension is applied to the electrical conductor, its
length increases while the cross section area decreases, due to which the
resistance of the conductor changes. This change in resistance can be
measured easily and is calibrated against the input quantity.
A strain gauge is a sensor whose measured electrical resistance varies with changes
in strain. Strain is the deformation or displacement of material that results from an
applied stress. Stress is the force applied to a material, divided by the material’s
cross-sectional area. Load cells are designed to focus stress through beam elements
where strain gauges are located. Strain gauges convert the applied force, pressure,
torque, into an electrical signal which can be measured. Force causes strain, which is
then measured with the strain gauge by way of a change in electrical resistance.
Then the voltage measurement is gathered using data acquisition .
Multiple strain gauges can be used in a divided bridge circuit to measure small changes in electrical resistance.
This is called a Wheatstone bridge. In a Wheatstone bridge configuration, an excitation voltage is applied across
the circuit, and the output voltage is measured across two points in the middle of the bridge. When there is no
load acting on the load cell, the Wheatstone bridge is balanced and there is zero output voltage. Any small
change in the material under the strain gauge results in a change in the resistance of the strain gauge as it
deforms with the material. This causes the bridge to be thrown out of balance, resulting in a change in the output
voltage. As stated earlier, the resistance change is minute, which means that signal amplification is often needed
to properly determine changes. The amplification process strengthens the strain signal changes; however, it also
leads to more unwanted noise also being detected in the signal. Signal conditioning filters out the excess noise,
ensuring accurate and understandable data.
 𝑅2 𝑅3
=
𝑅1 𝑅4
then Vout = 0

𝑅2 𝑅3
≠
𝑅1 𝑅4
Then Vout ≠0
3) Thermistors: Thermistors work on the principle that resistance of some
materials changes with the change in their temperature. When the temperature
of the material changes, its resistance changes and it can be measured easily
and calibrated against the input quantity. The commonly used thermistors are
made up of the ceramic like semiconducting materials such as oxides of
manganese, nickel and cobalt. Thermistors can be used for the measurement
of temperature, as electric power sensing devices and also as the controls for
various processes.
The Thermistor or simply Thermally Sensitive Resistor is a temperature
sensor that works on the principle of varying resistance with
temperature. They are made of semiconducting materials.
A thermistor is made of oxides of metals such as Nickel, Manganese,
Cobalt, Copper, Uranium.
The thermistor works on the simple principle of change in resistance
due to a change in temperature. When the ambient temperature changes
the thermistor starts self-heating its elements. its resistance value is
changed with respect to this change in temperature. This change
depends on the type of thermistor used.
The two basic types of thermistors available are the NTC and PTC types.

NTC stands for Negative Temperature coefficient. They are ceramic

semiconductors that have a high Negative Temperature Coefficient of
resistance. The resistance of an NTC will decrease with increasing
temperature in a non-linear manner.

They are susceptible to very small changes in temperature and make them
ideal for use as temperature sensors.
PTC thermistors are Positive Temperature Coefficient resistors and are
made of polycrystalline ceramic materials. The resistance of a PTC will
increase with increasing temperature in a non-linear manner. The PTC
thermistor shows only a small change of resistance with temperature
until the switching point(TR) is reached.
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)

The material will oppose the flow of current – Resistance

The temperature of the material will change the resistance of the

material.

If the material is conductor – increase in temperature will increase the

resistance.
By using ohm’s law: Voltage = Current X Resistance

If we keep the current constant and due to change in temperature the

resistance will change.

So, the resistance changes will cause change in voltage.

As temperature changes the resistance of the material, we can measure

the voltage to tell the temperature.
 Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a thermoelectric device used for measuring temperatures.
It is made up of two dissimilar metals joined together to form two junctions.
One junction is placed on the surface or in the env’t that is being measured. This is
the “hot” junction.
The other junction remains at a known constant temperature . This is “cold”
junction.
By hanging the temperature in the hot junction a voltage will flow through the
loop.
Inductive transducer

These motion transducers employ the principle of Electromagnetic

Induction

A transducer that works on the principle of electromagnetic induction is

called an Inductive transducer.
By rotating the wire(magnet), the area will change and the flux also
change, the current will be produced (Generator)
Types of the Inductive Transducer

Inductive transducers may be of passive-type or self-generating type.

The tachometer is the example of a self-generating inductive transducer.

LVDT is an example of a passive type inductive transducer.
Self-generating type: utilizes the basic electrical generator principle

The motion between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in

the conductor (generator action).

This relative motion between the field and the conductor is supplied by
changes in the measured (input).
Passive type: In this type the motion of an object results in change in the
inductance of the coils of the transducer.
Inductive transducers find application in proximity sensors which are
used for position measurement, dynamic motion measurement.
Proximity sensor

Coil
Proximity sensors: detect the mov’t or presence of an object without
making physical contact with the object and convers that information
into an electrical signal.

Induction proximity sensors operate on the basis of Faraday’s law of

Induction.
When an electrically conducting object is placed in a magnetic field
then an electric current called Eddy current will be generated in the
object.

Then this current creates a magnetic field in a conductor and it will

opposes the magnetic field which created it.
When the sensing coil in the oscillation circuit is supplied with an
alternating current, a changing magnetic field is created around the coil.

When the target object enters this electromagnetic field some of the
electromagnetic energy is transferred to the object.
According to Faraday’s law of Induction, an electric current called Eddy
current will be generated in the object.

The eddy current produces another magnetic field called Eddy current
magnetic field and it opposes the magnetic field which created it.
As the target comes very close to the sensor the eddy current increases,
decreasing the amplitude of the electromagnetic field.

When amplitude of electromagnetic field decreases below a

predetermined level, the output state switches from normal condition.
LVDT

A Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT), is used to measure

the speed or position of an object

A LVDT is a sensor that can convert input vibrations or mechanical

motion into variable electric signals.
Projecting arm which will be attached to
the object whose displacement needs to be
measured.
LVDT construction involves mounting a primary winding, P, and two
secondary windings, S1 and S2, on a cylindrical former. The secondary
windings have the same number of turns and are placed identically on
either side of the primary winding.
Then, a movable soft iron core is placed inside the cylindrical former.
This movable core is usually made of nickel-iron with hydrogen
annealing.

During usage, the unknown displacement is attached to this movable

soft iron core.
The working principle of LVDT as a displacement transducer is based on mutual
induction.

When an AC excitation of 5-15 V at a frequency of 50-400Hz is applied to the

primary winding, P, a magnetic field is produced.

This magnetic field induces a mutual current in the secondary windings, S1 and
S2.

As a result, the secondary windings have induced voltages of E1 & E2,

respectively.
However, both secondary windings are connected in series.

Hence, the net output voltage becomes the difference between the induced
voltages in the secondary windings.

That is, the differential output voltage of the LVDT will be E0 = E1 – E2.
When the LVDT core moves towards the S1 secondary winding, the flux
linkage with S1 is greater than that of S2.

As a result, the EMF induced in S1 is larger and E1 > E2.

Hence, the net differential output voltage (E0 = E1 – E2) is positive and will
be in phase with the primary voltage.
When the LVDT core is at the null position, the flux linkage with both
secondary windings is equal.

As a result, the EMF induced in both the windings will be the same.

Hence, the net differential output voltage (E0 = E1 – E2) is zero, indicating that
there is no displacement of the core.
When the LVDT core moves towards the S2 secondary winding, the flux
linkage with S2 is greater than that of S1.

As a result, the EMF induced in S2 is larger and E2 > E1.

Hence, the net differential output voltage (E0 = E1 – E2) is negative and will be
in phase opposition (180° out of phase) with the primary voltage.
Initially the core is in Null position
Moving the core toward
the right
Moving the core to the
left
LVDT uses the Magnitude and Polarity of the Net E.M.F induced to
Measure the Displacement of its Core from the Null Position.
Capacitive Transducers

The capacitive transducer contains two parallel metal plates.

These plates are separated by the dielectric medium which is either air,
material, gas or liquid.

In the normal capacitor the distance between the plates are fixed, but in
capacitive transducer the distance between them are varied.
The capacitive transducer uses the electrical quantity of capacitance for
converting the mechanical movement into an electrical signal.

The input quantity causes the change of the capacitance which is directly
measured by the capacitive transducer.
The capacitors measure both the static and dynamic changes.

The displacement is also measured directly by connecting the measurable

devices to the movable plate of the capacitor.
Where A – overlapping area of plates in m2
d – the distance between two plates in meter
ε – permittivity of the medium in F/m
εr – relative permittivity
ε0 – the permittivity of free space
A capacitive transducer contains two conducting parallel metal plates
separated by a dielectric medium.
 By changing the distance between two plates

The capacitance can be varied by

changing the distance between two
plates.

C and d are inversely proportional

to each other.

The capacitance value will decrease

with increasing distance and vice-
versa.
This principle can be used in a transducer by making the left plate fixed and the
right plate movable by the displacement that is to be measured.

The change in distance between two plates will vary the capacitance of the
transducer.

Change in capacitance can be calibrated in terms of the measurand (input).

These types of transducers are used to measure extremely small displacements.

The distance capacitance curve is shown as
 By changing the permittivity of the dielectric medium
Another method to change the capacitance
value is by changing the permittivity of the
dielectric material (ϵ).

The permittivity and capacitance value are

directly proportional to each other.
In this arrangement, a dielectric material is filled into the space between
the two fixed plates.

It can be moved using the arm.

This causes a variation in dielectric constant in the region. The change

in dielectric constant will vary the capacitance of the transducer.
By changing the area of overlapping of plates
The capacitance can also be changed by varying the area of overlapping
of plates.

One plate is kept fixed and the other movable.

When the plate is moved, the area of overlapping of plates changes, and
the capacitance also changes.
The capacitance value and area are directly proportional to each other.

These types of transducers are used to measure relatively large displacements.

The distance-capacitance curve:

Piezoelectric Sensors
Certain materials can generate an electrical charge when subjected to
mechanical strain or conversely, can change dimensions when subjected
to voltage.
A sensor which works on the principle of piezoelectricity is
known as a piezoelectric sensor.

Where piezoelectricity is a phenomenon where electricity is

generated if mechanical stress is applied to a material.

Not all materials have piezoelectric characteristics.

Examples of piezoelectric materials are natural available single

crystal quartz, bone, Artificially manufactured like PZT ceramic.
Basic deformation modes for piezoelectric plates

Equivalent circuit for a piezoelectric element

When mechanically strained, the piezo element generates a charge Q (t),
which is temporarily stored in the element's inherent capacitance.

As with all capacitors, however, the charge dissipates with time owing to
leakage, a fact which makes piezo devices more valuable for dynamic
measurements than for static measurements.

A charge amplifier is normally used to prevent charge loss.

The voltage across the piezo element at any time is simply:
The commonly measured physical quantities by a piezoelectric sensor are
Acceleration and Pressure.

In the pressure sensor, a thin membrane is placed on a massive base to

transfer the applied force to the piezoelectric element.

Upon application of pressure on this thin membrane, the piezoelectric

material gets loaded and starts generating electrical voltages.
The produced voltage is proportional
to the amount of pressure applied.
Light Detecting Transducers

Light Sensors are photoelectric devices that convert light energy

(photons) whether visible or infra-red light into an electrical (electrons)
signal.
Types of light sensors

Photodiodes: It consist of a PN Junction which is connected on

reverse bias where the P Junction is connected to the negative terminal
of the battery and the N terminal is connected to the positive terminal of
the battery.

Due to this, a wide depletion layer is formed.

When photons from light fall on the depletion region, it leads to the
generation of electrons and holes.

The holes moves toward P Junction and the electrons move towards the N
Junction.

This leads to the generation of charges, which contribute to the flow of

current.

Thus, the current is directly proportional to the intensity of light.

Applications – remote control of televisions, smoke detectors.
Photoresistor or LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)

It is a variable resistor whose resistance varies depending upon the

amount of light that it is exposed to.

It can be used to detect the presence or absence of light.

As light is exposed to the photo resistor, the resistance decreases

which leads to more current flow.

They are used in clock sensors, automatic street lights.

LDR sensor is rugged in nature, hence can be used even in dirty and rough
external environments.

Hence, LDR is preferable compared to other light sensors as it can be used

even in the outdoor lighting of homes and in automatic street lights as well.

LDRs are made of high resistance semiconductor material, Cadmium Sulphide

that exhibits photoconductivity.
During night time (when the light illuminated on LDR decreases), the LDR
exhibits a very high resistance of around a few MΩ (Mega Ohms)

During daytime, (when the light is illuminated on LDR), resistance of

LDR decreases to around a few 100Ω (hundred Ohms).

Hence, the resistance of LDR is inversely proportional to the light

illuminated on LDR.
 Phototransistors
Like the photodiode, it also conduct depending on the light falling on them.

Used for position sensing, security system.

In photodiodes, the light falling on the depletion region leads to the flow of
current.

In phototransistors, light falling on the transistor’s base leads to the flow of

charges.

Phototransistors combine a photodetector and an amplifier, lead to more

sensitivity.
Applications

The most common consumer electronic devices that use light sensors
are Mobile Phones, and Tablets. Used in Auto-brightness function for
the display

Automobiles and streetlamps: Using a light sensor to trigger a bulb

when it is dark outside saves the slight hassle of turning on the lights
and saves power in the day when the sun is bright enough.
Security: Lasers are often used in security because their beam is
invisible to the naked eye. You can create a barrier of sorts when you
use a laser in combination with a light sensor.

They are often used at the entry of stores and workplaces which lets
owners know when someone has entered.
Horticulture: They are connected to sprinkler systems. The light sensor
detects when the sun is at its brightest and activates the sprinkler system to
ensure that plants and trees do not get dehydrated.

Safety: Photoelectric Smoke Detector, uses light sensors to detect fires. An

LED shines a beam of light inside the smoke detector toward the light
sensor. When smoke disturbs the beam an alarm is sounded.
A photo-interrupter consisting of an LED light
source (often infrared) and a photodetector.

Mechanical interruption of the light path can

be used for various purposes, such as counting,
triggering, and synchronization.
 Hall – Effect Sensors
They are magnetic sensors which generate electrical signals
proportional to the magnetic field applied on it.

They are non-contact sensors

Used in industrial applications like Current – sensing, Position

Detection and Contactless Switching.
When an electric current flows through any material, the electrons within the
current naturally move in a straight line, with the electricity creating its own
magnetic field as it charges.
If the electrically-charged material is placed between the poles of a
permanent magnet

Instead of moving in a straight line, the electrons will instead deviate

into a curved path as they move through the material.

This happens because their own magnetic field is reacting to the

contrasting field of the permanent magnet.
As a result of this new curved movement, more electrons are then
present at one side of the electrically-charged material.

Through this, a potential difference (or voltage) will then appear across
the material at right angles to the magnetic field, from both the
permanent magnet and the flow of the electric current.
Using semiconductors (such as silicon), Hall effect sensors work by
measuring the changing voltage when the device is placed in a magnetic
field.

In other words, once a Hall effect sensor detects that it is now in a

magnetic field, it is able to sense the position of objects.
As an example, if a Hall effect sensor was placed in a door frame and a
magnet on the door,

the sensor would be able to detect when the door is open or closed
through the presence of the magnetic field.
The output signal from a Hall effect sensor is the function of magnetic
field density around the device. When the magnetic flux density around
the sensor exceeds a certain pre-set threshold, the sensor detects it and
generates an output voltage called the Hall Voltage, VH.
Generally, Hall Effect sensors and switches are designed to be in the
“OFF”, (open circuit condition) when there is no magnetic field present.
They only turn “ON”, (closed circuit condition) when subjected to a
magnetic field of sufficient strength and polarity.
Automotive fuel level indicator:

The Hall sensor is used in some automotive fuel level indicators.

The main principle of operation of such indicator is position sensing of

a floating element.

In a vertical float system a permanent magnet is mounted on the surface

of a floating object.
The current carrying conductor is fixed on the top of the tank lining up with
the magnet.

When the level of fuel rises, an increasing magnetic field is applied on the
current resulting in higher Hall voltage.

As the fuel level decreases, the Hall voltage will also decrease. The fuel
level is indicated and displayed by proper signal condition of Hall voltage.
Measurement of Pressure
What is a Pressure Measurement Sensor?
A pressure sensor is a transducer that converts an input mechanical
pressure in gases or liquids into an electrical output signal.

A pressure transducer consists of:

A pressure-sensitive element that can detect the pressure being applied.
An electronic components to convert the information into an electrical
output signal.
Pressure transducers often utilize piezoresistive technology.

The piezoresistive element changes its electrical resistance proportional to

the strain (pressure) experienced.
 How does a Pressure Measurement Sensor work?
Pressure sensor (piezoresistive effect) which is measured by the strain gauge
(strain gage).

A metal foil strain gage is a transducer whose electrical resistance varies

with applied pressure.

In other words, it converts force, pressure, tension, compression, torque, and

weight (aka weight sensors) into a change in electrical resistance, which can
then be measured.
Strain gauges are electrical conductors tightly attached to a film in a
zigzag shape.

When this film is pulled, it is stretched and elongated. When it is pushed,

it is contracted and gets shorter.

This change in shape causes the resistance in the electrical conductors to

also change.
As strain gauge resistance increases with applied strain and diminishes with
contraction.
Industrial pressure sensors utilize the piezoresistive effect, which comprises
of metal foil strain gauges mounted onto a diaphragm.

As pressure changes, the diaphragm changes shape, causing the resistance in

the strain gauges to change, allowing the pressure changes to be measured
electrically.
The strain gauges are arranged in what is called a Wheatstone Bridge
Amplifier Circuit.

This means that four strain gages are interconnected as a loop circuit and
the measuring grid of the pressure being measured is aligned accordingly.
The strain gauge bridge amplifiers provide regulated excitation voltage
and convert the mv/V output signal into another form of signal that is
more useful to the user.

The signal generated by the strain gage bridge is a low strength signal
and may not work with other components of the system, such as PLC,
data acquisition modules (DAQ) or computers.
Thus, pressure sensor signal conditioner functions include excitation
voltage, noise filtering or attenuation, signal amplification, and output
signal conversion.
What are the types of pressure transducers and measurement methods?

There are three methods to measure pressure:

Differential

Absolute

Gauge.
Differential pressure is a measurement of the pressure difference between
two pressure values (two pressure points in the system)

Thus measuring by how much the two points differ from each other, not
their magnitude relative to atmospheric pressure or to another reference
pressure such as absolute vacuum.

This pressure measuring approach is typically used to measure the flow of a

liquid or a gas in pipes or ducts.
Pressure transducers with a diaphragm differential pressure sensor with one
side of the diaphragm exposed to one pressure media

The other side of the diaphragm to a second pressure media. The differential
pressure value is the pressure difference between the two pressure medias.
Absolute (Vacuum) Pressure Transducer: This sensor measures the
absolute pressure, which is defined as the pressure measured relative to a
perfect sealed vacuum.

Absolute pressure sensors are used in applications where a constant

reference is required.

These applications require reference to a fixed pressure as they cannot be

simply referenced to the surrounding ambient pressure.
A diaphragm based absolute pressure sensor has one side of the diaphragm
exposed to a permanently sealed vacuum cavity integrated in the sensor
element

The other side of the diaphragm exposed to the applied pressure media to
measure.
Absolute pressure sensors measure the input pressure with reference to a
vacuum chamber at 0bar (evacuated and hermetically sealed).

For example, high-performance industrial applications use this technique:

Industrial process control Industrial packaging

Aerospace and aviation inspection Monitoring vacuum pumps

When it comes to measuring air pressure, specifically for applications such as

barometric measurements for weather or in altimeters, an absolute pressure
sensor is the device of choice.
Gauge (Relative) Pressure Transducer:

They measure the input pressure with reference to ambient atmospheric

pressure (vented to atmosphere).

Gauge pressure is simply a special case of differential pressure with pressures

measured differentially but always relative to the local ambient pressure.

In the same respect, absolute pressure can also be considered a differential

pressure where the measured pressure is compared to a perfect vacuum.
Gauge pressure sensors is used to measure pressure relative to ambient
conditions, such as with car tire pressure.

As the sensors are open to the atmosphere, they are susceptible to humidity.

Care must be taken that units are installed in dry areas (otherwise internal
circuitry can fail).
Gauge pressure with a diaphragm-based gauge pressure sensor has one side of
diaphragm exposed to the ambient atmospheric pressure

The other side of the diaphragm is exposed to the applied pressure.

Changes of the atmospheric pressure due to weather conditions or altitude
directly influence the output of a gage pressure sensor.

A gauge pressure higher than ambient pressure is referred to as positive

pressure.

If the measured pressure is below atmospheric pressure it is called negative

(vacuum) gage pressure.
 Types of pressure-sensing technologies
There are a variety of sensing principles capable of transducing pressure
into a measurable and standardized electrical signal.

We will focus on the force collector types, which are the ones that use a
force gauge (i.e. diaphragm) to measure strain (or deflection) due to
applied force over an area (pressure).
 Mechanical pressure measurement
Pressure gauges with capsule element, diaphragm element or Bourdon tube.

With the mechanical pressure measurement with resilient pressure elements,

no supply voltage is required.

The pressure enters the pressure chamber of the measuring element, of which
one or more of the walls deform elastically in proportion to the pressure.
This deformation is thus the measure for the pressure.

The deflection achieved is in the range of a few tenths of a millimeter up to

10 millimeters.

This deflection is converted into an angle of rotation through a movement.

The pressure is read directly off an appropriately divided scale via a pointer.
 The construction of a bourdon tube gauge,
construction elements are made of brass.
Corrugated diaphragms
 Electronic pressure measurement
It is required to detect the pressure and/or its change, and to convert it
accurately and repeatably into an electrical signal utilizing a physical
operating principle.

The electrical signal is then a measure of the magnitude of the applied

pressure or change in pressure.
They have an excellent dynamic properties and a low material stress,
which expresses itself in a high load cycle stability and long-term
stability.

They can also be made available in very small sizes, e.g. through the use
of semiconductor materials.
 Resistive (piezoresistive effect) pressure measurement
They work based on the measurement of the change in resistance of electric
conductors which is caused by a pressure-dependent deflection.

The following equation applies for the resistance of an electric conductor:

They utilize the change in electrical resistance of a strain gauge bonded to
the diaphragm (a flexure element) that is exposed to the pressure medium.

The strain gauges often comprise of a metal resistive element on a flexible

backing bonded to the diaphragm (i.e. metal foil strain gage)
Diaphragm
Design of an encapsulated piezo-resistive sensor
Normally, the strain gauges are connected to form a Wheatstone bridge circuit
to maximize the output of the sensor and to reduce sensitivity to errors.

This is the most commonly employed sensing technology for general-purpose

pressure measurement and uses the same principle of how a load cell works.
 Capacitive pressure measurement

It work based on the measurement of the capacitance of a capacitor, which

is dependent upon the plate separation.

The capacitance of a dual-plate capacitor is determined using the following

equation:
Capacitive pressure sensors use a diaphragm that is deflected by the applied
pressure to create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to applied pressure.

As pressure is applied, the external pressure compresses the diaphragm, and

the capacitance value changes.

As the pressure is released, the diaphragm returns to its original shape and
capacitance follows.
Capacitive sensors, which display a capacitance change as one plate
deflects under applied pressure, can be highly sensitive and withstand large
overloads.

Common technologies use metal, ceramic, and silicon diaphragms. The

capacitance can be calibrated to provide accurate pressure reading.
Elastic diaphragm gauges

when an elastic transducer, such as diaphragm, is subjected to a pressure,

it deflects.

This deflection is proportional to the applied pressure when calibrated.

The main part of the diaphragm gauge is a thin circular plate which is
firmly fixed around its edges.
The diaphragm may either be flat, dish, corrugated, or capsule
If the displacement is sensed by a secondary transducer such as a parallel
plate capacitor, its movable plate is connected to the external circuit.

In such arrangement the movable plate moves upwards, thus reducing the
gap between the plates.

This makes the capacitance of the capacitor becomes a measure of the

applied pressure.
Piezoelectric effect
Piezoelectric pressure sensors utilize the property of piezoelectric
materials like ceramic or metalized quartz,

It generates an electrical potential on the surface when the material is

subjected to mechanical stress (strain).
The charge magnitude is proportional to the pressure applied, and the
polarity is defined by the pressure direction.

The electrical potential accumulates and dissipates quickly as pressure

changes, allowing measurement of fast-changing dynamic pressures.
Piezoelectric sensors rely on the electrical properties of quartz crystals
rather than a resistive bridge transducer.

These crystals generate an electrical charge when they are strained.

Electrodes transfer the charge from the crystals to an amplifier built into
the sensor.

These sensors do not require an external excitation source, but they are
susceptible to shock and vibration.
 Pressure transducer calibration
It is an adjustment (set of corrections) that are performed on a sensor, or
instrument (amplifier), to make sure that the sensor operates as accurately
(error-free) as possible.

Every sensor is prone to measurement errors.

These uncertainties are the algebraic difference between the value that is
indicated by the sensor output versus the actual value of the measured variable
(reference pressures).
Each pressure sensor has a "characteristic curve" (calibration curve), which
defines the sensor's response to an input.

During a regular calibration using the sensor calibration machine:

We check the sensor's zero offset and linearity

By comparing the sensor output under reference weights and adjusting the
sensor response to an ideal linear output.
Structure of a pressure measuring instrument
Temperature Measurement
Temperature is simply an average measure of the kinetic energy for
particles of matter.

The more is their kinetic energy, the higher the temperature of the
body/object.
Many methods have been developed for measuring temperature.

Most of these rely on measuring some physical property of a working

material that varies with temperature.

One of the most common devices for measuring temperature is the glass
thermometer.

This consists of a glass tube filled with mercury or some other liquid, which
acts as the working fluid.
Temperature increase causes the fluid to expand, so the temperature can be
determined by measuring the volume of the fluid.

Such thermometers are usually calibrated so that one can read the temperature
simply by observing the level of the fluid in the thermometer.
Thermometer
As the liquid expands and contracts, we can
easily read the temperature.

This method is easy for use.

Disadvantages:
Not digital (slow)
Low accuracy
Small range
Other important devices for measuring temperature include:
Thermocouples
Thermistors
Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
Semiconductor-based temperature sensors
Pyrometer (Infrared thermometer)
Bimetallic devices
 Thermocouples
A thermocouple usually consists of two junctions of dissimilar metals, such
as copper and constantan that are welded or crimped together.

One of these junctions, known as the Cold junction, is kept at a specific

temperature.

The other one is the measuring junction, known as the Hot junction.

On being subjected to temperature, a voltage drop is developed across the

junction.
Thermocouples are voltage devices that indicate temperature measurement
with a change in voltage.

As temperature goes up, the output voltage of the thermocouple rises - not
necessarily linearly.

Often the thermocouple is located inside a metal or ceramic shield that

protects it from exposure to a variety of environments.
Thermocouples are nonlinear and require a conversion with a table when used
for temperature control.

Accuracy is low, from 0.5 °C to 5 °C but thermocouples operate across the

widest temperature range, from -200 °C to 1750 °C.
Advantages of thermocouples:
wide temperature operating range
simplicity
sensitivity
 Resistive Temperature Measuring Devices
Resistive temperature measuring devices also are electrical.

Rather than using a voltage as the thermocouple does, they take advantage of
another characteristic of matter which changes with temperature - its resistance.

The two types of resistive devices are:

Resistive temperature detectors (RTDs)
Thermistors
 Thermistors

Thermistors (thermally sensitive resistors) are the ones that change their
physical appearance when subjected to change in the temperature.

The thermistors are made up of ceramic material such as oxides of nickel,

manganese or cobalt coated in glass which allows them to deform easily.
Most of the thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
which means their resistance decreases with an increase in the temperature.

But, there are a few thermistors that have a positive temperature coefficient
(PTC) and, their resistance increases with a rise in the temperature.
 Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor
An NTC thermistor provides higher resistance at low temperatures.

As temperature increases, the resistance drops incrementally, according to

its R-T table.

Small changes reflect accurately due to large changes in resistance per °C.

The output of an NTC thermistor is non-linear due to its exponential

nature; however, it can be linearized based on its application.

The effective operating range is -50 to 250 °C for glass encapsulated

thermistors or 150°C for standard thermistors.
 Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD)
RTDs are precise temperature sensors.

They are made up of high-purity conducting metals

such as:
Platinum
Copper
Nickel

The electrical resistance of an RTD changes similar

to that of a thermistor.
An RTD consists of a film or, for greater accuracy, a wire wrapped around a
ceramic or glass core.

Platinum makes up the most accurate RTDs while nickel and copper make
RTDs that are lower cost

However, nickel and copper are not as stable or repeatable as platinum.

Platinum RTDs offer a highly accurate linear output across -200 to 600 °C
but are much more expensive than copper or nickel.
In general, RTDs are more linear than are thermocouples.

They increase in a positive direction, with resistance going up as

temperature rises.

On the other hand, the thermistor has an entirely different type of

construction. It is an extremely nonlinear semiconductive device.
Semiconductor-based temperature sensors

It works based on the fact that the junction voltage across a p-n combination of
semiconductors, is a function of temperature.

They offer a linear response but have the lowest accuracy of the basic sensor
types.

These temperature sensors also have the slowest responsiveness across the
narrowest temperature range (-70 °C to 150 °C).
They are usually incorporated into integrated circuits (ICs), Used in electronic
devices.

These sensors utilize two identical diodes with temperature-sensitive voltage

vs current characteristics that are used to monitor changes in temperature.
Pyrometer
A pyrometer, often known as a radiation thermometer, is a non-contact device.

They are used to determine an item’s surface temperature by measuring the

temperature of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the object.

As a result, this non-conductive device can be used to measure thermal

radiation.

We may use this to determine the temperature of the object’s surface.

Infrared Temperature Sensor is one type of pyrometer.

Infrared Sensors

Infrared sensors are non-contacting sensors.

The working of IR sensors can be done by focusing the IR energy generated

from an object on photodetectors.

These photosensors change the energy into an electrical signal that is

comparable to the infrared energy generated through the object.
Because the IR energy generated from any object can be proportional to
its temperature.

The electrical signal provides a precise temperature reading of the

object.

The IR signals are supplied to the IR sensor through a plastic window.

In other words, At any given wavelength, a body radiates energy of an
intensity that depends on the body's temperature.

By evaluating the emitted energy at known wavelengths, the

temperature of the body can be found.
 Thermostats
A thermostat is a contact type temperature sensor

Consisting of a bi-metallic strip made up of two dissimilar metals such as

aluminum, copper, nickel, or tungsten.

The difference in the coefficient of linear expansion of both the metals:

Causes them to produce a mechanical bending movement when it’s

subjected to heat.
Bimetallic devices take advantage of the expansion of metals when they are
heated.

In these temperature checking devices, two metals are bonded together and
mechanically linked to a pointer.

When heated, one side of the bimetallic strip will expand more than the other.

And when geared properly to a pointer, the temperature measurement is

indicated.
Advantages of bimetallic devices are portability and independence from a
power supply.

However, they are not usually quite as accurate as are electrical devices

We cannot easily record the temperature value as with electrical devices

like thermocouples or RTDs

But portability is a definite advantage for the right application.

Application of Temperature Sensor

Used in electric motors for measuring the temperature of the motor

winding, bearing, brushes

Used in mechanical engines for measuring the internal temperature

It is also used in an HVAC system

Used in humidity and air control conditioning equipment