Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine - Herbal Medicines For Animal Health (PDFDrive)
Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine - Herbal Medicines For Animal Health (PDFDrive)
Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine - Herbal Medicines For Animal Health (PDFDrive)
Evaluating Efficacy
of Ethnoveterinary
Medicinal Plants
Lyndy J. McGaw and Jacobus N. Eloff
Contents
1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................1
1.1.1 The Need for Evaluating Traditional Animal Treatments.....................2
1.2 Biological Activity Screening............................................................................4
1.2.1 Limitations of Laboratory Testing of EVM Remedies..........................6
1.2.2 Extract Preparation................................................................................7
1.2.3 Antibacterial and Antifungal.................................................................9
1.2.4 Antiviral............................................................................................... 12
1.2.5 Antiprotozoal and Antirickettsial........................................................ 13
1.2.6 Anthelmintic........................................................................................ 14
1.2.7 Antitick................................................................................................ 15
1.2.8 Antioxidant.......................................................................................... 16
1.2.9 Anti-inflammatory and Wound Healing.............................................. 17
1.3 Toxicity Studies............................................................................................... 18
1.4 Conclusion....................................................................................................... 19
Acknowledgments.....................................................................................................20
References.................................................................................................................20
1.1 Introduction
In many developing countries with limited access to orthodox health care services,
the majority of rural people rely on traditional medicines to alleviate a variety of
ailments. Likewise, many pastoralists use customary remedies to treat their sick ani-
mals. Commercial pharmaceutical drugs are sometimes available in remote rural
areas, but they are often dispensed by untrained vendors or repackaged without
printed instructions, which may not be able to be read by illiterate users in any case,
leading to drug misuse (Mathias, 2007). In an effort to improve animal health care
services in rural areas, it is vital to utilize all available resources, including ethno
veterinary medicine (EVM).
1
2 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
The growing interest in and increasing recognition of the role of EVM has been
limited in terms of further development by unavailability of information on the effi-
cacy and safety of these practices. Several research papers in international publica-
tions have confirmed a heightened recognition of the need for rigorous scientific
investigation of EVM remedies. Studies of biological activity of plants used against
veterinary diseases can provide indications of promising leads for extracts that can
be developed and used on a commercial basis. Plants with activity may also provide
leads for isolation and identification of useful compounds that may be chemically
modified to optimize medicinal value and reduce possible toxic effects, in other
words, developed into pharmaceuticals.
For common conditions such as coughs, wounds, skin diseases, mild diarrhea,
and reproductive disorders, EVM can be a cheap and easily obtainable alternative
to expensive orthodox drugs. For epidemic infectious diseases, including anthrax,
rinderpest, rabies, and foot-and-mouth disease, modern drugs (mostly vaccines) are
preferred. Many drugs in conventional therapy are based on chemical compounds of
plant origin or on synthetic derivatives of these chemicals. The search for alternative
antibacterials and anthelmintics in particular is intensifying following problems
associated with drug resistance and chemical residues in production animals. EVM
practices, if proven to be effective and not harmful, may provide answers (not only
regarding plant-based remedies but also concerning management customs) to some
of these problems currently encountered in conventional veterinary practice.
Much research has been undertaken, especially as reflected by the expanding
scientific literature, concerning the ethnopharmacological investigation of plants
used to treat humans for various illnesses. This has been followed by an interest
in plants used in animal health. It is logical that in evaluating these plants for bio-
logical efficacy and safety that similar bioassays are used in a laboratory situation
where plants are being investigated for similar types of activity. It is essential to
build and maintain standards for assessing the therapeutic potential of plants to
facilitate comparison of results between different research groups (Cowan, 1999).
In this chapter, methods for evaluating traditional ethnoveterinary plant-based rem-
edies used for treating common diseases are discussed. Some results obtained in
these assays with particular reference to the South African context are supplied.
Considerations to be taken into account when embarking on research in this field
are also presented and discussed.
1. Use of reference strains or fully characterized clinical isolates (in the case
of microorganisms, the American Type Culture Collection [ATCC] strains
are widely used as standards).
2. In vitro models on the whole organism, if possible cell based.
3. Selectivity evaluation by parallel cytotoxicity testing or integrated profiling
against unrelated microorganisms.
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 5
A variety of test systems should be employed in the in vitro screens because the
use of only one bioassay yields an incomplete picture of the effect of the extract on
the whole system involved (Houghton et al., 2007). Many diseases involve more than
one factor, and Houghton et al. (2007) cautioned that the use of a single in vitro test is
generally too simplistic and reductionist to achieve an idea of biological activity. An
assortment of chemicals is present in an extract, and these may each have a different
biological or pharmacological activity, together contributing to the overall clinical
effect (Houghton et al., 2007). It is therefore preferable to use a range of tests for dif-
ferent activities, all related to the particular disease state under investigation.
Pharmacological evaluation of medicinal plants followed by bioassay-guided
fractionation can lead to the isolation of pure active compounds with potential for
commercialization. An alternative to this route, particularly pertinent to developing
countries, is the preparation of standardized, formulated extracts that could con-
tribute to an innovative and successful local pharmaceutical industry (Pieters and
Vlietinck, 2005).
A growing number of publications document the use of herbal remedies by small-
scale farmers to treat an assortment of livestock diseases, from skin conditions to
babesiosis and anaplasmosis (Masika, Sonandi, and Van Averbeke, 1997; Masika,
Van Averbeke, and Sonandi, 2000; Dold and Cocks, 2001; Van der Merwe, Swan,
and Botha, 2001; Njoroge and Bussmann, 2006; Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006).
Methods of obtaining information range from participatory methods to semistruc-
tured interviews, field observations, and questionnaire surveys. This expanding doc-
umentation of plants used in EVM is anticipated to precede increased investigation
of these plants for bioactivity, reflecting the situation in human ethnomedicine. It is
generally accepted that a great deal of work remains to be done on recording the uses
of plants in EVM.
Factors to be taken into consideration by researchers aiming to evaluate the bio-
logical activity of herbal EVM remedies include whether the plants are used singly
or in combination with other plants, the plant part used, method of preparation, dos-
age, and the way in which the remedy is applied. For example, herbal remedies can
be prepared from fresh or dry material in the form of infusions, decoctions, pastes,
or expressed juices from fresh plants. Masika, Van Averbeke, and Sonandi (2000)
stated that the route and method of application of a remedy depends on the perceived
cause of the disease condition. Topical applications are commonly used for skin con-
ditions, powders are rubbed into incisions, drops are placed in the ears and eyes, and
drenches are popular in treating systemic conditions. In other studies in South Africa,
it was noted that plants are generally not processed or mixed with other materials and
6 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
are used as single-plant decoctions or infusions for dosing animals or crushed and
used topically for wound treatment (Van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001; Luseba
and Van der Merwe, 2006). This is in contrast with traditional medicine intended
for human use, for which processing (milling, extracting, etc.) and mixing of two or
more plant species (and even animal parts) appears to be common practice.
1.2.2 Extract Preparation
The variety of methods by which EVMs are prepared and administered to animals
complicates the task of evaluating activity of a particular remedy. The reason for
which the screening is being undertaken must be kept in mind when designing
the study, including preparation of the extract for pharmacological testing. If the
purpose is solely to validate the use of a certain remedy, then it is advisable to
closely follow the traditional method of preparation as many factors may influence
the activity of the resultant mixture. In addition, the route of administration must
somehow be taken into account. In some cases, it is thus possible that in vivo tests
are the only mechanism by which the efficacy of an EVM medicine can be verified.
Alternatively, careful design of in vitro screening systems may yield a reasonable
idea of the efficacy and nontoxicity of remedies. The selection of a screening sys-
tem will for the most part depend on the nature of the disease being investigated
8 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
and the availability of validated laboratory models to identify the relevant biologi-
cal activity.
For broader screening programs aimed at discovering biological activity in par-
ticular plants used in EVM, standardized methods are widely used. Care must be
taken to ensure that potentially active compounds are not lost during processing; for
example, some constituents may be thermolabile or photosensitive. Plant extracts
may be prepared using fresh material or, more commonly, dried powdered mate-
rial. The plant material can be extracted using water or organic solvents that vary in
polarity. For extraction of hydrophilic compounds, polar solvents such as methanol,
ethanol, and ethyl acetate can be used, while if lipophilic compounds are being tar-
geted, more nonpolar solvents such as dichloromethane and hexane may be used.
Eloff (1998b) examined a spectrum of solvents for their ability to extract antimi-
crobial compounds from plant material and other factors, including their hazardous
nature and ease of removal from the extract. The aim of the study was to identify
a more standardized extraction method, and acetone was highlighted as the solvent
with the best rating, followed in order by dichloromethane, methanol, ethanol, and
water. However, this may vary with the plant species or plant part under investigation
(see also Chapter 4).
Following extraction, appropriate handling of the extracts is important to avoid
decomposition of active compounds or other changes that may affect biological
activity. It is common practice to resuspend dried extract residues in the extracting
solvent to a known concentration prior to screening, provided the extract redissolves
adequately in the solvent and the solvent is not toxic in the testing system. In quan-
tifying the extract, some researchers dry down only a small aliquot of the extract to
determine the original concentration and then use the remaining intact extract for
testing. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is a popular solvent in which to prepare test
compound solutions at a stock concentration (Cos et al., 2006). Test stock solutions
in 100% DMSO have the advantages of elimination of microbial contamination, thus
obviating the need for filter sterilization, which may lead to loss of compounds, and
good compatibility with many test systems as a result of good solubility when diluted
to a working concentration in aqueous medium. As DMSO is potentially toxic for
cells in tissue culture or microorganisms, the final testing concentration of the sol-
vent should not exceed 1% (Cos et al., 2006). Acetone was put forward as the solvent
of choice for use in antibacterial testing systems as, at the concentrations used in a
serial broth microdilution assay, it was found to be nontoxic to various species of
bacteria tested (Eloff, 1998a). This was also held to be the case for antifungal assays
based on a similar method (Masoko, Picard, and Eloff, 2005). Regarding storage
issues, Cos et al. (2006) recommended that compounds and extracts should gener-
ally be stored without solvent for long-term storage or in 100% DMSO at −20°C
with minimal exposure to freeze-thaw cycles or humidity. This is meant to reduce
degradation of components. Storage in methylated solvents is not advised because of
the possible formation of artifacts.
In the following sections of this chapter, examples of EVM plants that have been
screened for biological activity, the methods used to screen them, and indications of
activity discovered in the plants are given. Particular emphasis is placed on treatments
for those diseases of importance in livestock. Techniques available for bioassaying
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 9
the plant preparations are described briefly and references given for more detailed
information. It is commonly found that there is an overlap between veterinary and
human medicine in many communities, but the emphasis here is on the former.
developed on a TLC plate using an appropriate mobile phase (i.e., one that separates
the compounds adequately but is also relatively volatile so it evaporates rapidly from
the plate). A balance needs to be struck between allowing sufficient time prior to
bioautography to pass for the eluting solvent to evaporate completely from the TLC
plate, but not too much time for the exposed compounds separated on the TLC plate
to decompose as a result of exposure to light and oxygen. In agar overlay bioautogra-
phy (Hamburger and Cordell, 1987; Rahalison et al., 1991), agar medium mixed with
bacterial or fungal culture before it solidifies is poured onto the TLC plate and incu-
bated. In a popular method that avoids the difficulties associated with compounds
not being able to diffuse into the agar medium from the TLC plate, a suspension of
bacteria or fungi in liquid medium is sprayed onto the developed TLC plate. This
is termed direct bioautography (Begue and Kline, 1972). After the plate is sprayed
with a suspension of a tetrazolium salt such as INT the presence of clear zones of
inhibition are visualized against a purple background to indicate microbial growth.
Bioautography facilitates bioassay-guided fractionation for the isolation of antibacte-
rial or antifungal compounds, but its use is restricted to those microorganisms that
are able to grow rapidly on a TLC plate with the limited amount of nutrients avail-
able for growth in the medium that adheres to the surface of the TLC plate. In this
regard, using the technique for filamentous fungi is inappropriate.
Selection of test bacterial species to use in a screening procedure is dependent on
the purpose of the study. For routine antibacterial screening, the National Committee
for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS, 1990) (Villanova, Pennsylvania,
USA) recommended the Gram-positive Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212) and
Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 29213) and the Gram-negative Escherichia coli (ATCC
25922) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853). For antifungal screening proj-
ects, representatives from the yeasts (e.g., Candida albicans), dermatophytic fungi
(e.g., Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Epidermophyton floccosum), and opportu-
nistic filamentous fungi (Aspergillus niger and Fusarium solani) could be included
(Cos et al., 2006). The NCCLS (1990) recommended an inoculum of approximately
105 cfu/mL for bacteria, while for yeasts and fungi an inoculum of between 103 to
104 colony-forming units (CFU)/mL is sufficient for dilution methods (Hadacek and
Greger, 2000). An inoculum size that is too low may give false positive results, while
a too large inoculum could increase false negatives (Cos et al., 2006).
It has been estimated that about 75% of rural livestock owners in the Eastern
Cape province of South Africa use plant-based treatments to treat their livestock
(Masika and Afolayan, 2002). When screened against a panel of 10 bacteria and 5
fungi, extracts of Combretum caffrum, Salix capensis, and Schotia latifolia showed
good activity against all the Gram-positive bacteria and some antifungal activity
(Masika and Afolayan, 2002). Most of the extracts were not active against the Gram-
negative bacterial species; interestingly, some water extracts actually promoted
fungal growth (Masika and Afolayan, 2002). This may have been due to nutritive
sugars, which partition into the aqueous fraction. The organisms used in this study
were selected from those generally associated with infections or disease in humans
and animals. Different concentrations of each plant extract were mixed with liq-
uid agar at approximately 60°C before being poured into Petri dishes. Solvent was
allowed to evaporate overnight from the plates, and bacteria or fungi were inoculated
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 11
onto the plates and inhibition of growth observed. It was concluded that the inhibi-
tion of growth of Gram-positive bacteria, the Gram-negative Enterobacter cloacae,
and several fungal species by water extracts of the plants indicated possible broad-
spectrum antimicrobial effects of the plants, validating to a degree the traditional use
of these plants (Masika and Afolayan, 2002).
Ethnoveterinary plants used to treat infectious diseases in cattle were screened in a
broth microdilution assay for antibacterial activity (McGaw, Van der Merwe, and Eloff,
2007) against the organisms recommended for antibacterial testing by the NCCLS
(1990). Hexane, methanol, and water extracts were found to be most active against the
Gram-positive E. faecalis and S. aureus. Gram-positive species are known to be more
susceptible to antimicrobials than are Gram-negative bacteria owing to differences in
the bacterial cell wall composition (Vlietinck et al., 1995). It was reported by McGaw,
Van der Merwe, and Eloff (2007) that a third of plant extracts tested had MIC values
less than 1 mg/mL, and it was largely methanol extracts that displayed activity.
Ziziphus mucronata (Rhamnaceae) demonstrated excellent antibacterial activity
in the preliminary assay (McGaw, Van der Merwe, and Eloff, 2007), and the antibac-
terial compounds 2,3-dihydroxyl-up-20-en-28-oic acid and zizyberanalic acid were
subsequently isolated from the leaves (Moloto, 2004). The first compound was very
active against Staphylococcus aureus, supporting claims of the efficacy of leaf pastes
of Z. mucronata for the treatment of bacterial infections in animals and humans.
Bizimenyera et al. (2005) identified substantial antibacterial activity against S.
aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Peltophorum africanum (Fabaceae), also
using the broth microdilution method. The root and bark extracts are used by farm-
ers to treat stomach ailments such as diarrhea and dysentery in cattle (Bizimenyera
et al., 2005), and the antibacterial activity discovered in extracts of the plant may
warrant its use against bacterial infections.
Rhizomes and roots of the popular ethnoveterinary plant Gunnera perpensa
(Gunneraceae) are used to treat endometritis and retained placenta in cattle and
women (Hutchings et al., 1996; Van Wyk, Van Oudtshoorn, and Gericke, 1997), and
the possibility that antibacterial effects could be responsible for its activity has been
investigated (McGaw et al., 2005; Drewes et al., 2005). Gunnera perpensa rhizome
extracts showed only slight activity against several Gram-negative and Gram-positive
bacterial species (McGaw, Jäger, and van Staden, 2000; McGaw et al., 2005), indi-
cating that antibacterial efficacy probably played a mere supporting role to the known
uterotonic activity (Kaido et al., 1997) in the reputed medicinal value of the rhizome.
Drewes et al. (2005) isolated 1,4-benzoquinones from the stem and leaves of G. per-
pensa. One of the benzoquinones had significant antimicrobial activity, with MIC =
9.8 µg/mL against Staphylococcus epidermidis (Drewes et al., 2005).
Noteworthy antifungal activity in several Terminalia species (Combretaceae) was
reported by Masoko, Picard, and Eloff (2005) against various morphological forms
of fungi, including yeasts (Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans), molds
(Aspergillus fumigatus), and thermally dimorphic fungi (Sporothrix schenckii).
These fungal species were carefully selected to represent a spectrum of clinical iso-
lates of the most common and important disease-causing fungi in animals. From
extracts of Terminalia leaves prepared using several organic solvents, the acetone
extracts were most active.
12 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
1.2.4 Antiviral
In vitro antiviral assay methods are often based on the abilities of viruses to rep-
licate in cell cultures. Certain viruses cause cytopathic effects (CPEs) or form
plaques in lawns of cells, facilitating detection of antiviral effects of a substance.
Inhibition of viral replication can also be discovered by monitoring the presence
of viral products, such as viral RNA, DNA, or polypeptides. Virucidal substances
inactivate the ability of a virus to be infective extracellularly and find application
as broad-spectrum biocides. Antiviral agents are more interesting as candidates
for clinical use because they may interfere with some aspect of viral biosynthesis
(Cos et al., 2006). Vlietinck and Vanden Berghe (1991) supplied a useful outline
of cell-based assays that can be used for antiviral or virucidal evaluation of pure
compounds or plant extracts.
Toxicity to the host cell system must be assessed as part of the antiviral investi-
gation. The Selectivity Index (SI) is the ratio of the maximum drug concentration
causing 50% (or 90%) growth inhibition of normal cells (CC50 or CC90, respectively)
and the minimum drug concentration at which 50% (or 90%) of the virus is inhibited
(IC50 or IC90, respectively). It is essential to gain an indication of cytotoxicity of the
test substance as, without this, results do not distinguish between antiviral effect and
effect against the host cell system.
The choice of viruses to use in a screening panel should include representatives
of DNA viruses and RNA viruses and could include criteria such as their ability to
replicate in the same cell culture. In the Phytomedicine Program at the University
of Pretoria, we have begun investigating antiviral activity of ethnoveterinary plants
against feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1) as an enveloped virus relatively sensitive
to environmental influences. Plants with good activity in this preliminary screen
are then assayed for activity against more resistant viruses, such as the lumpy skin
disease virus.
No reports could be found of EVM plants being tested for antiviral activity,
although many publications reported on efficacy of ethnobotanically chosen plants
against a number of different viruses (e.g., Kudi and Myint, 1999; Asres et al., 2001;
Lamien et al., 2005). To screen for antiviral activity, variations on virucidal assays
are available in the ethnopharmacological literature, and these mainly focus on inhi-
bition of viral CPE or plaque inhibition. In the virucidal assays, monolayers of the
appropriate host cell type are cultured in 96-well microtiter plates. In the cytotoxic-
ity aspect of the assay, serial dilutions of plant extract are exposed to the cells and
incubated for a defined period at 37°C in a 5% CO2 incubator. Following this, the
cells are examined using an inverted microscope for signs of damage. Alternatively,
a tetrazolium salt or other color indicator of cell viability may be used to detect
cytotoxicity compared to untreated cells. In the antiviral test, serial plant extract
dilutions are prepared as for the cytotoxicity assay, but virus is added to the cells.
In their study, Kudi and Myint (1999) applied tissue culture medium infective dose
(TCID50) of 105 viral particles (100 µL) to each well. The cultures were incubated for
an hour to allow adsorption of viral particles, after which 100 µL per well of plant
extract dilutions were added to the wells. The plates were incubated for a certain
period to allow development of CPEs, if any, and results compared to the controls
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 13
consisting of only cells and cells with virus only. A range of different viruses was
used in this method.
In an example of a plaque inhibition assay, Zhang et al. (2007) infected
monolayers of host (Vero) cells grown in six-well culture plates with 100–200
plaque-forming units (PFU) of herpes simplex virus (HSV). After incubating the
plates for 1 h to allow adsorption of the virus, the inoculum was aspirated from
the cells, and the cultures were overlaid with 0.8% methylcellulose in culture
medium containing dilutions of the test plant extract. After 3 days of incubation
at 37°C, the plates were fixed with formalin, stained with crystal violet, air dried,
and the number of plaques counted. Control plates consisted of those without
plant extract, and the percentage of plaque formation inhibition was calculated
as follows:
1.2.6 Anthelmintic
Helminth parasites of livestock are common in rural areas, and anthelmintic rem-
edies form a major component of EVM, as is the case with human traditional medi-
cine. Laboratory research on anthelmintic activity of plant extracts is constrained by
the expense, ethical issues and time associated with performing in vivo trials, and
the difficulties experienced in maintaining parasitic nematodes in culture systems
in vitro. A free-living nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, has been used as a model
organism in broad screening studies as it is easier and cheaper than using parasitic
nematodes (Simpkin and Coles, 1981; Rasoanaivo and Ratsimamanga-Urverg, 1993).
Notwithstanding the limitations encountered in extrapolating activity against a free-
living nematode to activity against a parasitic species (Geary and Thompson, 2001),
most commercially available broad-spectrum anthelmintics demonstrate activity
against C. elegans (Simpkin and Coles, 1981).
In vitro screening investigations have revealed that many plant extracts show
activity against the free-living C. elegans nematodes (McGaw, Jäger AK, and van
Staden, 2000; McGaw and Eloff, 2005; McGaw, Van der Merwe, and Eloff, 2007).
A rapid inhibition assay is easy and simple to perform and entails incubating varying
concentrations of plant extracts with nematodes for a defined period of 2 h and scor-
ing the percentage of paralyzed or dead nematodes in comparison to the untreated
control (Rasoanaivo and Ratsimamanga-Urverg, 1993). Using this assay, several
plant species belonging to the family Combretaceae exhibited interesting anthelm-
intic activity against C. elegans (McGaw et al., 2001). These studies may constitute a
first step in validating the use of these plants in treating worm infestations in animals
and in humans. In a more complicated screening system that evaluates the ability
of the nematodes to grow and reproduce, plant extracts are incubated with nema-
todes in appropriate culture medium with bacterial and fungal growth inhibitors in
24-well assay plates for 7 days, after which the percentage of surviving nematodes is
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 15
compared to that of the control wells (Simpkin and Coles, 1981; McGaw, Jäger AK,
and van Staden, 2000).
Plant extracts have also been tested using in vitro assays with parasitic nematode
eggs and larvae. Egg hatch and larval development inhibition against the two most
important livestock nematode parasites Haemonchus contortus and Trichostronglyus
colubriformis by various plant extracts have been reported. In these assays, the
nematodes are maintained in monospecifically infected lambs, and eggs are col-
lected from the feces. Test substances incubated with the freshly collected eggs may
inhibit hatching in the aptly termed egg hatch assay (Coles et al., 1992). The larval
development assay (Coles et al., 1988) detects the ability of plant extracts, or other
compounds, to retard development of the eggs into infective larvae. The combination
of the two assays can provide a practical indication of anthelmintic activity of plant
extracts or pure compounds isolated from the extracts.
Peltophorum africanum is a popular plant for use in treating helminthosis, and
the acetone extracts of the leaf, bark, and root have been screened for activity against
H. contortus and T. colubriformis in the egg hatch and larval development assays
(Bizimenyera, Githiori, Eloff, et al., 2006; Bizimenyera, Swan, et al., 2006). The
extracts all showed activity in the assays at a concentration of 0.2 mg/mL, providing
some support for the use of this plant in traditional medicine. Further confirmation
of nontoxicity and efficacy is required, particularly in vivo. Various animal models
have been used to detect anthelmintic effects of plant extracts (Kahiya, Mukaratirwa,
and Thamsborg, 2003; Iqbal et al., 2006; Jabbar et al., 2007).
1.2.7 Antitick
Tick-borne diseases are a major source of concern for livestock farmers. Research
has been undertaken on the repellent and toxic effects of plant extracts against ticks,
with promising results thus far. Nchu (2004) analyzed the repellent effects of extracts
of Allium species, as well as the direct toxicity, against adults of Hyalomma mar-
ginatum rufipes. Acetone extracts of A. porrum revealed a high repellency index
(65–79.48%), and the dichloromethane extract of A. sativum was toxic to 100%
of ticks within an hour of exposure. Lippia javanica and Tagetes minuta essential
oils had a concentration-dependent effect on the ticks (Nchu, 2004), and T. minuta
delayed molting to adult stage of 60% of engorged nymphs of H. m. rufipes in a
growth inhibition bioassay. Thembo (2006) showed that Senna italica ssp. ara-
choides ethyl acetate extracts had a concentration-dependent acaricidal effect on
H. m. rufipes. When S. italica ssp. arachoides aqueous extracts were fed to guinea
pigs and rabbits, the feeding performance of adult H. m. rufipes ticks appeared to be
impaired (Thembo, 2006).
Plants are used in many African countries as antitick agents on livestock, and 28
of these plants from Ethiopia showed promising repellency activities against adult
Rhipicephalus pulchellus ticks, with Calpurnia aurea displaying the highest toxic-
ity toward the ticks (Zorloni, 2007). Some plants used in South Africa as traditional
arthropocides were screened for antitick effects, with Eucalyptus globoidea and
Lavendula angustifolia emerging as effective tick repellents (Mkolo, 2008).
16 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
1.2.8 Antioxidant
The current literature reveals a proliferation of recent articles describing antioxidant
activity of plant extracts. It should be kept in mind from the outset that most flower-
ing plants contain some antioxidants, and the activity of a plant against a certain
disease generally cannot be explained exclusively in terms of its antioxidant activ-
ity (Houghton et al., 2007). Oxidative damage caused by free radicals, or reactive
oxygen species, has been implicated in contributing to the progression of a number
of diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, many cancers, and diabetes. Various in
vitro screening systems for antioxidant activity have been described, including those
based on chemical reactions, for example, the diphenyl–picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free-
radical scavenging test (Mensah et al., 2004), those involving biological models such
as liposomes to mimic cell wall lipids (Dickson et al., 2006), and those involving
cells challenged with prooxidants (Mensah et al., 2001).
The TEAC (trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity) assay described by Re et al.
(1999) has a major advantage in that it is applicable to both aqueous and lipophilic
systems. It is a decolorization assay that measures antioxidant activity in compari-
son to trolox, a water-soluble vitamin E analogue. This assay begins with generation
of the radical monocation 2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), or
ABTS+, a blue-green compound produced by reacting ABTS with potassium sulfate.
When the free radical is incubated with antioxidants, these compounds reduce the
radical to colorless ABTS, and this reaction depends on the concentration of the
antioxidant and the time during which the reaction is allowed to occur. The level of
decolorization as percentage inhibition of the free radical is calculated relative to the
reactivity of trolox under identical conditions (Re et al., 1999).
The widely used ethnoveterinary plant Peltophorum africanum is used to pro-
mote well-being and resistance to diseases in cattle, in addition to the previously
mentioned use in treating stomach upsets (Bizimenyera et al., 2005). On screen-
ing the plant for antioxidant activity using the TEAC assay, it was found that root
extracts possessed good antioxidant activity, particularly the ethanol extract of the
root. The level of polyphenols in the roots was also high, probably contributing in
large part to the overall antioxidant activity (Bizimenyera et al., 2005). In the study
of Naidoo et al. (2008), plant extracts with high antioxidant activity were shown to
be effective in treating coccidiosis infections in chickens.
After Naidoo et al. (2005) reported that extracts of Rhoicissus tridentata, a plant
used for the treatment of babesiosis in cattle, were not effective in an in vitro antib-
abesial assay, it was proposed that the reputed efficacy of this plant may result from
a reduction in antioxidant cellular injury (Naidoo, Zweygarth, and Swan, 2006).
Antioxidant evaluation of acetone extracts of different plant parts revealed good
activity in the DPPH assay and in the TEAC assay (value of 2.5). The activity was
held to owe in part to the presence of catechin, epicatechin, gallic acid, and epigallo-
catechin-gallate in the tuber acetone extracts as demonstrated by high-performance
liquid chromatographic (HPLC) analysis (Naidoo, Zweygarth, and Swan, 2006). It
was concluded that R. tridentata might be effective in animals infected with babe-
siosis by limiting the degree of oxidative cellular injury (Naidoo, Zweygarth, and
Swan, 2006).
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 17
animals used, the assumption is made that systemic effects of the topically applied
medication are nonexistent.
1.3 Toxicity Studies
Toxicity investigations on EVM plant extracts are necessary, both to evaluate
the potential toxic effects toward the animal being treated and to exclude false-
positive activity results in antimicrobial assays arising from nonspecific toxic
properties. In southern Africa, there is a rich floral diversity, and approximately
600 toxic species are known to occur in this region (Kellerman, Coetzer, and
Naudé, 1992). Van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha (2001) commented that side
effects and toxicity associated with the medicinal use of plants in EVM were
rarely reported, although several plants used have potentially dangerous toxic
effects (e.g., Boophane disticha, Ricinus communis, and Solanum species). The
lack of toxic reports was ascribed to the relatively small quantities used in tradi-
tional medicines (van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001). Toxicity is affected in
ruminants by the degradation or binding of toxins by the ruminal microflora or
the digestive tract, as harmless precursors can be converted to toxic substances
or less toxic substances can be changed to more toxic ones (Naudé, Coetzer, and
Kellerman, 1992). It is therefore important to evaluate potential toxic effects of
EVM remedies, particularly those preferred for oral dosing. A screening regi-
men that includes assays to test for genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and in vivo toxicity
(acute and chronic) is advised. This section is only touched on as other chapters
in this volume deal with this aspect in more detail.
Several approaches have been followed to assess toxicity of natural remedies,
including testing for genotoxic effects using in vitro bacterial and mammalian cell
assays such as the Ames test, micronucleus test, and comet assay (Fennell et al.,
2004). Luseba et al. (2007) tested dichloromethane and 90% methanol extracts of
12 South African plants used to treat retained placenta and wounds in livestock for
mutagenicity and found that none of the extracts was mutagenic in the Ames test
using Salmonella typhimurium strain TA98 without metabolic activation.
A quick and easy way to gain a preliminary indication of cytotoxicity is to submit
extracts to the brine shrimp assay. This assay has been used to detect in vitro cyto-
toxic or pharmacological effects (Solís et al., 1993) as activity in this assay has been
correlated with cytotoxicity in a number of cell lines, including 9KB, P388, L5178Y,
and L1210 (Meyer et al., 1982; McLaughlin, 1991; De Rosa, De Giulio, and Iodice,
1994; McLaughlin, Rogers, and Anderson, 1998). The brine shrimp assay involves
incubating test substances with freshly hatched brine shrimp larvae and detecting
percentage mortality of the larvae. A shortcoming of this technique is that it does not
account for metabolic activation of the test extracts or compounds, and it is difficult
to extrapolate toxicity against a crustacean to mammalian cytotoxicity even though
correlations have been noted with cytotoxicity in some cell lines. As an example,
McGaw and Eloff (2005) reported that few extracts of plants known to be toxic to
livestock were active in the brine shrimp assay. In a later study of plants used to treat
cattle for various ailments (McGaw, Van der Merwe, and Eloff, 2007), the lowest
IC50 value recorded was 0.6 mg mL−1.
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 19
Cytotoxicity assays using cell lines are generally relatively easy to perform,
although specialized cell culture facilities are required. A range of cells may be
used, including continuous commercially available cell lines as well as primary cells
derived from animals. Various indicators of cell viability following incubation with
plant extracts may be used, including those to detect mitochondrial activity or cel-
lular integrity.
1.4 Conclusion
Research on natural products from plants traditionally used to treat animals as well
as humans is a key mechanism for identifying new chemical entities that may have
interesting biological activity. Isolation of active compounds is not the only use-
ful pathway in medicinal studies. Optimization of extract preparations by removing
bulky inactive constituents while leaving behind compounds that may have a syn-
ergistic or additive beneficial effect may also lead to useful medications. This could
be of particular value when considering primary health care systems in rural areas
as well as assisting rural livestock owners in managing disease in their animals.
Standardized and formulated plant extracts may be an initiative for developing coun-
tries to follow up in originating successful pharmaceutical industries that can com-
pete with Western pharmaceutical companies for the treatment of various diseases,
in both humans and animals (Pieters and Vlietinck, 2005). With the current con-
troversy over antibiotic use as growth promoters in production animals, plants with
positive effects on the growth and well-being of animals may provide alternatives to
be investigated in this lucrative market.
It should be kept in mind that EVM involves a complex system that merges
treatment of diseases with herbal and other remedies with management practices
such as disease prevention. To meet the aims of validating the uses of plants in
EVM and developing and providing more cost-effective veterinary remedies, other
factors such as socioeconomic assessments must take place in conjunction with
pharmacological evaluations of efficacy and toxicity. Economic considerations
must be taken into account; for example, a particular natural remedy may be less
effective than a commercial treatment, but a cost-benefit analysis may reveal that
using EVM is economically more beneficial. Management and prevention issues
are integral to successful animal health care management, and promotion of the
use of pharmacologically proven and nontoxic plant medicines is part of this man-
agement system.
In this chapter, the emphasis has of necessity been placed on in vitro evaluation of
biological activity as a result of the shortage of in vivo studies concerning EVM rem-
edies. Ethnopharmacological researchers must assimilate the strengths and weak-
nesses of in vitro tests and take into account pharmacokinetic factors, traditional
methods of preparation of medicines, the effect of other added substances or adulter-
ants, and the dose showing activity. The use of accepted laboratory testing equiva-
lents to animal studies is ethically and economically desirable. More than one test
system related to the disease under investigation should be employed to evaluate bio-
logical activity, appropriate test organisms must be used, and activity should ideally
be confirmed by in vivo tests if sufficiently justified. Standardization of techniques to
20 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
improve interlaboratory comparisons of results with different plants analyzed for the
same activity is a priority. These methods for evaluating efficacy need to be specific
and rapid and not require a large quantity of material. While activity in vitro does not
necessarily confirm the efficacy and safety of a plant extract, it may provide prelimi-
nary indications of the usefulness and potential toxicity of the plant.
Validation is essential to avoid perpetuation of the preconceived notion that tra-
ditional medicine is primitive and inherently inferior. Strides have been taken in
evaluating the usefulness of human ethnomedicine, and similar action needs to be
taken to objectively evaluate EVM to avoid negative stereotypes that obscure the
potential benefits to be obtained from traditional ethnoveterinary practices as well as
plant-based natural remedies. Investigating the biological activity of ethnoveterinary
plants may provide valuable leads for further targeted research that could generate
marketable products, whether potentized extracts, isolated compounds, or modified
compounds of natural origin. Overall, ethnoveterinary knowledge is an important
resource that stands to benefit not only those pastoralists currently making use of
traditional remedies to treat their animals, but also researchers seeking innovative
and effective treatments for animal and human disease worldwide.
Acknowledgments
The National Research Foundation (South Africa), University of Pretoria, and the
Claude Leon Foundation are gratefully acknowledged for financial support.
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2 Logistical and Legal
Considerations in
Ethnoveterinary Research
Mary Chikombero and Dibungi Luseba
Contents
2.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................25
2.2 Medicinal Plant Gathering and Storage..........................................................26
2.3 Data Analysis................................................................................................... 27
2.4 The Convention on Biological Diversity..........................................................28
2.4.1 Access and Benefit Sharing................................................................. 29
2.4.1.1 The Principles of ABS.......................................................... 29
2.4.1.2 Problems with ABS Legislation........................................... 31
2.4.2 Intellectual Property and the World Trade Organization.................... 33
2.5 Case Studies of National Laws........................................................................ 35
2.5.1 An Asian Example: India.................................................................... 35
2.5.2 Model Law from Latin America: Costa Rica...................................... 36
2.5.3 Out of Africa: South Africa................................................................. 38
2.6 Conclusion and Recommendations..................................................................40
References.................................................................................................................40
2.1 Introduction
Globalization has brought new challenges to the protection of biodiversity. The
unprecedented loss of biodiversity in the past few decades due to industrial exploita-
tion and overharvesting has raised global concerns. The manner in which bioprospect-
ing, particularly among indigenous people and the use of traditional knowledge, has
been carried out in the past has also been heavily criticized, and such criticisms
have centered around allegations of biopiracy, unfair distribution of benefits, ille-
gal appropriation of traditional knowledge, and unethical conduct when it comes to
filing and claiming patents on indigenous biological resources.
To tackle these problems, various legal regimes have been instituted at interna-
tional, regional, and national levels in a bid to promote the sustainable utilization
of biodiversity, including medicinal indigenous plants. This chapter discusses plant
and information gathering and then outlines the concept of access and benefit shar-
ing (ABS) as one of the approaches adopted at the international level, through the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), to protect biodiversity. Some of the
25
26 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
challenges of implementing ABS regulations on the local level are also identified.
Intellectual property (IP) rights issues and the World Trade Organization (WTO)
agreement are also discussed since the proper implementation of the CBD also has
an impact on IP rights. Relevant legislation from South Africa, India, and Costa Rica
regulating ABS is given as case studies of national laws that have included the CBD
provisions/principles.
newspaper, glass jars, and cans. Stored plants should be protected from exposure to
sun, water, dust, wind, and contact with strangers. Plant material intended for sale in
markets is often tied into bundles (Van Wyk, Van Oudtshoorn, and Gericke, 1997).
However, ethnoveterinary herbal materials are often used fresh because they are col-
lected when necessary (Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006).
Rapid rural appraisal (RRA) methods are preferably used when gathering infor-
mation from communities (Beebe, 1995). It is important to organize meetings with
traditional leaders and the state veterinary service officers at the onset to explain the
purpose of the research. Oral interviews can thereafter be conducted with farmers
at dipping tanks in groups or individually. It is important to interview traditional
healers and herbalists since their knowledge is rarely shared with farmers. In most
cases, the interviews are conducted through a translator, who may be one of the local
animal health officers. A general feedback session should be organized to correct,
harmonize, and share the information among farmers. Key areas of investigation
and discussions are the farmer’s socioeconomic profile, animal husbandry, and local
knowledge of animal health care (ethnoetiology, ethnodiagnostics, treatments, and
disease control). Detailed information on plants used is recorded, including local
names of the remedies, indications, preparations, routes of administration, and dos-
age if applicable.
Plants should be collected under the guidance of the respondents. Botanical data
should be collected using a collection form. Notes are also taken from discussions
with respondents. Pictures of the plants are recorded with a digital camera, and pre-
cise coordinates of the locations taken with a global positioning system instrument,
if possible. Two to three specimens of each plant species are collected, labeled, and
pressed for voucher specimen. If a qualified plant taxonomist is not involved in the
collection, a specimen needs to be sent to a specialized botanical institution for iden-
tification. This is important because a single plant species may have different com-
mon or local names, or the same name is given sometimes to plants of different
genera or species. Approximately 2 kg fresh plant materials are usually collected;
dried under the shade, ground, and stored in darkened glass jars to prevent oxida-
tion; and kept for subsequent laboratory investigations (Luseba and Van der Merwe,
2006). Special attention should be given to succulent plants because they are prone
to contamination by fungi. Freeze-drying or drying in autoclave at 40% has been
suggested in the case of succulents (e.g., Aloe species).
2.3 Data Analysis
Data can be analyzed by pairwise and matrix ranking. Statistical measures of cen-
tral tendency, dispersion, and percentages are computed using appropriate statistical
packages, such as the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS Inc.). Statistical
methods can also be used to identify plants used most frequently in veterinary medi-
cine, based on the frequency of association of a particular or perceived medicinal
value (botanical consistency) and the frequency of a particular plant species associ-
ated with or used to treat a particular disease (Matekaire and Bwakara, 2004). This
is referred to as consistency of veterinary usage. There is consistency when the same
plant genus or family is mentioned at least twice for treating the same illness.
28 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Sharing of Benefits Arising Out of Their Utilization adopted in May 2002 (CBD
Secretariat, 2000). These are, however, not binding as they are merely guidelines;
they are voluntary and flexible and were designed mainly to facilitate the develop-
ment process of national ABS laws and policies. The guidelines outline the roles and
responsibilities of users and providers of genetic resources and encourage stakehold-
ers to use a bilateral approach to facilitate ABS goals (Carrizosa et al., 2004). The
key issues that are contained in the Bonn guidelines include advice on:
permit. The access permit shall be granted by national governments in terms of their
national legislation and through a signed written agreement between the government
concerned, the local community or communities, and the applicant or collector.
The need to get PIC has brought with it a number of challenges for companies or
individuals involved in bioprospecting. Bioprospectors are now required to get consent
not only from the state but also from other interested stakeholders (e.g., communities,
land owners, collaborating institutions, and others; Wynberg and Laird, 2007). This is
obviously time consuming and expensive and may be impossible in some cases.
2.4.1.1.3 Benefit Sharing
As pointed out, one of the objectives of the CBD was the fair and equitable sharing
of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. CBD stated that BS
shall be on MAT. Contracting parties to the CBD have an obligation to take legisla-
tive, administrative, or policy measures to ensure the fair and equitable sharing of
the results of research and development and the benefits arising from the commercial
and other utilization of genetic resources (CBD, 1992). The sharing of benefits is
important because community groups must feel that their resources are not being
stolen from them, and those making substantial investments in the development of
products must feel that they can protect their added value (Cordell, 2000).
National legislation of CBD member states and regional guidelines address the
issue of sharing benefits derived from genetic resources. However, it has been argued
that the fair and equitable sharing of benefits is a global transnational problem that
requires an international response since it involves actors and stakeholders from vari-
ous countries with highly divergent interests, ranging from development aid agencies
and commercial interests in the pharmaceutical and agroindustry to pure academic
research (Siebenhuner and Suplie, 2005).
In sharing benefits, the state and the community or communities are recognized
to be entitled to a share of the earnings derived from using any biological resources
or knowledge collected directly or indirectly. The benefits may be monetary or non-
monetary (e.g., technology transfer, training and research capacity building, and IP).
Examples of cases in which indigenous people or local communities have benefited
from bioprospecting activities include the Kani in India, who receive a proportion
of the license fee and royalty from commercialization of Jeevani, a herbal drug that
“rejuvenates and builds strength,” and the San in southern Africa, who receive a
proportion of royalties from the sales of hoodia (a succulent plant used by the San
to stave off hunger and thirst) (Wynberg and Laird, 2007). However, it is believed
that the main reasons hindering the realization of the CBD objective of “fair and
equitable benefit sharing” is the time lag between the collection of samples and the
development of a marketable product and the low probability that a sample will suc-
ceed in a product. For example, in the pharmaceutical sector it takes 10 to 15 years of
research to develop a marketable product from botanical or marine natural products
(Richerzhagen and Holm-Mueller, 2005).
exclusion not only leads to inequity and injustice but also has the potential
to cause conflicts among community members and between communities
(Shiva, 2005). An example of a BS arrangement that has caused community
conflict is that in India, where many Kani elders believed that the people
who revealed the “arogyapacha” plant (Trichopus zeylanicus ssp. travan-
coricus), which has antifatigue properties and was used in developing the
Jeevani drug, had no right to divulge that information for monetary benefits
as their traditional knowledge is sacred (Bijoy, 2007).
7. Commodifying of culture or traditions. The concept of bioprospecting has
also been criticized as it involves patenting of traditional knowledge that
is a product of thousand of years of collective innovation by indigenous
cultures; hence, some scholars and activists believe it cannot be called an
invention (Shiva, 2005). It is generally believed that many traditional heal-
ers and leaders are opposed to the commodifying of their traditions and
knowledge as they argue that they are gifts from their forebearers or ances-
tors that should be used for the greater good of the community rather than
for individual commercial gain.
under the law (Bijoy, 2007). It is important to note that Indian legislation does not specify
the time frames within which the NBA should decide on an application to access biodi-
versity. In general, it can take up to 3 years to get a permit (Wynberg and Laird, 2007).
The NBA ensures that ABS aspects are met in accordance with MAT and condi-
tions between the applicant, local bodies, and the benefit claimants. Benefits may be
monetary or material (e.g., royalty, joint ventures, technology transfer, product devel-
opment, education and awareness-raising activities, institutional capacity building,
and venture capital fund).
The NBA, while granting approval to any person for access or application for
patent and IP rights of accessed biological resource and associated knowledge may
impose terms and conditions to ensure BS. Bijoy (2007) argued that the inconsistency
between the CBD provisions and the TRIPS agreement has affected the legislative
framework of India as it clearly has been influenced by the monopolistic IP protec-
tion of the TRIPS agreement and not by the CBD principles outlined in this chapter.
In terms of the Biodiversity Act, prior approval of the NBA is not required for col-
laborative research projects involving transfer or exchange of biological resources or
related information between institutions of India and institutions of other countries
if such projects have been approved by central government and conform to the policy
guidelines issued by the central government of India.
Section 4 of the Biodiversity Act prohibits any person from transferring results of
any research relating to any biological resources in or obtained from India for financial
gain to foreigners or foreign-registered companies without the prior approval of the
NBA. This, however, exempts scientific publications and conference presentations.
Whereas other countries such as South Africa require all bioprospecting activities
to be approved, Indian citizens or companies registered in India obtain biological
resources for commercial utilization only after giving prior intimation to the SBB
concerned. However, this requirement does not apply to local people or communities
of the area who use indigenous medicine.
to increase transaction costs and be more time consuming because of the increased
participation of other stakeholders (Richerzhagen, 2007).
The CBD provisions were only implemented into law in Costa Rica through
the Biodiversity Law of 1998, Law No. 7788 of 1998, and the Rules on Access to
Biodiversity, 2003 Presidential Decree No. 31-514, which regulates ABS of natural
resources. The Biodiversity Law is regarded as the most detailed national law enacted
to implement the CBD provisions and is more restrictive (Carrizosa et al., 2004).
The sovereignty principle of the CBD is enshrined in the Biodiversity Law as it
provides that the state exercises total and exclusive sovereignty over the components
of biodiversity. The act creates the National Commission for the Management of
Biodiversity with defined functions that include formulating and coordinating the
policies for access to biodiversity and associated knowledge to ensure adequate sci-
entific and technical transfer and the proper distribution of the benefits.
Stakeholder participation in implementing the act is ensured as the commission is
constituted by a wide range of stakeholders, including government departments, the
private sector, the indigenous peoples’ associations, and the peasants’ associations.
Whereas PIC is not expressly mentioned under the Indian legislation, Costa Rica’s
ABS legislation guarantees the participation of local communities in decision-
making processes as one of the basic requirements for access is the need to get the
PIC of community representatives or land owners. The act adequately addresses the
rights of local communities in that it provides that the state recognizes and protects
the knowledge, practices, and innovations of indigenous peoples and local commu-
nities related to the use of components of biodiversity and associated knowledge.
Furthermore, local communities have a right to oppose any access to their resources
and associated knowledge for cultural, spiritual, social economic, or other reasons.
No form of intellectual or industrial property rights protection regulated in terms
of Chapter 5 of the Biodiversity Law, in special laws, and in international law shall
affect such historic practices (Biodiversity Law, 1998; Article 82).
All research programs or bioprospecting related to genetic resources meant to be
carried out in Costa Rican territory require an access permit. A person who is inter-
ested in accessing biodiversity should register at the Technical Office of the commis-
sion before applying for any type of access permit and should indicate whether the
permit is for basic research, bioprospecting, or economic exploitation. The Technical
Office will issue a preliminary identity card to the interested party; it should be
used when applying for PIC. To obtain an access permit, there is a need to get PIC
and negotiate mutually agreed conditions according to the model contract prepared
by the Technical Office. The contract regulates BS (e.g., transfer of technology and
equitable distribution of environmental, economic, social, scientific, or spiritual ben-
efits). This should include possible commercial profits of short, medium, or long term
of any product or derivative. The interested party should meet with the representa-
tives of the study site to discuss the scope of the access, the terms of protection of the
related knowledge, and the practical, economic, and logistical aspects of the granted
access. The Technical Office should endorse the PIC and if necessary will make field
consultations to verify the agreed-on terms.
An access permit is granted to a researcher or a research center, is valid for
3 years, and is renewable at the discretion of the Technical Office. MTAs, which
38 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
are authorized by the Technical Office, should be entered between the parties for
exchange and transfer resources to be enabled.
The act ensures that immediate benefits flow back to providers of biodiversity
resources by requiring the interested party to deposit up to 10% of the research or bio-
prospection’s budget into the bank account indicated by the direct provider of the
resources. Such a position is different from South African and Indian legislation, which
requires monetary benefits to be deposited into a national fund. For basic research, an
interested party should submit three copies of the final results or the scientific papers and
publications derived from them, in which the country’s contribution and the knowledge
holders are acknowledged. For occasional or regular economic exploitation, interested
parties may pay up to 50% of the royalties obtained by the interested party on behalf of
the conservation areas, local communities or indigenous people, or the landowners.
Registrars of intellectual and industrial property (i.e., patents, trademarks etc) are
obliged to consult with the Technical Office before granting protection of intellectual
or industrial property to innovations involving components of biodiversity. The indi-
vidual beneficiaries of intellectual or industrial property protection related to biodiver-
sity will cede, in favor of the state, a compulsory legal license, which will allow it, in
cases of declared national emergency, to use such rights for the collective good, with
the sole purpose of resolving the emergency, without the need to pay compensation.
Once all the required documents have been submitted, the Technical Office has
30 days to resolve the application. This provision is important as it will ensure that
applications are processed in a timely manner, and it is absent from Indian and South
African ABS legislation.
To certify the legality of access, the Technical Office will issue to the applicant a
certificate of origin, which includes place and date of access, owner, type of material
obtained, quantity, and the person or community that have contributed or will con-
tribute with their related knowledge, innovations, and traditional practices.
The act states that the arrangements of the law do not affect university autonomy
in the matter of teaching or research in the field of biodiversity, except if the research
has commercial purposes. Universities are required to establish internal rules appli-
cable exclusively to academic activity and research that is carried out when it implies
access to biodiversity for purposes that are not profit making.
bioprospecting permit issued by the minister. If the applicant wants to export indige-
nous biological resources for a bioprospecting project, then the applicant must apply
to the minister to obtain an integrated export and bioprospecting permit. These per-
mits are issued when the applicant has obtained the PIC of relevant stakeholders and
once the minister has approved the MTA and Benefit Sharing Agreement (BSA).
The process of approval of PIC, MTAs, and BSA may take a long time because of
the bureaucratic nature of the process, and the act does not prescribe the time period
within which an issuing authority should decide on a permit application, although
the regulations state that applications must be processed “within a reasonable time.”
The process of getting a bioprospecting permit is therefore likely to be too costly and
onerous for the applicant. The requirement of a BSA in the discovery phase is also
problematic as it might be difficult to quantify the financial returns of a bioprospect-
ing project at this stage (Crouch et al., 2008).
The act forbids the issuing of permits to foreign persons or entities unless a South
African person or entity is also a coapplicant. It is anticipated that this requirement
will lead to technology transfer and information sharing between the foreign per-
sons and the South African citizens (Crouch et al., 2008). A BSA may also not be
approved unless it provides for enhancing scientific knowledge and technical capac-
ity to organs of state or national research institutes, universities, or communities to
conserve, use, and develop indigenous biological resources.
As with India, the collection and use of biological resources by local healers is
exempt from the legislation. However, the threat that the booming trade in medicinal
plants poses is real and cause for concern and yet not regulated by any current leg-
islation in South Africa.
Indigenous biological resources for research other than bioprospecting may only
be exported with an export permit. The issuing authority for export permits for
indigenous biological resources for research other than bioprospecting is the pro-
vincial minister of the province in which the biological resources to be exported
are collected, gathered, or curated. A permit may only be issued if the applicant has
obtained PIC of the stakeholder to access the resources.
The act establishes the Bioprospecting Trust Fund (BTF), to which all money
earned from BSAs and MTAs and due to stakeholders must be paid and used in
terms of the agreements. The success of this trust fund is still to be tested as the
regulations have been in place for a short period of time.
The existence of ABS legislation in South Africa is progressive. However, the cur-
rent legislation is restrictive and does not provide user certainty in that there is a risk
of wasting resources when an applicant goes through the process of obtaining PIC
and signing the MTA and BSA and then the collection permit application is refused
by a provincial conservation authority on ecological grounds. The need to have col-
lection permits is not specified in the act or regulations, but it is presumed in relation
to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES) and threatened or protected species (Crouch et al., 2008). Under the
current law, stakeholders are only involved in the granting of PIC and when conclud-
ing MTA and BSA but are excluded in decision-making processes, which rest with the
issuing authority (i.e., the minister or provincial minister). A lack of administrative
capacity might also hamper the implementation of the ABS legislation.
40 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
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3 Phytochemical Methods
Bukirwa Irene Kamara
Contents
3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................44
3.2 The Extraction Process.................................................................................... 45
3.2.1 Collection of Material.......................................................................... 45
3.2.2 Conventional Extraction Processes.....................................................46
3.2.3 Bioassay-Guided Isolation................................................................... 48
3.2.4 Nonconventional Extraction Processes................................................ 49
3.2.4.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction............................................... 49
3.2.4.2 Accelerated Solvent Extraction............................................. 50
3.3 Isolation Methods............................................................................................ 50
3.3.1 Polarity of Solvents.............................................................................. 51
3.3.2 TLC: Retention Factor......................................................................... 51
3.3.3 Types of Chromatography................................................................... 52
3.3.3.1 Adsorption Chromatography................................................ 52
3.3.3.2 Partition Chromatography.................................................... 53
3.3.3.3 Molecular Exclusion Chromatography................................. 54
3.3.4 Chromatography Techniques............................................................... 55
3.3.4.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography................................................ 55
3.3.4.2 Preparative Thin-Layer Chromatography............................. 56
3.3.4.3 Paper Chromatography......................................................... 57
3.3.4.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography......................... 57
3.3.4.5 Gas Chromatography............................................................ 57
3.4 Derivatization.................................................................................................. 58
3.4.1 Acetylation........................................................................................... 58
3.5 Analysis of Extracts and Isolated Compounds................................................ 58
3.5.1 Qualitative Chemical Analysis............................................................ 59
3.5.2 Detection Methods............................................................................... 59
3.6 Determining Organic Structures..................................................................... 59
3.6.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.............................................................. 61
3.6.2 Deuterated Solvents............................................................................. 61
3.6.3 Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.................................................. 63
3.7 Conclusion.......................................................................................................64
Acknowledgments.....................................................................................................64
References.................................................................................................................64
Suggested Further Reading....................................................................................... 65
43
44 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
3.1 Introduction
Natural products chemistry is becoming increasingly interdisciplinary in practice.
In the study of natural products chemistry, isolation and purification are mandatory
first steps; success and failure are often determined by these steps. Unlike specific
protocols followed in synthetic chemistry, which can be remembered and repeated,
details of specific isolation steps are usually forgotten, and in most cases isolation is
regarded as trial and error. This chapter covers conventional techniques in the sepa-
ration, purification, and structural elucidation of metabolites from medicinal plants.
The theory and practice of natural products isolation techniques that comprehen-
sively serve the natural product scientist in the investigations of plants are outlined.
The backdrop of this discussion is the use and knowledge of traditional medicines.
It is therefore important to discuss applications of natural products chemistry in the
field of herbal medicines and its impact on ethnoveterinary and ethnopharmacologi-
cal sciences.
Traditional (herbal) medicine is a term loosely used to describe ancient and
culture-bound health practices that existed before the application of conventional
science to health matters in official, modern, scientific medicine or allopathy.
Traditional medicine from natural products (terrestrial and marine environments)
still forms the basis for primary health care in 80% of the developing world
(Farnsworth and Soejarto, 1985).
In contrast to the primary metabolite compounds such as carbohydrates, the
essential amino acids and polymers derived from them that are ubiquitous in living
organisms and essential for life, natural products are the secondary constituents of
plants. Higher plants have been described as chemical factories that are capable of
synthesizing unlimited numbers of highly complex and unusual bioactive chemical
substances (Farnsworth, 1988). These bioactive substances are normally present in
the plants in quantities that cannot meet or sustain demand. Herbal products, nutra-
ceuticals, and other food supplements are therefore subject to increasingly rigorous
investigation and development. Industry standardization, as well as labeling require-
ments under U.S. federal regulations, have prompted tighter regulation and monitor-
ing of the active ingredients in these products. Extraction and identification of the
components in raw and processed plant materials are essential for the quality control
of existing products and the development of new ones. Because native plant habitats
are destroyed almost daily, sadly many medicinally valuable plants will be gone
before scientists can even investigate them. There is a possibility of documentation
of traditional knowledge and ethnoveterinary medicine through scientific research.
In the past, both conventional and participatory methods have been used to docu-
ment local knowledge in general. Both approaches have their place, and their results
can be complementary and possibly cross-validate each other.
Bioactive principles from medicinal plants are secondary metabolites and not a
nutritive element for the plant, so they are not concentrated in the plant. The separa-
tion process usually contributes to capturing of the secondary metabolites, which
through the efforts of the synthetic chemists may also be synthesized to ensure more
abundant supplies for formulation. Previous techniques in the isolation and identifi-
cation process have indeed had their fair share of flaws. Nevertheless, the practical
Phytochemical Methods 45
3.2.1 Collection of Material
There are a number of approaches that can be used to collect material needed in
the exercise to discover new drugs. The ethnobotanical approach is based on
Table 3.1
Extraction Techniques for Different Analytes
Matrix Types Extraction Technique Analytes
Aqueous Liquid-liquid extraction Semivolatile and nonvolatile organics
Solid-phase extraction
Solids Soxhlet extraction Semivolatile and nonvolatile organics
Pressurized fluid extraction (PFE) Semivolatile and nonvolatile organics
Microwave extraction Semivolatile and nonvolatile organics
Ultrasonic extraction Semivolatile and nonvolatile organics
Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) Semivolatile petroleum hydrocarbons
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
Polychlorinated biphenyls
Organochlorine pesticides
46 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 3.2
Different Solvents Used to Extract Different Phytochemicals
Amino Phenolics
Fats/Oils Acids Chlorophyll Alkaloids Aglycones Sugars Glycosides
Solvent
Hexane √
Cylohexane √
Toluene √ √
Chloroform √ √
Dichloromethane √ √ √
Diethylether √ √ √
Ethylacetate √ √ √ √
Acetone √ √ √ √
Ethanol √ √
Methanol √ √ √ √
Water √ √ √ √
Aqueous acid √ √
Aqueous alkali √ √
should mimic the traditional use. This means that if the indigenous people use water
to extract, then an identical or very similar method should be used in the laboratory
to extract the same plant constituents. Poor extraction processes may result in loss of
active compounds or degradation of natural products and consequent loss of biologi-
cal activity.
Several extraction methods are available, the simplest being cold extraction (in a
large flask with agitation of biomass using a stirrer), in which the ground dry mate-
rial is extracted at room temperature with solvents of increasing polarity: first hexane
(or petroleum ether) then chloroform (or dichloromethane), ethyl acetate, acetone,
methanol, and finally water. The main advantage of this cold extraction is that there
is little potential degradation of the natural products. Extraction of chlorophyll with
chloroform has been successfully accomplished with minimum interference from
the aromatic compounds. Oils and terpenes can easily be extracted with hexane,
leaving behind other classes of compounds. Extraction using solvents with differ-
ent polarities can be used to roughly fractionate a complex mixture of compounds.
Reflux extraction (Vogel et al., 1996) is applied in extractions in which continuous
application of heat is required. A mantle or water bath is usually a safer source
of heat than a direct flame, especially in the case of flammable solvents such as
ether. The Soxhlet process (Houghton and Raman, 1998) is useful for the exhaustive
extraction of plant material with a single solvent at a time (e.g., when using hexane
for defatting, in subsequent extractions with increasing polarities, and when a high
yield of a particular component is required). It is, however, unsuitable for neutral,
acidified, and basified solvent mixtures.
48 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Other classes of compounds, such as acids or bases, present in the biomass can be
extracted using a tailored protocol. The most common group of natural products that
are extracted in this manner is the alkaloids, which are often present in plant materi-
als as salts. Extraction of the basic compounds is as follows:
1. Alkaloids can be recovered from their salts by making the dry powdered
plant material alkaline with aqueous ammonia. This leaves the alkaloids
as free bases that are no longer ionic salts and are more soluble in organic
solvents such as ethyl acetate and dichloromethane.
2. This increased solubility in organic solvents allows free partitioning of the
free bases into organic solvent, which can then be separated from the aque-
ous ammonia layer.
3. The organic layer will contain the free bases, which can be extracted
with aqueous acid; for example, by extracting three times with 2M
hydrochloric acid, the alkaloids will transfer from the organic phase to
the aqueous phase as hydrochloride salts. The organic layer can be tested
using Dragendorff’s reagent to ensure total extraction of the alkaloids into
the acid layer.
4. Basification of the acid layer results in precipitation of the alkaloids (which
are no longer salts and therefore no longer soluble in aqueous media), which
can be extracted by organic solvents.
3.2.3 Bioassay-Guided Isolation
In the past, natural products chemists have analyzed plants with the sole aim of estab-
lishing their chemical composition and in some cases isolating active compounds.
The modern isolation approach, focused on discovery of drugs, has changed the
isolation process into a bioassay-guided approach. In the bioassay-guided approach,
bioassays for antifungal, anticancer, antimicrobial, antimalarial, and antioxidant
activities are performed on the extracts, and the active extracts are investigated fur-
ther. Bioassay-guided isolation is essential for the drug discovery industry, in which
high-throughput work is vital for purposeful results. However, when it comes to
chemical analysis of a plant, little is analyzed because the fractions without activity
are discarded. In essence, the phytochemistry of the plant is vaguely addressed.
The activity of an extract may change over a period of time, during preparation
(e.g., due to fermentation, heat), or after fractionation. Thus, compounds can undergo
reactions activated by the surroundings, such as heat, solvents in which they are
stored, or light (photochemical reactions). This may cause changes in the activity of
the particular extract. Change caused by living organisms (e.g., microbial attacks) is
referred to as deterioration, while decomposition is caused by a chemical change. It
is therefore important to take precautions when handling extract to minimize dete-
rioration and decomposition.
The general bioassay-guided isolation procedure follows the protocol outlined in
Scheme 3.1.
Phytochemical Methods 49
Structure confirmation by
synthesis
compressed and heated to a state above their critical pressure and temperature
(Tservistas, Scheper, and Freitag, 2000).
Essential oils are better extracted using the SFE processes. The characteristic
smell of plant materials is usually the result of the complex interactions occurring
among hundreds of compounds. Correct reproduction of the natural fragrance in a
concentrated extract is therefore a complex task. The presence of thermolabile com-
pounds, the possibility of hydrolysis, and hydrosolubilization are serious obstacles
in the reproduction of natural fragrances. Moreover, severe legislative restrictions
are currently being proposed to eliminate solvent residues in these products when
used in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. All these problems can be
solved easily by employing supercritical fluid in extracting essential oils.
3.3 Isolation Methods
Often, elegant structure determination of natural products overshadows the most
important and often the most difficult part of the work, which is the isolation and
purification process. Advances in chromatographic techniques are allowing scientists
to venture ever further into hitherto inaccessible areas of natural product isolation.
This is particularly true of hydrophilic, nonvolatile, and often labile plant compo-
nents. But, because of the almost infinite variety of natural products and the diverse,
subtle interactions among solvent, solute, and chromatographic substrate, isolation
and purification often seem more of an art than a science.
Purification of pure substances from complex extracts and most of the time isola-
tion of the microscale components have spawned development of new separation tech-
nologies and upgrading of the conventional methods. Gas chromatography (GC), liquid
chromatography (LC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and thin-
layer chromatography (TLC) are well-known classical techniques, which for the ease
and availability of resources to most scientists are discussed in this chapter. Modern
Phytochemical Methods 51
3.3.1 Polarity of Solvents
The polarity can be measured as the dielectric constant or the dipole moment of a
compound. The polarity reflects the balance between a polar component (e.g., OH)
and a nonpolar hydrocarbon component existing in the same molecule. On an opera-
tional basis, solvents that are miscible with water are polar. Making solvent choices
for the separation processes is directed by polarities of the components to be iso-
lated. For example, when purifying molecules that are highly hydroxylated, implying
that they are highly polar, the solvent used should include acetone and methanol. A
mixture of hexane/acetone/methanol in the ratio of 6:3:1 has been used to fractionate
underivatized polyphenols using TLC (Ferreira et al., 1998). It must be mentioned
that selecting the right solvent is more of a trial-and-error exercise. Most scientists
have developed solvent systems in their laboratories; see Table 3.A1 (Appendix) for
examples.
For example, if a compound travels 2.5 cm and the solvent front travels 3.5 cm, the
Rf is 0.71, as demonstrated in Figure 3.1.
Since Rf for a compound is dependent on the solvent system, type of adsorbent
(stationary phase), thickness of the adsorbent, amount of material loaded, and tem-
perature, and these factors are difficult to keep constant from experiment to experi-
ment, relative Rf values are generally considered. “Relative Rf ” means that the values
are reported relative to a standard, or it means that you compare the Rf values of
compounds run on the same plate at the same time.
If two substances have the same Rf value, they are likely (but not necessarily) the
same compound. If they have different Rf values, they are definitely different com-
pounds. Note that this identity check must be performed on a single plate because
it is difficult to duplicate all the factors that influence Rf exactly from experiment to
experiment. The larger an Rf of a compound, the greater the distance it travels on the
TLC plate. When comparing two different compounds run under identical chroma-
tography conditions, the compound with the larger Rf is less polar because it interacts
less strongly with the polar adsorbent on the TLC plate. Conversely, if you know the
52 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Solvent front
New position of
compound
3.8 cm
3.0 cm
Original
spotting
structures of the compounds in a mixture, you can predict that a compound of low
polarity will have a larger Rf value than a polar compound run on the same plate.
3.3.3 Types of Chromatography
The commonly used chromatographic methods include adsorption, normal phase,
reversed phase, chiral, ion exchange, molecular exclusion, and ion pair/affinity.
3.3.3.1 Adsorption Chromatography
Adsorption chromatography is probably one of the oldest types of chromatography
around that is unquestionably the major isolation technique applied in natural prod-
ucts chemistry. It utilizes a mobile liquid or gaseous phase that is adsorbed onto the
surface of a stationary solid phase. The equilibration between the mobile and station-
ary phase accounts for the separation of different solutes.
3.3.3.1.1 Normal-Phase Chromatography
Normal-phase chromatography is a chromatographic technique that uses organic
solvents for the mobile phase and a polar stationary phase. Here, the less-polar com-
ponents elute faster than the more polar components.
3.3.3.1.2 Reversed-Phase Chromatography
Reversed-phase chromatography, a bonded-phase chromatographic technique, uses
water as the base solvent. Separation based on solvent strength and selectivity also
may be affected by column temperature and pH. In general, the more polar compo-
nents elute faster than the less-polar components.
Phytochemical Methods 53
3.3.3.1.3 Chiral Chromatography
Separation of the enantiomers can be achieved on chiral stationary phases by forma-
tion of diastereomers via derivatizing agents or mobile-phase additives on achiral
stationary phases. When used as an impurity test method, the sensitivity is enhanced
if the enantiomeric impurity elutes before the enantiomeric drug.
3.3.3.1.4 Ion-Exchange Chromatography
In ion-exchange chromatography, a resin (the stationary solid phase) is used to cova-
lently attach anions or cations onto it. Solute ions of the opposite charge in the mobile
liquid phase are attracted to the resin by electrostatic forces. Separation is based
on the charge-bearing functional groups, anion exchange for sample negative ion
(X−) or cation exchange for sample positive ion (X+). The resins are divided into
two groups: the cation and anionic exchangers. The cationic exchangers have acidic
groups (CO2H, SO3H) and are able to exchange their protons with cations of natu-
ral products. The anionic exchangers, on the other hand, have basic groups (−N+R3)
that are incorporated into the resin and can exchange their anions with anions from
the natural products. Gradient elution by pH is common. The separation of small
polar compounds, in particular ionic natural products, is often problematic. This is
because polar compounds are generally strongly adsorbed with normal-phase resins
such as silica or alumina and even with the polar solvents and modifiers (e.g., acid
and base), so efficient separations may not be achievable. This technique is limited to
natural products that carry charge on their functional groups. Separation is achieved
by differences in affinity between ionic components (polar natural products) and the
stationary phase. The ion-exchange resins may be used in open column chromatog-
raphy or in closed columns in applications such as HPLC.
3.3.3.2 Partition Chromatography
Partition chromatography is based on a thin film formed on the surface of a solid
support by a liquid stationary phase. Solute equilibrates between the mobile phase
and the stationary liquid.
54 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
3.3.3.2.1 Countercurrent Chromatography
Countercurrent chromatography is a type of liquid-liquid chromatography in which
both the stationary and mobile phases are liquids. It involves mixing a solution of
liquids, allowing them to settle into layers, and then separating the layers. This is a
soft separation method and relies on solubility of natural products and not the physical
interaction with another medium. Partitioning uses two immiscible solvents to which
the extract is added: This can be sequential by using immiscible solvents of increas-
ing polarity, for example, water/hexane (for which a nonpolar fraction is generated in
the organic layer) and water/chloroform or water/ethyl acetate (for which a medium-
polar fraction is generated in the organic layer). Excellent separations can be obtained
from the partitioning process; for example, monoterpenes are easily separated from
phenolics such as tannins. Craig countercurrent distribution uses a similar concept to
a liquid-liquid extraction in a separatory funnel. A method of multiple liquid-liquid
extractions is countercurrent extraction, which permits the separation of substances
with different distribution coefficients (ratios) (Craig and Craig, 1950). The Craig
apparatus consists of a series of glass tubes (1, 2, 3, …, 20) arranged so that the lighter
liquid is transferred from one tube to the next. All extractions take place simultane-
ously in all tubes of the apparatus, which is usually driven electromechanically.
The lower phase of the heavier solvent (e.g., water) is the “stationary phase,”
whereas the upper phase of the lighter solvent (e.g., hexane) is the “mobile phase.”
In the beginning, tube 1 contains the mixture of substances to be separated in the
heavier solvent, and all the other tubes contain equal volumes of the same solvent.
The lighter solvent is added to tube 1, extraction (equilibration) takes place, and the
phases are allowed to separate. The upper phase of tube 1 is then transferred to tube 2;
fresh solvent (mobile phase) is added to tube 1, and equilibrium is reached again.
The upper layers of tubes 1 and 2 are simultaneously transferred to tubes 2 and 3,
respectively, and the cycle is repeated and so on. Obviously, substances with a higher
distribution ratio move faster than those with a lower distribution ratio. It is interest-
ing to examine the distribution of a substance A in each tube after a given number
of equilibration/transfer cycles. The greater the difference of the distribution ratio of
various substances, the better is the separation between each. A much larger number
of tubes (more than 20) is required to separate mixtures of substances with almost
similar distribution ratios. The Craig apparatus is now only rarely used because mod-
ern chromatographic techniques are by far more efficient and convenient.
an excellent method for separating out chlorophylls, fatty acids, glycerides, and other
large molecules. With the same principle, Sephadex LH-20 is commonly used with
ethanol as the eluent to fractionate flavonoids. This is a nondestructive soft method
with high recovery, and a large quantity of extract (hundreds of milligrams to grams)
may be separated. A further benefit of this technique is that there is a variety of gels
available with a variety of pore sizes that can be used to separate compounds from
500 to 250,000 Da. This is the method of choice for large-scale extractions (e.g.,
when fractionating mixtures for bioassay-guided separations.
3.3.4 Chromatography Techniques
Chromatographic separations can be carried out using a variety of supports, including
immobilized silica on glass plates (TLC), volatile gases (GC), paper (paper chroma-
tography), and liquids that may incorporate hydrophilic, insoluble molecules (liquid
chromatography). The adaptation of bonded-phase packings to all pressure liquid
chromatography, complimented by the diverse chemically bonded phases, includ-
ing the chiral templates for chiral resolutions, uses separation techniques capable of
handling any isolation problem.
3.3.4.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography
Thin-layer chromatography is the simplest of the more common adsorption chromato-
graphic techniques (Vogel et al., 1996). TLC is the most universal chromatographic test
method when compared to gas and liquid chromatography as all components are present
on the separation plate. With appropriate detection techniques, all components can be
seen. However, it normally is not as accurate or sensitive as HPLC. TLC has a higher
analytical variation than HPLC. Separation is based on migration of the sample spotted
on a coated (stationary-phase) plate with one edge dipped in a mixture of solvents (mobile
phase). Adsorption on silica gel in TLC relies on physical attraction of the compounds
with another medium. The whole system is contained in an enclosed tank. Detection
techniques of the compounds include fluorescence, ultraviolet (UV), and chromogenic
sprays (universal and specific) for compounds that are not naturally colored. Location of
the analyte on the TLC plate is described by the Rf value, which is the ratio of the migra-
tion distance of the compound of interest to the mobile-phase front.
In TLC, there is no direct online coupling between chromatographic development
and detection. The chromatogram is freed from the mobile phase prior to the detec-
tion step. Thus, different chromatographic conditions, including changing the mobile
phase, can be varied during analysis of a TLC chromatogram. For a natural products
scientist, this is necessary because extracts and samples usually contain compounds
that may have the same Rf when using some mobile phases but may differ in another.
In micro-, nano-, and pictogram quantities and for routine use, the TLC technique
occupies a firm place. In microchemical detection methods, the TLC plate is sprayed
with or dipped into a suitable reagent (Table 3.3) to form absorbing or fluorescent
derivatives with the analytes, which can then be detected. Table 3.A1 gives informa-
tion on different TLC mobile phases and spray reagents that can be used.
Biological detection of separated substances on the TLC plate in situ has been applied
to the screening of various extracts, such as antimicrobial and antioxidant activity or
56 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 3.3
Chemical Tests for Different Classes of Compounds
Chemical Class Qualitative Test Observation
Carotenoids in chloroform Concentrated sulfhuric acid or Deep blue color
5% antimony chloride Deep blue color
Alkaloids Dragendorff’s reagent ora Orange precipitate
Mayer’s reagentb White or buff precipitates
Phenolic compounds Ferric ions Dark green, blue, or purple-black
Terpenoids Liebemann-Burchard Red-blue
reactionc
Sugars Fehling’s solution Red precipitate
Amino acids Ninhydrin Reddish or blue color
a Potassium iodobismuthate.
b Potassium iodomercurate.
c Acetic anhydride with a few drops of concentrated sulfuric acid.
Source: From Houghton and Raman, 1998. Laboratory handbook for the fractionalization of natu-
ral extracts, London, Chapman & Hall.
general toxicity (Eberz et al., 1996; Weins and Jork, 1996; Hostettmann et al., 1997). The
most common sorbent of choice in TLC by far is still silica, whereas in HPLC analyses
nonpolar reversed-phase sorbents have almost entirely replaced silica and other normal-
phase sorbents. The mean particle size and particle size distribution of the silica gel used
as adsorbent depends on the nature of the separation task: For high-performance thin-
layer chromatography (HPTLC) plates, the mean particle size is approximately 5 µm
with a narrow particle size distribution; for TLC, it is approximately 12 µm, and the par-
ticle size distribution is wider. The pore diameter for both is approximately 60 Å, and the
surface area is approximately 500 m2/g (Gocan, 2002). Other relatively frequently used
polar TLC sorbents include alumina, cellulose, chitin and chitosan, and polar chemically
silica-bonded phases such as aminopropyl, cyanopropyl, and diol phases (Geiss, 1987).
Addition of acetic acid or diethylamine in small amounts is useful for the preparation
of acidic and basic compounds, respectively. Elution of PTLC usually takes place in
glass tanks, which may hold several plates at a time.
3.3.4.3 Paper Chromatography
Paper chromatography is similar to TLC in practice but quite different in principle.
Although paper consists mainly of cellulose, the stationary phase is not cellulose but
the water that is adsorbed or chemically bound to it. Development is carried out by
passing comparatively nonpolar mobile phase through the cellulose fibers, partition-
ing the solutes between the bound water and the mobile phase. Paper chromatog-
raphy thus operates by a liquid-liquid partitioning process rather than adsorption
on the surface of a solid. Paper chromatography is usually used to separate polar
substances such as amino acids and sugars. Paper chromatography has been used
extensively in flavonoid chemistry. For preliminary assessment of the extract, it is
general practice to run a spotted paper first in an alcoholic solvent, such as satu-
rates secondary butanol, butanol/acetone/water (BAW) or saturated toluene/butanol/
acetone (TBA) in the longer dimension (12–30 h) until the solvent line approaches
the end of the sheet. The chromatogram is then removed from the tank, air-dried in
a fume cupboard, and the paper is run in the second dimension using a more polar
solvent, usually an aqueous solvent (2–15% acetic acid in case of flavonoid, 4–6 h).
3.3.4.5 Gas Chromatography
GC is based on the volatilized sample transported by the carrier gas as the mov-
ing phase through the stationary phase of the column, where separation takes place
by the sorption/desorption process. Samples for gas chromatographic analysis are
normally low molecular weight compounds that are volatile and stable at high tem-
perature. In this respect, residual solvents in drug substances and drug products are
suitable for gas chromatographic analysis. Chemical derivatives can also be formed
to achieve volatility and thermal stability.
Common detectors are flame ionization detectors (FIDs) for carbon-containing
compounds, electron capture detectors (ECDs) for halogenated compounds, flame
photometric detectors (FPDs) for compounds containing sulfur or phosphorous,
and nitrogen-phosphorous detectors (NPDs) for compounds containing nitrogen
58 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
3.4 Derivatization
Although structural elucidation is well mastered and has become quite routine, isola-
tion and purification of specifically natural products that exist only in minute quanti-
ties have to be isolated after some derivatization or be monitored by a bioassay. For
example, in flavonoid chemistry, in which the occurrence of the compounds is in
microgram quantities and the structures are characterized mostly by hydroxylated
aromatic rings, derivatization using reactions such as acetylation, benzylation, and
methylation (Vogel et al., 1996) is necessary for good separations. Amines are also
easily acetylated. Normally, a known amount of extract is derivatized and purified by
repeated chromatographic methods, such as preparative chromatography and HPLC.
Besides enhancing the purification processes, derivatization also facilitates struc-
tural elucidation. It is easy, for example, to quantify the hydroxyl groups present in
a compound by counting the number of methyl groups resulting from the methyla-
tion experiment. Similarly, acetylation would facilitate good isolation and structural
elucidation, except for tertiary alcohols, which are normally resistant to acetylation.
Dimethylsulfoxide is usually a good methylating reagent. Benzylation is a valuable
protection method for compounds without chromophores (e.g., sugars). However, it
should be avoided when derivatizing aromatic compounds (e.g., flavonoids) because
the aromatic proton resonances will be buried under the benzyl protons in the nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra. It is noteworthy to remember that some protec-
tive groups are not labile, and it is practically impossible to effect deprotection. The
methyl group is usually very stable, and the demethylation process normally requires
very harsh conditions, which may consequently destroy the structure.
3.4.1 Acetylation
Dry material is dissolved in a minimum volume of pyridine (dried over potassium
hydroxide pellets) and twice the amount of dry (distilled) acetic anhydride. After
8–12 h at ambient temperatures (~60°C, normally on top of a hot oven), crushed ice
is added to precipitate the acetylated material. The precipitate is filtered under pres-
sure and the excess pyridine washed out with cold water.
detection method, and route most appropriate for isolation of the components. During
the isolation process, it is important to acquire sufficient quantities of the extract or com-
pound because it may not always be easy to reproduce the same compound.
3.5.2 Detection Methods
Detection methods (Table 3.4) are designed to increase sensitivity and selectivity and
to provide evidence concerning the quality of the separation. Classes of compounds
absorb at different UV wavelengths, and different complementary colors are observed.
Table 3.4
Detection Techniques Used in TLC
Detection Technique Principal Features of the Technique
UV-Vis/densitometry Free choice of excitation and detection wavelength;
possibility to capture UV-Vis spectra of the analytes
directly on the plate; fluorescence detection possible;
sequential detection of the analytes
FTIR (Fourier transform infrared) Can be performed directly on the plate or after elution of the
analyte from the sorbent; provides structural information
about the analytes
Radioactivity-based methods Applied both for online and offline detection; several
methods available; mostly used for metabolic studies
FID (flame ionization detection) Separation and detection performed on a specific sorbent-coated
quartz rod; suitable for compounds lacking chromophores
Photothermal methods Several methods available; also provides information about the
analytes distributed vertically inside the depth of the layer
AAS (atomic absorption Analytes are eluted from the layer before detection; used for
spectroscopy) the determination of metals
Source: From Crews, Rodríguez, and Jaspars, 1998. Organic structure analysis. New York, Oxford
University Press. With permission.
of enols into carbonyls). The tentative approach should be organized and system-
atic, entail understanding of interpretation of a spectral trace, appreciation of the
dangers of using negative or unreliable data, and simultaneous use of data from
NMR, MS, IR, and UV-Vis methods to support individual conclusions. In contrast
to solving a synthetic structure for which only a few pieces of spectroscopic data
Phytochemical Methods 61
might be sought, extensive data must be obtained for a newly isolated compound
when its structure is presumed to be unknown. The amount of sample at hand,
instrument time available, personal experience, and the ability to find appropriate
empirical reference data to back up a conclusion are all important factors. Both
liquid and solid compounds can easily be examined by NMR, IR, and UV-Vis
methods. Alternatively, gases or solids can be analyzed by IR and MS means. In
addition, no more than a few milligrams of a compound are needed for any of these
techniques. Total syntheses of natural products are the absolute because they can
be checked by comparison; structures determined by X-rays are likewise usually
final. In contrast, spectroscopic data can be consistent with a structure, but they
can never prove it. A single misinterpretation or oversight of an NMR signal can
lead to a grossly incorrect structure.
3.6.2 Deuterated Solvents
A large range of deuterated solvents, such as deuterated chloroform CDCl3 and deu-
terated dimethyl sulfoxide (CD3)2SO, exist (Table 3.7), especially for NMR spectra
solving. These solvents contain small quantities of undeuterated solvent, which may
give rise to a signal; CHCl3 is seen as a single peak at 7.27 ppm. Water may be pres-
ent as a contaminant; this gives a broad peak whose chemical shift varies greatly
with solvent and occurs around 1.6 ppm in CDCl3. Spectra are usually recorded
against tertramethyl silane as the internal standard, set as zero. Proton NMR spectra
are characterized by chemical shift in the range +12 to −4 ppm using spin-spin cou-
pling between protons.
62 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 3.5
Typical Chemical Shift Ranges of
Carbon Nuclei
Class Resonances (ppm)
C (alkane) ~0–30
C (alkene) ~110–150
C–N ~50
C–O ~60
C–F ~70
Aromatic ~110–160
Ester, amide, acid ~160–175
Ketone, aldehyde ~200–220
Table 3.6
Two-Dimensional NMR Experiments
Normally Detected Inverse Detected
Information Desired Experiment Experiment Nucleus
Proton-proton couplings 1 H- H COSY
1 Proton
Table 3.7
Solvents and Quantities for Analytical Physicochemical
Measurements
Analytical Common Solvents in Order of Amount of Sample
Chromatography Preference Needed (mg)
TLC 2
GC 1
HPLC 2
Physicochemical Measurements
1 H NMR (>400 MHz) Chloroform,a DMSO,a pyridine,a 5
acetone,a methanola
13C NMR (>400 MHz) Same as 1H NMR 20
IR Chloroform 2
UV/visible Ethanol methanol (water for UV) 2
Mass spectrometry Chloroform/methanol 1
a Deuterated solvents.
Ethers
RO-CH
Sulhides
RS-CH Saturated Alkanes
RCHO Aromatics
R2C=CH 2 R-H
Aldehyde
Alcohols
HO-CH
RCH=CHR RC_CH
Ph-CH Ar-CH
R2C=CR-CH
F-CH Cl-CH
I-CH
Br-CH
RCOCH
RCO2CH
NC-CH
Amide RCON H O2N-CH
R2N-CH
RCO 2H ROH
PhOH
R 2NH
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 ppm
3.7 Conclusion
Natural products chemistry as an interdisciplinary area can be used to collaborate dif-
ferent fields linked to herbal medicines. It is an important application in ethnoveteri-
nary and ethnopharmacological sciences. If properly utilized, the isolation techniques
described in this chapter can provide relief from the laborious protocols that natural
products scientists follow when isolating active metabolites from herbal medicines.
Application of new experimental procedures in isolation and purification of bioactive
products, even those that occur in minute quantities, is feasible. The efficiency and
effectiveness of isolation processes can be greatly improved with modern technology.
Acknowledgments
I would like to extend special thanks to Molahlehi Sonopo, who was my loyal master
of science student and friend during my lecturing days, for gathering part of the data
presented in this chapter. Many thanks to my children, Joyce, Sam, Edward, and
Edmond, all of whom give meaning to my life.
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plants. Journal of Planar Chromatography 10, 251–257, 1997.
Houghton, P. J., and Raman, A. Laboratory handbook for the fractionation of natural extracts.
Chapman & Hall, London, 1998.
Huie, C. W. A review of modern sample preparation techniques for the extraction and analysis
of medicinal plants. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 373, 23–30, 2002.
Jork, H., Funk, W., Fischer, W., and Wimmer, H. Thin layer chromatography: reagents and
detection methods: physical and chemical methods: fundamental reagents 1. Vol. 1a,
VCH, Weinheim, Germany, 1990.
McMurry, J. Organic chemistry, 4th ed. Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA, 1996.
Nyiredy, Sz. Rotation planar extraction (RPE)—a new exhaustive, preparative forced-flow
technique. Part 1: description of the method and practical aspects. Journal of Planar
Chromatography 14, 393–395, 2001.
Starmans, D. A. J., and Nijhuis, H. H. Extraction of secondary metabolites from plant material:
a review. Trends Food Science and Technology 7, 191–197, 1996.
Tservistas, M., Scheper, T., and Freitag, R. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)—novel strate-
gies in the processing of biomaterials. In Grabley, S., and Thiericke R. (Eds.), Drug
discovery from nature. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2000, pp. 106–113.
Vinatoru, M. An overview of the ultrasonically assisted extraction of bioactive principles from
herbs. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 8, 303–313, 2001.
Vogel, A. I., Tatchell A. R., Furnis, B. S., Hannaford, A. J., and Smith, P. W. G. Vogel’s textbook
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Weins, C., and Jork, H. Toxicological evaluation of harmful substances by in situ enzymatic
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Zygmunt, B., and Namieśnik, J. Preparation of samples of plant material for chromatographic
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Sugars, HPTLC Plates, silica gel Toluene/ 365 2-Aminodiphynyl-sulfuric 105–110 5–10 Green,
Carbonyl compounds 60 F254 ethylacetate/ acid blue, or
acetone 90:5:5 purple
Carbohydrates TLC Plates, silica gel Dichloromethane/ 365 4-Aminobenzoic acid 100 10–15 Reddish-
(sugars), 60 methanol/acetone/ brown
mono- and water 50:50:25:10
disaccharides,
uronic acids
Alkaloids [1,2]d HPTLC Plates, silica gel Methanol/ 365 Ammonia vapor 110–120 25 Yellow,
Mycotoxins [3–5]d 60 F254 chloroform/water green, or
Flavonoids, flavonoid 12:8:2 blue
glycosides [6–9]d
Antioxidants (e.g., HPTLC Plates, silica gel Toluene/chloroform 365 Anisaldehyde 90–125 1–15
flavonoids) 60 F254 10:10 (4-methoxybenzaldehyde-
Steroids Toluene/acetone/ sulfuric acid)
Prostaglandins methanol 6:3:1
Carbohydrates (flavonoids)
Phenols
Phytochemical Methods
Glycosides
Sapogenins
Terpenes or essential
oil components
Mycotoxins
Antibiotics
Aromatic HPTLC Plates, silica gel Methano/ 365 Formaldehyde-sulfuric acid 110 20 Variety
hydrocarbons 60 chloroform/water (Marquis reagent) 140-methyl esters 10
Alkaloids 12:8:2 (alkaloids)
Methyl ethers of fatty Toluene/acetone/
acids methanol 6:3:1
Tannins (flavonoids)
Fatty acids, HPTLC Plates, silica gel Methanol/ tert-Butyl hypochlorite Room temperature
triglycerides, amino 60 NH3(0.25%)/
acids, sugars, acetone 8:1:1
steroids
Peptides, nucleosides
Alkaloids
67
68 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 3.A2
Typical Coupling Constants
Number of Bonds
between the
Geminal 2JHH (on the same Coupling Constant Neighboring
carbon) Compound between HA and HB Hydrogen Atoms
Saturated R 10–16 Hz Two bonds (HA–C–HB)
R HA
HB
Unsaturated 0–3 Hz Two bonds (HA–C–HB)
HA
R
HB
Vicinal 3JHH (on the
adjacent carbon)
Saturated 6–8 Hz Three bonds
HA
(HA–C–C–HB)
R
R
HB
Unsaturated (trans-Hs on 14–16 Hz Three bonds
HA
opposite sides of double (HA–C–C–HB)
R
bond) R
HB
Unsaturated (cis-Hs on same 8–11 Hz Three bonds
HA
sides of double bond) B
(HA–C–C–HB)
H
R
R
Unsaturated aromatic 6–9 Hz Three bonds
HA
compound (HA–C–C–HB)
HB
Long-range 4JHH
Meta 1–3 Hz Four bonds
HA HB
(HA–C–C–C–HB)
R R
JHH = 2 bond lengths between the two protons (HH); 3JHH = 3 bond lengths between the two protons (HH);
2
Contents
4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 70
4.2 Dose-Response Curves and Safety.................................................................. 71
4.3 Toxicity Test..................................................................................................... 72
4.3.1 Single-Dose Acute Toxicity Testing.................................................... 73
4.3.2 Repeat-Dose Toxicity Testing.............................................................. 74
4.3.3 Reproduction Toxicity Study............................................................... 75
4.3.3.1 One-Generational Toxicity Study......................................... 75
4.3.3.2 Two-Generational Toxicity Study......................................... 75
4.3.4 Mutagenicity Testing........................................................................... 75
4.3.4.1 Gene Mutation in Bacteria.................................................... 76
4.3.4.2 Chromosomal Aberrations in Mammalian Cells
In Vitro.................................................................................. 76
4.3.4.3 Gene Mutations in Eukaryotic Systems................................ 77
4.3.4.4 In Vivo Testing for Genetic Damage..................................... 77
4.3.5 Carcinogenicity Testing....................................................................... 77
4.3.6 Local Tolerance Testing....................................................................... 77
4.3.6.1 Ocular Tolerance Testing...................................................... 77
4.3.6.2 Dermal Tolerance Testing..................................................... 78
4.3.6.3 Skin Sensitization................................................................. 78
4.3.6.4 Phototoxicity or Photosensitivity.......................................... 78
4.3.7 Cardiotoxicity Testing......................................................................... 78
4.3.8 Target Species Testing......................................................................... 79
4.3.9 Other Tests........................................................................................... 79
4.3.10 Pharmacovigilance.............................................................................. 79
4.4 Limitations in Complying with Conventional Strategy...................................80
4.5 Specific Considerations in Ethnobotanical Safety Testing.............................. 81
4.6 Special Consideration for Production Animals............................................... 81
4.6.1 Determination of Withdrawal Periods................................................. 82
4.6.2 Dangers of Residues............................................................................84
4.7 Suggestions for Toxicity Testing......................................................................84
4.7.1 Literature Review................................................................................ 85
4.7.2 Pharmacovigilance.............................................................................. 85
69
70 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
4.7.3 Species................................................................................................. 85
4.7.3.1 Testing in Companion Animals............................................ 86
4.7.3.2 Production Animals.............................................................. 87
4.7.4 Formulation......................................................................................... 87
4.8 Conclusion....................................................................................................... 88
Appendix A1. Care and Use of Laboratory Animals................................................ 88
Introduction...................................................................................................... 88
Choice ............................................................................................................. 88
Care.................................................................................................................. 89
Environmental Enrichment.............................................................................. 89
Administration of Substances and Collection of Body Fluid.......................... 89
Ethics ............................................................................................................. 89
References.................................................................................................................90
Further Reading........................................................................................................ 93
4.1 Introduction
Is natural safe? This is probably the most important question when considering herbal
remedies. Many people are of the mistaken notion that plant or herbal remedies are
safe as they are natural, and natural is good for you, that is, “nature knows best.” Yet,
most toxic substances known to humans are of natural origin, such as tetrodotoxin
from the puffer fish (Fugu rubripes), black mamba venom (Dendroaspis polylepis),
aflatoxins (Aspergillus spp.), botulinum toxin (Clostridium botulinum), and ricins
(Ricinus communis). From these examples, it is clear that herbal remedies are not
inherently safe (Ueno, 1985; Schweitz and Moinier, 1999; Noguchi and Ebesu, 2001;
Kellerman et al., 2005; Sobel, 2007). This, of course, does not mean that synthetic
pharmaceuticals, on the other hand, are safe, but the more rigorous current legisla-
tive framework governing the latter ameliorates the risk associated with their use.
An important factor is that commercial herbal remedies are sometimes processed
and concentrated by extraction to maximize the therapeutic effect (percolation or
maceration in various solvents). This increases not only the concentration of the ben-
eficial compounds in the extract but also the possible toxins (Foukaridis et al., 1995).
If one is to consider the words of Paracelsus, the father of modern toxicology, who
essentially stated that all substances are toxic with the dose making the difference,
the process of concentration could also increase the concentration of the beneficial
agents to a toxic level (Borzelleca, 2000).
Contamination of the formulation due to poor quality control or tampering is pos-
sible. In a study in the United Kingdom, many of the topical creams examined were
found to be adulterated with steroids (ICH, 2000; Ko, 2006). In another survey on
Chinese herbal remedies, formulations were found to be contaminated not only with
the steroids, but also nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as well as diazepenes and
other conventional pharmaceutics, such as antibiotics and antidiuretics (Deng, 2002;
Ernst, 2002). Therefore, good production quality control systems, as set out in good
manufacturing practice (GMP) guidelines, are important.
Another concern is the use of herbal products in animals that are farmed as a
source of protein for human nutrition (meat, milk, or eggs). Any substance that gets
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 71
absorbed into the body also has the potential of becoming incorporated into animal
products and can therefore adversely affect human health. At present, residues in
animal products are highly controlled around the world by the various regulators
(Van Dresser and Wilcke, 1989).
It is clear that every herbal remedy needs to undergo preclinical safety testing to
ascertain its potential to cause harm. Preclinical safety testing should not be seen
as an obstacle to the development or sale of an herbal remedy but rather as a means
to ensure that the end user of the product comes to no harm. However, it should be
remembered that most pharmaceutical drugs are researched and developed by com-
mercial companies, many of which are located in highly industrialized nations. Such
companies commit considerable financial resources to drug development and in return
realize significant profits from their investment (DiMasi, Hansen, and Grawbowski,
2003; Rawlins, 2004). Traditional medicine research, on the other hand, is most often
conducted by academic institutions, frequently in less-developed countries. In these
cases, it is clear that financial resources and return on investment will be limited, even
nonexistent at times. This has implications for toxicity testing since few academic
institutions are able to fund the entire range that is conventionally required.
ED LD
100
Emax
75
Response
50 ED50 LD50
25
Log Dose
Figure 4.1 Illustration of the dose-response relationship for a medicinal product. ED rep-
resents the effective dose-response curve; LD represents the lethal dose-response curve. The
x-axis is plotted on the log scale to linearize the data; the y-axis represents the percentage
effect. Emax represents the maximum therapeutic effect of the product. The ED50 and LD50
values can be read directly off the x-axis. (From Seier et al. 2004. A toxicity study of IKS/
PYAI Consumption, MRC Press, Cape Town.)
4.3 Toxicity Test
Numerous different tests have to be conducted when ascertaining the safety of ethical
medical products for registration. These tests have been designed to elucidate all toxic
effects at low, medium, and high doses following single or multiple exposures (WHO,
2004). Such tests detect insidious genotoxic as well as carcinogenic effects, while car-
diotoxicity is determined in vitro by human ether-a-go-go-related gene (hERG) screen-
ing (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development). With the exception of
some of the genotoxicity testing and hERG screening, all other safety investigations
need to be undertaken in animal models. At present the zebra fish, Chinese hamster
ovary (CHO) cells, and human lymphocyte and human lymphoma assays are the more
commonly acceptable in vitro assays for assessing genotoxicity (OECD, 1997; European
A B
100
75
Response
50
25
Log Dose
Figure 4.2 The importance of the slope of a dose-response curve for drug safety (margin
of safety). Product A has a steeper slope than product B. A smaller change in dose for product
A will result in a much larger change in response than for product B.
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 73
Medicines Agency [EMEA], 1987b). All other in vitro tests, such as the brine shrimp
and various cell culture assays, are not at present allowed for registration purposes and
are not validated due to poor correlation with in vivo toxicity in most cases (Toussaint
et al., 1995). However, these tests still continue to be widely used in the herbal industry
as initial screening for toxicity (Meyer et al., 1982; Solis et al., 1993).
When comparing herbal remedies to ethical medicinal products (pharmaceu-
ticals), some major differences are evident, which may influence registration. The
active ingredients in the ethical products are known, while those in the herbal rem-
edies are largely unknown. In addition, the composition of the herbal remedy can
change with each batch grown and processed, and this difference can alter the toxic-
ity profile of the herbal product. Therefore, preclinical safety testing for any herbal
product is dependent on an adequate quality control strategy during the preparation
of said herbal remedy. The results from the preclinical tests can only be applied to
production batches that meet the same criteria. At present, this would mean finger-
printing of all batches produced. Any batch that fails to meet the fingerprint require-
ments should be rejected and destroyed as the toxicity resulting from this difference
can be substantial; for example, kava kava extracts appear to be more toxic with an
increase in the ethanol quantity in the extraction solvent (Clouatre, 2004).
1990; OECD, 2006). These methods were designed to limit the total number of ani-
mals exposed to the potentially toxic compound and the highest dose. The system also
avoided death as the end point and relied more on the clinical signs. From these data,
compounds can be classified according to their toxicity even though an LD50 is not deter-
mined. Animals are exposed to 5, 50, and 500 mg/kg of the tested compound, which
enables classification as very toxic (LD50 < 25 mg/kg), toxic (LD50 25–200 mg/kg),
harmful (LD50 200–2,000 mg/kg), and unclassified (>2,000 mg/kg) depending on the
number of deaths. The last dose of 2,000 mg/kg also forms part of the tolerance dose
set by the OECD (2006). According to this system, a product that fails to show effects
at this dose is unlikely to be toxic.
Table 4.1
Blood Tests Typically Required for Repeat Dose Studies
Hematology Biochemistry
Red blood cell count Alanine aminotransferase, aspartate
aminotransferase, gamma glutamyl transferase,
bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, albumin,
ornithine carbamyl transferase
Hemoglobin, hematocrit Urea, creatinine, Na, K, Cl, Ca, P
Total and differential white blood cell count Total protein, glucose, total cholesterol
Platelets Any other tests indicated by specific concerns
(e.g., hormones, lipids)
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 75
Table 4.2
Organ Samples Required for Histopathological Evaluation for a Subacute Test
Any Gross Lesions Tissue Masses Blood Smear Lymph Node Spinal Cord
Salivary glands Mammary glands Pituitary Thymus Trachea
Lungs Heart Thyroid Esophagus Stomach
Colon Liver Gall bladder Pancreas
Spleen Kidneys Adrenals Bladder Prostate
Testes Ovaries Uterus Brain Eye
Sternebrae, femur, or vertebrae (with bone marrow) Small intestine (Swiss roll method)
species also before treatment starts (at baseline). It is also acceptable to perform the
blood tests only at the end of a study. Microscopic examination of urine for sediment
is conducted according to the same schedule.
All animals have to be examined for ophthalmological effects before and at the
end of the study and are monitored for any other signs of toxicity. All changes are
recorded, and the animals are sacrificed after the last dose. Any death is investigated
by full postmortem examination. The organs of either all test animals or only those
in the high-dose group as well as the control group have to be evaluated histopatho-
logically (Table 4.2) (OECD, 1995, 2001b).
4.3.4 Mutagenicity Testing
Mutagenesis refers to the changes in the genetic material of a cell, which can be
harmful to subsequent generations and may be associated with carcinogenicity.
These problems can be related to a single point change in the individual gene, affect
an entire chromosome, or even alter the number of chromosomes present. A number
of different in vitro and in vivo tests have been developed to determine the ability of
a chemical to induce this type of damage (Kirkland et al., 2005).
76 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
A B
Test 1
Negative
A B C
Test 2
Positive
Figure 4.3 The Ames test. A is the herbal remedy, B is the bacterial culture, and C is the
rat microsomal fraction. In both of the tests, the ingredients are mixed together and plated.
The test is positive for mutagenicity if bacterial colonies start to grow.
4.3.5 Carcinogenicity Testing
Carcinogenicity testing aims to determine if the material has the ability to induce can-
cer. While most drugs that are genotoxic may cause cancer, this is only possible if the
changes induced do not kill the cell; that is, the changes induced in the nucleus must
not kill the cell, thereby allowing the cell to start growing uncontrollably so that it can
form a neoplastic condition in the animals. It is important for products in which long-
term exposure is possible or, more importantly, when a product shows the potential to
be genotoxic. Animals are exposed to the drug for a long period of time, usually 1 to 2
years, and the incidence of cancer is then compared with the control group. The inherent
problem of this test is that most of the rodent species only live about 2 years and have a
naturally high incidence of cancer when old. There has also been no proper correlation
between the occurrence of cancer in humans and in rodents (Lave et al., 1988).
single- and repeat-dose testing are conducted, and irritation to the eye and surround-
ing adnexa is determined. At the termination of dosing, the animals are euthanized
for full necropsy. The ethical justification of this test is being questioned despite the
use of local anesthetics. At present, this test is not carried out for known corrosive
chemical agents (Worth and Cronin, 2001).
4.3.6.3 Skin Sensitization
In addition to a compound being directly irritant to skin, sensitization to the particu-
lar chemical may result from simple dermal exposure (sensitization refers specifi-
cally to the ability of the immune system to recognize the molecule) (Buehler, 1965;
Magnusson and Kligman, 1969; Magnusson, 1980; Ritz and Buehler, 1980; OECD,
2004). Once the immune system recognizes a molecule, subsequent exposure tends
to result in an allergic reaction. While these immune reactions may be mild, such as
simple urticaria, they can also be fatal. This test is undertaken in guinea pigs with
the animals first exposed to the substance to allow for sensitization, and after a suit-
able delay, the effect of reexposure is evaluated.
4.3.6.4 Phototoxicity or Photosensitivity
Phototoxicity refers to an increased sensitivity of the skin to ultraviolet (UV) radia-
tion following the exposure to a chemical (Putman, van der Laan, and van Loveren,
2003). This can occur after exposure to a photosensitizing agent that has the unique
ability to absorb UV radiation at one wavelength and subsequently emit that radiation
at a second wavelength. This change in wavelength makes exposure to UV radiation
dangerous, such that direct sunlight can cause severe sunburn and sometimes severe
dermal ulceration (doxycycline is the most well-recognized molecule sensitizer in
people). At present, this test is dependent on the molecule to be tested and the regula-
tor, with testing undertaken in guinea pigs.
4.3.7 Cardiotoxicity Testing
Drugs that are cardiotoxic may bring about their effect by influencing the opening of
potassium channels in the cardiac conduction network; these channels are responsible
for the repolarization of the ventricular cardiac action potential, thereby leading to car-
diac arrhythmias (Raschi et al., 2008; Fink et al., 2008; Roche et al., 2002). To ascertain
this effect, the hERG has been sequenced and cloned into cell lines for further studies.
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 79
This gene receives its names from its equivalent Drosophila ether-a-go-go gene. In the
latter, exposure of the firefly to ether results in the opening of potassium channels and
excitation.
In veterinary medicine, the need for phase testing as in humans is not necessary
as we have the advantage of being able to test the safety of the product directly in
the target species. In practice, this is known as tolerance testing. In this system, the
target animal is exposed to the product at the expected therapeutic dose, 5 and 10
times the therapeutic dose. This exposure allows the possible toxicity inherent in the
final formulation to be determined.
4.3.9 Other Tests
Other toxicity tests are available that may be applicable to the compound under
investigation. They include the neurotoxicity and immunotoxicity studies.
Safety pharmacology determines the possible effects on vital functions, including
the central nervous, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems. It may be conducted
during regular toxicity testing or as a separate study.
4.3.10 Pharmacovigilance
Pharmacovigilance is also referred to as postmarketing surveillance or phase 4 test-
ing. During this stage, the occurrence of adverse reactions following the registration
and marketing of a medicinal product are monitored. This is extremely important
since in toxicity testing relatively small numbers of animals are used, and results are
80 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
• Therapeutic doses of herbal medicines: Animals are often treated with very
high doses. This may limit the volume that can be administered during tox-
icity testing, particularly considering that multiples of the therapeutic dose
have to be utilized. For example, a 200-g laboratory rat can only be gavaged
with a maximum volume of 4 mL (Nebendahl, 2000).
• Consistency: Due to the coarse, bulky consistency of even-milled whole-
plant materials, they are difficult to gavage to the test animals and can
Table 4.3
Summary of Limitations in Applying Conventional Strategies
Conventional Strategy In Whole-Plant Testing In Extract Testing
In vitro (hERG, Ames, etc.) Not possible as the toxic Can be established
compound is protected within
the whole-plant material
Pharmacokinetics, In the absence of lead Available if lead compound
pharmacodynamics compound never available has been identified
Acute toxicity Sometimes difficult to Can be established
establish due to lack of
toxicity at any dose
Subchronic-chronic toxicity Can be established Can be established
Carcinogenicity Cannot often be established, Can be established
and dose finding will be
difficult
Reproductive toxicity Can be established Can be established
Developmental toxicity Can be established Can be established
High dose should produce toxicity, Cannot usually be achieved Can be achieved
medium dose lower toxicity due to the volume limitation
or the acute toxicity test not
revealing a toxic dose
Establish NOAEL Cannot often be established due to May be possible
lack of toxicity at any dose
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 81
sometimes only be administered in the food. Although this does not apply
to extracts, alcohol extraction poses its own problem. Due to their low vis-
cosity, they may be dosed into the lungs if the animals struggle during the
gavage procedure and cause respiratory tract irritation
• The palatability of the test material: Animals may not like the taste of the test
material and refuse to consume it in food or reduce their food consumption.
4.5 Specific Considerations in
Ethnobotanical Safety Testing
The process of developing traditional medicines for allopathic use is often reversed
compared to that of conventional pharmaceutical development. In the conventional
approach, a compound is developed in the laboratory and, after extensive preclini-
cal testing, introduced into clinical practice. Conversely, traditional medicines are
usually first used in clinical practice and then brought into the laboratory for test-
ing. Because of this, sometimes extensive, established use in clinical practice, it is
occasionally argued that there is no need for further safety testing since this has been
established. However, the therapeutic use does not provide information on overdose
(acute toxicity), reversibility on drug withdrawal (long-term effects), target organs,
chronic and delayed toxicity, or whether there are subclinical side effects. These
might not be immediately apparent during clinical use.
TISSUE
Receptor-bound drug
Drug-Metabolism,
e.g., the liver
Distribution
Site of action
Drug in dosage form (Biophase) n
tio
rma
sfo
an
otr
Dissolution Bi
Free drug
Unchanged drug
Absorption Excretion and
Drug in solution
Bound drug metabolism,
at
absorption site PLASMA e.g., the kidneys
Figure 4.4 The normal pharmacokinetics processes every drug undergoes when entering
the body.
NOAEL
ADI =
Safety Factor
The safety factor is defined by the target population. Usually, this is set at 100
and represents a factor of 10 for extrapolation between species and an additional
10 for differences in sensitivity within animal populations (Skidmore, Kuiper, and
Hamilton, 1997). The safety can, at times, be increased depending on the target
population (e.g., if the chance of exposure in children is very high, a safety factor
may be increased for additional protection of this very susceptible population group).
The ADI is used by JECFA and other regulators to set the MRL for the various organ
systems and is based on a food basket (the average consumption by a 60-kg person).
Usually, only a portion of the ADI is allocated for residues in animal products as
exposure is possible via other sources (e.g., via residues on crops).
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 83
Once an MRL is set, the withdrawal time can be determined. The usual system
requires three groups of animals (n ≥ 3) to be slaughtered at three different time
points. The concentration of drug in each organ system is subsequently measured and
plotted, and the time to the MRL is statistically determined. The withdrawal time is
taken as the longest time to the MRL for all the tested organ samples (Figure 4.5).
The organs and products include muscle, kidneys, fat, injection site, liver, eggs, and
1000
500
200
100
Conc (µg/kg)
50
20
10
5
2
1
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.02
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (day)
1000
500
200
100
Conc (µg/kg)
50
20
10
5
2
1
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.02
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (day)
Figure 4.5 The statistical determination of the time to MRL for an ethical product in cattle
tissue for four groups (n = 4). (Top) The kidney drug concentrations of the 16 animals plotted
against an MRL of 1,000 μg/kg. From the x-axis, the MRL is reached after 12 days. (Bottom)
The liver drug concentrations from the same 16 animals plotted against an MRL of 1,000 μg/kg.
From the x-axis, the MRL is reached after 7 days. If the kidneys were the organ system that took
the longest to reach the MRL, a withdrawal period of at least 12 days would be required.
84 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
milk. (For a more detailed discussion of MRL and withdrawal times, please refer to
the guidelines published by your local regulatory authority.)
4.6.2 Dangers of Residues
The presence of residues in animal products may have a negative influence on human
health. These include
4.7.1 Literature Review
Before any toxicity testing activity, there should be a comprehensive literature review.
This is to establish what is already known about possible harmful effects of the
material and to identify gaps in that knowledge. It is these gaps that will guide the
testing strategy. The use of therapeutic information to predict toxicity should be con-
sidered, and this also applies to herbal medicines already utilized. However, infor-
mation on overdose and reversibility, organ targets, and indicators such as NOAEL
cannot be established during therapeutic use.
It is also important to ascertain the relevance of published data to your extract
to ensure the same chemical constituents in the plant, same extraction method, and
same plant part in use. As mentioned, any difference in extract could result in pos-
sible toxic compounds being introduced or an increase in the concentrations of cer-
tain products to toxic levels.
4.7.2 Pharmacovigilance
It has always been argued that due to the established use of many herbal remedies
safety is proven. However, evidence for this is often anecdotal, and no documented
data are usually available. Without properly kept records describing the use and out-
come in animals, it is impossible to ascertain if the information is correct. In one
study, a commonly used herbal remedy in South Africa was subjected to a subacute
toxicity test. In this study (Figure 4.6, the traditional medicine, consisting of four
dried and milled African plants, was tested in vervet monkeys (Seier et al., 2004).
Administration of this material was associated with a significant decline in erythro-
cyte counts (anemia) in all treated groups, and there was a notable 31% loss of body
weight in the high-dose group. In addition to clearly establishing toxicity, it was
determined that the effects were reversible on cessation of therapy. This study clearly
indicated that a history of use was not indicative of safety.
However, if properly recorded safety data, collected in a well-established phar-
macovigilance monitoring system is available, these data may provide sufficient
and invaluable information in demonstrating safety. For proper interpretation, such
data must, however, be evaluated by an expert toxicologist. Any questions or doubt
remaining must thereafter be answered by undertaking the relevant toxicity tests. It
has to be emphasized that pharmacovigilance data will only be of value for the for-
mulation if history of use is provided; for example, data for dried leaves may not be
representative for a decoction from dried leaves as the latter involves a modification
and therefore constitutes a new formulation that may have new effects.
4.7.3 Species
In veterinary medicines, the use of a drug can be divided into two broad categories:
use in companion animals (dogs, cats, and horses) and use in food-producing ani-
mals (cattle, pigs, chickens, sheep, goats, horses, etc.).
86 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
7.00
6.50
6.00
X10^9/1
5.50
5.00
4.50
4.00
Baseline Week 4 Week 8 Week 12 study Week 22
completed washout
Figure 4.6 Changes in erythrocyte counts in vervet monkeys following treatment with a
traditional medicine at various doses. This particular product was already used by people and
considered safe. (From Seier et al. 2004. MRC, Final Report. With permission.)
1. Acute toxicity: This informs the subacute toxicity studies and can be
omitted if sufficient information is already available. It is possible that
acute toxicity for certain herbal medicines cannot be established as the
plant or herbal extract may be devoid of harmful effects even at high
doses.
2. Subacute toxicity: These tests are most important, particularly when
an animal is to receive multiple doses. They can and should always be
undertaken.
3. Reproductive studies: These are important when the product is to be used in
animals of reproductive age. Abortions in valuable breeding animals could
result in loss of income and prosecution of the manufacturer of the herbal
remedy. These should therefore be considered carefully.
4. Genotoxicity studies: Safety from mutagenic effects must be demonstrated.
5. Carcinogenicity: Considering the difficulty in interpreting these tests, it is
believed that they can be omitted unless evidence of genotoxicity is present.
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 87
It should be borne in mind that the cost of developing herbal remedies for com-
panion animals can be prohibitive, and a cost-benefit analysis prior to the start of
testing should be considered. This applies to pharmaceutical remedies as well and
has unfortunately resulted in drug development for the companion animals being
secondary to human pharmaceutical research and development.
4.7.3.2 Production Animals
Production animals are a more complicated issue as there is the possibility of poison-
ing not only the animal but also the consumer of such animal or animal products.
Another problem is the possible unknown composition of herbal formulations and the
resultant inability to identify and quantify active ingredients. This makes it impos-
sible to determine when the withdrawal period will be reached. The use of microbial
quantification of tissue levels, fingerprinting, or the use of mass spectroscopy and
nuclear magnetic resonance may make this possible, but the onus is on the applicant
to prove that the medicinal substance is below MRLs. One should also consider that
in many countries, it is illegal to use any medicinal products in a production animal
without setting an appropriate withdrawal period.
In production animals, it therefore becomes necessary to undertake all the toxic-
ity tests listed. Exceptions from any of the tests must be based on information in
the currently available literature. The use of the same medicines in people is not
an accepted reason for exemption from testing since they would be consuming the
medicines unknowingly, and no informed consent was given.
4.7.4 Formulation
A number of active and inactive ingredients are present in the formulation of ethical
or allopathic medicines. The same applies to herbal remedies, and the amount and
ratio of these ingredients are dependent on the preparation of the plant (i.e., the plant
part and solvent used). This implies that toxicity testing is dependent on the prepa-
ration method. Therefore, each preparation method produces different remedies in
terms of toxicity and will require testing unless it can be proven that the ratio and
constituents within the various extracts are of an identical chemical nature.
88 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
4.8 Conclusion
It is clear that in veterinary ethnobotanical development, just as that in humans,
establishing toxicity is an important prerequisite for use of all medicines.
Toxicity testing of veterinary herbal remedies is important for the protection of
animals and people. Although some believe that such medicines are natural and
therefore safe, this is by no means correct. Besides, routine therapeutic use cannot
provide answers to the many questions asked during toxicity testing. In the absence
of safety information, both the treating veterinarian and the manufacturing company
will be liable for any toxicity that results.
The extent of toxicity testing is dependent on the information already available
and on finding and filling the gaps. Complete compliance with conventional strate-
gies is often not necessary and at times may not be possible as there are certain
practical limitations imposed by the nature of the material to be tested.
During testing, quality control is of critical importance. This involves ensuring
that material from plants was harvested at the same time, place, season, and soil con-
dition since plant constituents vary significantly with these factors. This also ensures
uniformity of the end product.
There is no doubt that the use of traditional medicine will continue in many coun-
tries informally without testing. However, should countries, communities, or organi-
zations wish to enter mainstream drug development with their traditional knowledge,
safety will have to be ensured through scientifically obtained data.
Choice
Among the rodents, rats (Rattus norvegicus) are most commonly utilized for safety
testing, while nonrodent species (including dogs, pigs, and nonhuman primates) are
also used. In preclinical safety testing for human drugs, it is stipulated that a rodent
and nonrodent species be used. Since it is unlikely that drugs for cattle or chick-
ens would be tested in primates, the most likely species utilized would be the rat.
Rats have been well characterized and are available in a large variety of strains
(breeds). Some of these are produced for particular diseases such as hypertension;
others may have been altered genetically as disease models. However, for preclinical
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 89
safety testing, only normal rats of any strain may be used. While both sexes may be
used in testing, it is recommended that female rats be used. This is because through
a well-documented history of use, the female of the species has been shown to be
more sensitive if sexual sensitivity to toxicity was present.
Care
Laboratory animals, including rats, have highly specific requirements. This is con-
trary to the popular belief that rats are vermin and are associated with unsanitary
conditions. They are, on the contrary, actually prone to a wide variety of diseases,
some manifest only in stress situations, and all of them can significantly confound
research results. Therefore, to provide high standards of animal welfare and con-
trol diseases, rats have to be kept in highly hygienic conditions, and some are even
housed in situations that are certified free of certain pathogens, which is called spe-
cific pathogen free (SPF), or under completely sterile conditions, called germ free.
Cages must be made from sterilizable materials. Other confounding factors that need
to be controlled are environmental conditions and food. Appropriate air condition-
ing and standardized nutrition consisting of good-quality pelleted diets, produced
specifically for rats, will ensure minimal variability and good health.
Environmental Enrichment
Previously, the focus of laboratory animal management tended to be on physical
health and disease transmission. However, it is clear that animals also have behavioral
needs, and much attention has shifted to address this issue. For example, for hygienic
reasons rats were previously housed on grid floors, whereas studies have shown that
rats prefer solid ones, which have now become standard in rat housing. The sum of
actions taken to enable species-specific behavior is called environmental enrichment.
This has consequences for cage size, design, and complexity, depending on the ani-
mal’s needs. Provision of materials for gnawing, hiding, climbing, socializing, and
nest making are examples of actions to be taken to address the needs of rats.
Ethics
The use of animals in research is an emotive and controversial issue in many societ-
ies. Although there is polarization about the right to use animals in research, it is
90 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
generally agreed that animals are sentient creatures, and that scientists have clear
moral obligations to treat them humanely. A commonly used yardstick is that the
benefits of the research must outweigh the harm to the research animal. This can
be particularly difficult to balance in preclinical safety testing, for which one of the
aims is to induce toxicity. However, some of the more severe tests, such as the LD50,
are not undertaken routinely, and there is increasing research into finding alterna-
tives such as cell cultures and computer modeling. At present, alternate models are
only acceptable for genotoxicity testing. A number of shortcomings of in vitro sys-
tems still need to be resolved (e.g., cells in culture may lose their natural function
and abilities, not being able to test the effects in an interdependent system of organs,
and testing for physical symptoms such as ataxia, vomiting, fever, and diarrhea).
Reducing safety testing would also require the cooperation of authorities since some
tests are legal requirements for product registration.
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Geneva.
5 Revitalizing
Ethnoveterinary
Medical Traditions
A Perspective from India
M. N. Balakrishnan Nair and P. M. Unnikrishnan
Contents
5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 95
5.2 Modern Veterinary Services............................................................................96
5.3 A Historical Perspective of Ethnoveterinary Medicine...................................96
5.4 Community-Based Animal Health Care......................................................... 98
5.5 Revival of Ethnoveterinary Medicine........................................................... 115
5.6 The Indian Systems of Medicine and Rapid Assessment of
Ethnoveterinary Health Traditions................................................................ 116
5.6.1 Desk Research Report....................................................................... 118
5.6.2 RALHT Workshop............................................................................ 118
5.6.3 Promotion of the Best Traditional Health Practices.......................... 119
5.7 Conservation of Ethnomedico Knowledge.................................................... 119
5.8 Collaboration between Indigenous Medical Systems.................................... 119
5.9 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 120
Acknowledgments................................................................................................... 120
References............................................................................................................... 122
5.1 Introduction
Nearly 70% of the world’s rural poor depend on livestock as a critical component of
their livelihood (640 million poor farmers in rain-fed areas, 190 million pastoral-
ists in the arid and mountain zones, and more than 100 million people in landless
households; Swarup and Patra, 2005). Prevention, control, and eradication of dis-
eases among domesticated animals are major concerns as diseases in animals lead
to economic losses and possible transmission of the causative agents to humans.
Livestock are the foundation of agrarian economy, contributing about 32% of the
total share from agriculture to the national gross domestic product (GDP; Swarup
and Patra, 2005). Livestock rearing is considered a supplementary occupation and a
source of additional income for those engaged in agricultural operations.
95
96 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
People use meat, eggs, and dairy products for their food, wool and leather for clothing,
and animal power to till their fields. Livestock also provide manure to fertilize the crop
(Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO] Livestock Policy Brief No. 3). The Indian live-
stock sector today has 185 million cattle, 98 million buffalo, 124.5 million goats, 60 mil-
lion sheep, 343 million poultry, 13.5 million pigs, 1.6 million equines, and 6.3 million
camels. The world share is 16% of cattle and 57% of buffalo (ranked first), 18% of goats
(ranked second), and 6% of sheep (ranked third). The contribution of livestock to GDP is
5.38% (valued Rs 120,938 cr (about US$26121 million) in 2003) (Anonymous, 2006).
It is estimated that approximately Rs 50 billion (US$1 = about Rs 46.3) annually
are lost on account of livestock diseases in India. The high treatment cost, inacces-
sibility, and indiscriminate use of antibiotics and hormones, which leads to user-
unfriendly effects such as high antibiotic and hormone residues in the milk and other
animal products, are serious limitations of modern veterinary management (Khoda,
2005; Merai and Boghra, 2004). Decline in the animal husbandry budget and priva-
tization has led to the scanty veterinary services provided by the government to the
poor in rural areas (Anonymous, 2004). Veterinary services have a crucial role in
controlling highly contagious diseases and zoonotic infections, which have implica-
tions for human health as well as livestock health.
Table 5.1
Common Problems in Cattle
Serial No. Modern Veterinary Science Ayurveda (ISM)
1 Abortion
2 Black quarter Pittajasopha/Visarpa
3 Bloat Adhmana, Gulma, Vistabdha ajeerna
4 Bronchitis Kasa
5 Dermatitis Kusta
6 Enteritis/diarrhea Atisara
7 Ephemeral fever Trithiyaka Jvara
8 Foot-and-mouth disease Sannipata jvara/Agni visarpa
9 Fracture/dislocation Asthi bhagna/sandhi mukta
10 Helminthiasis Krimi
11 Hypogalactia Stanya kshaya
12 Impaction of rumen
13 Indigestion Ajeerna (vistabdha)
14 Mastitis Sthana vidrahi
15 Prolapses of uterus Yoni bhramsha
16 Pyrexia Jvara
17 Repeat breeder/habitual abortion Apatyaya/Garbha srava
18 Retention of placenta Apathitha apara
19 Sterility
20 Vitamin deficiency
21 Yoke gall
Source: From Raneesh et al., 2005. A user’s guide on ethnoveterinary health practices,
FRLHT, Bangalore, India. With permission.
Table 5.2
Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
1 Black quarter 1 Holoptelea integrifolia (bark) 50 g is pounded and boiled in a
liter of water and is reduced to 500 mL to make a decoction.
500 mL of the decoction are administered orally twice a day
before feed on alternate days until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Siddharamappa, Benegere, Shimoga District
(continued)
100 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
(continued)
102 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
(continued)
104 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
(continued)
106 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
12 Mastitis 66 Seeds of Cajanus cajan and the leaves of Piper betel are
ground to a fine paste. The paste is applied over the udder
once a day for 3 days.
Vd. Gandhi, Virudhunagar District
(continued)
108 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
(continued)
110 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
(continued)
112 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
(continued)
114 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
110 Albizia chinensis (bark) 200 g is powdered and kept inside a thick
cloth, which is suspended into a bowl that contains about a liter
of rice for gruel preparation. This preparation is administered
orally for 3 days.
Vaidyas of Dakshina Kannada region
17 Yoke gall 111 Initially, sesamum oil is applied over the wound followed by
application of the leaf paste of Albizia amara. The paste is
applied over the affected area until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Poongavanam, Periyapangunatham, Pangutham Post,
Dharmapuri
Source: From Raneesh et al., 2005. A user’s guide on ethnoveterinary health practices, FRLHT,
Bangalore, India. With permission.
Note: These folk remedies are the property of folk healers; therefore, any further use of the knowledge
must be after prior consent from the healers.
There are local healers and livestock farmers (both settled and nomadic) who are
knowledgeable and experienced in traditional veterinary health care. The folk health
practices largely remain undocumented and are passed on from one generation to
another by word of mouth. They use the locally available medicinal plants for treat-
ment of animals. The local healers are popular in their communities, and farmers
generally consult them. The ethnoveterinary medicines used are ecosystem and ethnic-
community specific; therefore, the characteristics, sophistication, and intensity of these
practices differ greatly among individuals, societies, and regions. These local veteri-
nary health practices are accessible, affordable, and culturally acceptable.
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 115
The use of antibiotics and other chemical products have in fact been banned for
animal health care in many countries, and the world is looking for safer herbal alter-
natives. Ethnoveterinary medicine has great potential to address current challenges
faced by veterinary medicine as it has decentralized ecosystem-specific, resource-
based applications that are safe and efficacious and create little or no adverse effects
in the target animals. However, they are facing the threat of rapid erosion due to
urbanization and westernization. The urgent revival of these traditional veteri-
nary practices is a high priority in the light of the constraints of modern medicine
and the benefits of these practices in terms of their accessibility, affordability, and
acceptability.
A participatory rapid assessment program was designed to study and promote ethnove-
terinary traditions and to establish safe and efficacious ethnoveterinary health prac-
tices in select locations of south India. The program has the following components:
Identification of
local health
Data on health practices
traditions
of the selected areas
Compilation from
database, literature of
Documentation
codified indigenous
system of medicine
Prioritized list of health
(Ayurveda, Siddha, and
conditions
Unani), and modern
pharmacology Prioritization of
health conditions References of 120
plants used in
ethnoveterinary
Literature
reference Desk research
Set of assessed
remedies
Rapid
Identification of assessment
safe and effective of
remedies ethnoveterinary
practices
knowledge and folk knowledge (Unnikrishnan and Darshan Shankar, 2005). The
worldview of the theoretical foundation of modern science and traditional knowledge
are completely different. The codified Indian medical traditions share a similar world-
view as that of the oral folk traditions’ therefore, they are (ayurveda/mrugayurveda)
better tools for assessment of the folk health traditions (Unnikrishnan and Darshan
Shankar, 2005).
It is necessary to find out the effectiveness and contemporary relevance of the
ethnoveterinary knowledge and practices. This involves critical and comprehensive
assessment of these practices using the Indian systems of medicine. We developed
such a method, called the rapid assessment of local ethnoveterinary health traditions
(RALHT, see Figure 5.1).
RALHT is a participatory method developed to document and validate ethnove-
terinary knowledge in a rapid and cost-efficient way. In this process, the traditional
health practices are assessed through a method of dialogue and consensus; local
healers, veterinary doctors, researchers, community members, and other ethno
veterinary experts take part. The process involves comprehensive documentation of
health practices, desk research for finding out and compiling scientific data on these
118 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
practices, and assessment workshops for prioritizing and selecting practices for pro-
motion. The assessment workshops form a pluralistic medicine platform for a cross-
cultural dialogue between traditional and the contemporary medical sciences. The
participants in this program are traditional healers, veterinary doctors, ayurvedic
doctors, ethnobotanists, documenters, and community members.
The RALHT process consists of the following steps:
5.6.2 RALHT Workshop
The RALHT workshop is an essentially participatory method of assessment
that involves the community, vaidyas (local healers), medical practitioners from
various systems of medicine, pharmacologists, botanists, and the facilitators
(nongovernmental organizations [NGOs], peoples’ organizations, etc.). The priori-
tized list of health conditions or illnesses and the causes and symptoms are presented
to the panel of practitioners. The panel discusses with the community (in the case of
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 119
RALHT for household remedies) and the folk healers (in the case of RALHT for folk
remedies) and seeks clarifications if required. During the analysis, the total number
of formulas having consensus from the community and all the experts of the Indian
systems of medicine and modern medicine, the number of formulas having consen-
sus from the community and one of the Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM) experts,
formulas suggested for modification or additions, and formulas to be discouraged as
per consensus of the participants are listed.
thousands of years. Actually, if the countries of South and Southeast Asia that have
common knowledge systems come together to discuss these aspects, much hidden
information on indigenous systems could be consolidated.
5.9 Conclusion
Ethnoveterinary practices have immense contemporary relevance. A rapid par-
ticipatory assessment model for finding out the best practices was developed in
FRLHT and tested in four geographical locations in southern India. Of the docu-
mented folk remedies, about 70% had positive evidence from various systems of
medicine and practical experience. The medicinal plants used in the remedies can
be easily grown in home herbal gardens and are locally available. Some of the
remedies have gone through pilot clinical studies and have been made into prod-
ucts, which are now being made through local enterprises. It is suggested that this
model, if promoted widely, can be of immense use for rural communities and dairy
farmers. We believe revitalization of ethnoveterinary theory and practice holds the
key to better animal health and hence to the prosperity of animal farmers in rural
India. It also ensures reduction of antibiotic and hormone residue from the animal
products and thus promotes green health.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the community, folk healers, ISM doctors, botanists, and all oth-
ers who are directly or indirectly associated with this program.
Aegle marmelos
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 121
Asperagus racemosus
Benincasa hispida
122 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Hibiscus rosasinensis
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FAO. 2006. Livestock policy Brief 3. Cattle ranching and deforestation, 1–6.
Farah OI, Ngatia TA, and Munyua WK. 1996. Ethnoveterinary techniques practiced by the
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(ITDG and IIRR). 1996. Ethnoveterinary medicine in Kenya: a field manual of tradi-
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Medical Traditions of India (Nair MNB, Ed.). FRLHT, Bangalore, India.
Mathias-Mundy E. 1989. Indigenous knowledge on veterinary medicine. Paper presented at
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Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 123
Contents
6.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 125
6.2 Inventory of Plants Used in Animal Health and Production......................... 126
6.3 Validation of the Traditional Use of Plants................................................... 148
6.4 Parts of Plants Used....................................................................................... 151
6.4.1 Modes of Preparation and Administration........................................ 152
6.5 Discussion...................................................................................................... 152
6.6 Conclusions.................................................................................................... 154
References............................................................................................................... 154
6.1 Introduction
There has been a resurgence of interest in traditional health care practices in the Western
as well as in the developing world. In animal health, this has led to further attention
in ethnoveterinary research and development.1–16 This is a relatively new field of study
that covers traditional practices, ethnobotany, and application of animal care prac-
tices embedded in local tradition. During its annual convention (1996), the American
Veterinary Medical Association17 recognized veterinary acupuncture and acutherapy,
veterinary chiropractic, physical therapy, massage, homeopathic, botanical, nutra-
ceutical, and holistic veterinary medicine as “modalities to be offered in the context
of a valid veterinarian/client/patient relationship” (http://www.veterinarywatch.com/
guidelines.htm). These developments have coincided with the emergence of a consen-
sus on the validity and importance of indigenous knowledge and traditional ecological
knowledge and the risk that such knowledge, including traditional veterinary practice
as well as medicine, is to be lost.18,19
Traditional practices were commonly used in many parts of the world but were rarely
recorded in mainstream literature except in anthropology,13, 20 in early colonial reports
in the context of broader narratives about livestock,21,22 or if related to ethnobotany.
Plants constitute a major part of traditional veterinary practices throughout the
world. Farmers and traditional healers have acquired the empirical knowledge of
medicinal and toxic plants and the medicinal prescriptions based on these plant prod-
ucts passed down to them from generation to generation. Natural (plant) products can
125
126 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
also be important sources for new pharmaceuticals for both animals and humans.23
There is significant evidence that plants are an important source of medicines for
indigenous people.24 Even so-called weeds have a significant representation in the
flora from which drugs are derived. Therefore, undervaluing and even destruction
of weeds could have an impact on availability of certain medicinal plants. Also,
the realization that medicinal plants are readily available in a “living pharmacy”
right outside the door and along trailsides rather than deep in the forest could lead
governments and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to encourage and promote
traditional medical practices rather than discourage them.25 Based on a World Health
Organization survey26 and more recent review articles based on literature searches
for drugs of natural plant product origin,27,28 there are more than 121 pharmaceutical
compounds used as medicine worldwide that are derived from plants.
Therefore, key themes of the emerging debate surrounding the status and future
of medicinal plants are the recognition that medicinal plants constitute a vast, undoc-
umented, and overexploited economic resource, and that they are the principal health
care resource for the majority of the world’s human and animal populations. This
chapter serves as an inventory of the plants used in traditional veterinary practices
in different parts of the world.
Table 6.1
Plants Used in the Treatment of General Gastrointestinal Complaints
in Animals
Plants Used Plant Family References
Allium cepa L. Alliaceae 144–146
Allium sativum L. Alliaceae 144–147
Apium nodiflorum L. Apiaceae 148
Cuminum cyminum L. Apiaceae 149
Pimpinella anisum L. Apiaceae 150
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae 151
Asplenium trichomanes L. Aspleniaceae 148
Artemisia absinthium L. Asteraceae 150–153
Cynara cardunculus ssp. Asteraceae 146
Scolymus (L.) Hayek
Chamomilla recutita (L.) Asteraceae 145, 154
Rauschert
Santolina marchii Arrigoni Asteraceae 153
Calendula officinalis L. Asteraceae 155
Borago officinalis L. Boraginaceae 156
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 147, 157, 158
Sempervivum tectorum L. Crassulaceae 150, 159–162
Equisetum arvense L. Equisteraceae 163
Euphorbia lathyris L. Euphorbiaceae 148, 164
Mercurialis annua L. Euphorbiaceae 146, 150, 151, 155, 156, 161, 164, 165
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Fabaceae 156
Lotus corniculatus L. Fabaceae 155
Vicia faba L. Fabaceae 156
Quercus sp. Fagaceae 144
Geranium rotundifolium L. Geraniaceae 166
Geranium sanguineum L. Geraniaceae 166
Aesculus hippocastanum L. Hippocastanaceae 146
Marrubium vulgare L. Lamiaceae 160, 167
Mentha sp. pl. Lamiaceae 146
Rosmarinus officinalis L. Lamiaceae 148, 167
Teucrium chamaedrys L. Lamiaceae 159
Laurus nobilis L. Lauraceae 163
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 147, 148, 151, 153, 156, 159, 161, 162, 168, 169
Lavatera cretica L. Malvaceae 165, 170
Malva sp. pl. Malvaceae 146
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 144, 145, 147, 148, 150, 158, 169
Ficus carica L. Moraceae 146, 150, 160, 163, 170
Fraxinus excelsior L. Oleaceae 171, 148, 1712, –173
Fraxinus ornus L. Oleaceae 146, 150, 157, 159–161, 171, 174–177
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae 158
(continued)
128 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 6.2
Plants Used as Antidiarrheals or Antidysentrics in Animals
Plants Used Plant Family References
Blepharis ciliaris Acanthaceae 185
Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae 186, 187
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae 188
Trachyspermum ammi L. Apiaceae 188
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Arecaceae 189
Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) Ait. F. Asclepiadaceae 190
Carduus nyassanus (S. Moore) R. E. Fries Asteraceae 190
Crepis rueppellii Sch. Bip. Asteraceae 190
Sphaeranthus gomphrenoides O. Hoffm. Asteraceae 191
Vernonia amygdalina Delile Asteraceae 192
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 129
Table 6.3
Plants Used in Gastroenteritis or Abdominal Pain and as a
Laxative or Purgative
Plants Used Plant Family References
Gastroenteritis/Abdominal Pain
Apium nodiflorum (L.) Lag. Apiaceae 195
Sphaeranthus gomphrenoides O. Hoffm. Asteraceae 191
Lepidium sativum Brassicaceae 185, 196
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 195
Cupressus sempervirens L. Cupressaceae 195
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Ficus thonningii B. Moraceae 191
Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae 191
Fraxinus excelsior L. Oleaceae 195
Fraxinus ornus L. Oleaceae 195
Pinus patula Schlect. & Charm. Pinaceae 191
Zea mays L. Poaceae 191
Solanum incanum Linn. Solanaceae 189
Laxative/Purgative
Rhazya stricta Apocynaceae 185, 196
Artemesia abyssinica Asteraceae 185, 197
Artemesia inculata Asteraceae 185
Beta vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris var. Vulgaris Chenopodiaceae 193
Citrullus colocynthis Cucurbitaceae 185
Euphorbia cocuneata Euphorbiaceae 185, 198
Euphorbia lathyris L. Euphorbiaceae 195
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 195
Papaver rhoeas L. Papaveraceae 195
Malva sylvestris L. Pinaceae 193, 199
Cymbopogon schoenanthus Poaceae 185, 196
Triticum aestivum L. Poaceae 195
Agrimonia eupatoria L. Rosaceae 193
Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae 195
Table 6.4
Plants Used for Rumination, Bloat, and Colic and as Detoxicants
Plants Used Plant Family References
Rumination
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae 195
Anchomanes difformis Engl. Araceae 189
Asplenium trichomanes L. Aspleniaceae 195
Artemisia abisinthium L. Asteraceae 195
Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don fil. Asteraceae 199
Sempervivum tectorum L. Crassulaceae 195
Juniperus communis L. Cupressaceae 195
Euphorbia hirta Linn. Euphorbiaceae 189
Spartium junceum L. Fabaceae 195
Marrubium vulgare L. Lamiaceae 195
Rosmarinus officinalis L. Lamiaceae 195
Satureja montana L. Lamiaceae 199
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 195
Gossypium barbadens Linn. Malvaceae 189
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 195
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Triticum aestivum L. Poaceae 195
Salix alba L. Salicaceae 195
Ulmus minor Miller Ulmaceae 195
Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae 195
Bloat
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 193
Momordica balasamia Linn. Cucurbitaceae 189
Arachis hypogea Linn. Fabaceae 189
Cymbopogon schoenanthus Poaceae 185, 196
Salix aiha L. Salicaceae 199
Schwenkia americana Linn. Solanaceae 189
Colic
Brassica campestris L. var. sarson Prain Brassicaceae 188
Cymbopogon schoenanthus Poaceae 196
Lycium barbarum Solanaceae 196
Detoxicants
Nelsonia canescens Acanthaceae 189
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Arecaceae 189
Arachis hypogea Linn. Fabaceae 189
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae 195
Striga hermontheca (Del.) Benth Scrophulariaceae 189
132 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 6.5
Plants Used for Anorexia/ or Indigestion/ or as a Carminative
Plants Used Plant Family References
Allium cepa L. Alliaceae 188
Allium sativum L. Alliaceae 188
Anethum graveolens L. Apiaceae 188
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae 188
Trachyspermum ammi L. Apiaceae 188
Calotropis procera Asclepiadaceae 200, 201
Schkuria pinnata (Lam.) Thell. Asteraceae 191
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) Gray Asteraceae 191
Matricaria chamomilla L. Asteraceae 199
Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Asteraceae 188
Lepidium sativum L. Brassicaceae 188
Eruca sativa Mill. Brassicaceae 188
Capparis deciduas (Forssk.) Edgew. Capparaceae 188
Sempervivum tectorum L. Crassulaceae 199
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Kuntze Cucurbitaceae 188
Melilotus alba Fabaceae 202
Trigonella foenum-gracum L. Fabaceae 188
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 199
Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae 188
Punica granatum L. Punicaceae 188
Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth Scrophulariaceae 188
Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae 188
Lycium barbarum Solanaceae 196
Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dund. Solanaceae 188
Amomum subulatum Roxb. Zingiberaceae 188
Zingiber officinale Rosc. Zingiberaceae 188
Table 6.6
Plants Used as Anthelmintics
Plants Used Plant Family References
Ruellia tuberosa Acanthaceae 187
Achryanthes indica Amaranthaceae 186
Rhazya stricta Apocynaceae 185, 196
Tanacetum balsamita L. Asteraceae 193
Artemesia inculata Asteraceae 185
Artemesia abisinthium L. Asteraceae 195
Balanites aegyptiaca L. Balanitaceae 192
Heliotropium strigosum Boraginaceae 185, 203
Cassia alata Caesalpinaceae 186
Carica papaya Caricaceae 186
Chenopodium ambrosiodes Chenopodiaceae 186
Anogeissus leicarpa D.C. Guill & Perr Combretaceae 189
Guiera senegalensis Lam. Combretaceae 194
Citrullus colocynthis Cucurbitaceae 185
Cucurbita maxima Lam. Cucurbitaceae 191
Juniperus communis L. Cupressaceae 193
Cajanus cajan Fabaceae 186
Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) Irwin & Barneby Fabaceae 191
Cordyla africana Leguminosae 194
Gossypium spp. Malvaceae 186
Azadirachta indica Meliaceae 187
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Ficus sycomorus Linn. Moraceae 189
Fraxinus ornus L. Oleaceae 195
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae 191
Petiveria alliacea Phytolaccaceae 187
Sorghum bicolor Linn. Moench Poaceae 189
Zizyphus mauritania Rhamnaceae 194
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Verbenaceae 187
Zygophylum album Zygophyllaceae 185, 196
Zygophylum coccineum Zygophyllaceae 185, 196
Table 6.7
Plants Used in Some Protozoal Diseases
Plants Used Plant Family References
Trypanosomiasis
Terminalia superba Combretaceae 204
Terminalia vorensi Combretaceae 204
Alchornea cordifolia Euphorbiaceae 204
Acacia artaxacantha Fabaceae 204
Eugenia uniflora Myrtaceae 204
Adenia cissampeloides Passifloraceae 204
Murraya koenigii Rutaceae 204
Clerodendron capitata Verbenaceae 204
Theileriosis
Thunbergia alata Sims Acanthaceae 191
Solanecio mannii (Hook. f.) C. Jeffrey Asteraceae 191
Sonchus oleraceus L. Asteraceae 191
lpomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Convolvulaceae 191
Kalanchoe densiflora Rolfe Crassulaceae 191
Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae 191
Synadenium compactum N. E. Br. Euphorbiaceae 191
Ajuga remota Benth Lamiaceae 191
Plectranthus barbatus Andr. Lamiaceae 191
Dodonaea angustifolia L. f. Sapindaceae 191
Anaplasmosis
Thunbergia alata Sims Acanthaceae 191
Helichrysum odoratissimum (L.) Less. Asteraceae 191
Solanecio mannii (Hook. f.) C. Jeffrey Asteraceae 191
Sonchus oleraceus L. Asteraceae 191
Kalanchoe densiflora Rolfe Crassulaceae 191
Euclea divinorum Hiern Ebenaceae 191
Synadenium compactum N. E. Br. Euphorbiaceae 191
Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) Irwin & Fabaceae 191
Barneby
Achyrospermum schimperi (Hochst.) Perkins Lamiaceae 191
Ficus thonningii BI. Moraceae 191
Dodonaea angustifolia L. f. Sapindaceae 191
Cyphostemma maranguense (Gilg) Desc. Vitaceae 191
Table 6.8
Plants Used for Ectoparasitic Problems
Plants Used Plant Family References
Scabies/Mange
Apium nodiflorum (L.) Lag. Apiaceae 195
Rhazya stricta Apocynaceae 196
Eclipta alba Asteraceae 186
Sonchus bipontini Asch. Asteraceae 190
Crescentia. Cujete Bignoniaceae 186
Bixa orellana Bixaceae 186
Eruca sativa Mill. Brassicaceae 188
Musa spp. Musaceae 186
Discopodium eremanthum Chiov. Solanaceae 190
Fagonia bruguieri Zygophyllaceae 202
Myiasis
Anthostema senegalense Euphorbiaceae 194
Manilkara zapota Sapotaceae 186
(continued)
136 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 6.9
Plants Used in the Treatment of Reproductive and Metabolic Ailments
Plants Used Plant Family References
General
Allium cepa L. Alliaceae 146
Heracleum sphondilium L. Apiaceae 207
Ceterach officinarum Lam. et DC. Aspleniaceae 148
Helianthus annuus L. Asteraceae 146
Picris echioides L. Asteraceae 156
Carduus pycnocephalus L. Asteraceae 156
Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert. Asteraceae 144, 146, 208
Sonchus oleraceus L. Asteraceae 156
Nasturtium officinale R. Br. Brassicaceae 146
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 148
Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Caryophyllaceae 159
Juniperus sabina L. Cupressaceae 156, 207
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn Dennstaedtiaceae 146, 153, 156
Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. Fabaceae 153
Galega officinalis L. Fabaceae 160, 179
Melissa officinalis L. Labiatae 146
Teucrium chamaedrys L. Lamiaceae 156
Scorpiurus subvillosus L. Leguminosae 155
Malva neglecta Wallr. Malvaceae 209
Papaver rhoeas L. Papaveraceae 146
Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae 161
Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae 161
Zea mays L. Poaceae 156
Helleborus viridis L. Ranunculaceae 148
Prunus avium L. Rosaceae 148
Rubia tinctorum L. Rubiaceae 210
Scrophularia canina L. Scrophulariaceae 156
Capsicum annum L. Solanaceae 146, 208
Solanum tuberosum L. Solanaceae 144
Parietaria judaica L. Urticaceae 148
Parietaria sp. pl. Urticaceae 146, 208
Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae 147, 153, 155, 156, 211
Urtica sp. pl. Urticaceae 146, 212
Abortive
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae 195
Postpartum Problems
Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Adiantaceae 195
Apium nodiflorum L. Apiaceae 195
Ceterach officinarum DC. Aspleniaceae 195
(continued)
138 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Infertility/Fertility Enhancer
Guiera senegalensis Lam Combretaceae 189
Tamarindus indica Linn. Fabaceae 189
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Avena sativa L. Poaceae 195
Prunus avium L. Rosaceae 195
Striga hermontheca Del. Benth Scrophulariaceae 189
Galactogogue
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae 195
Euphorbia hirta Linn. Euphorbiaceae 189
Arachis hypogea Linn. Fabaceae 189
Melilotus alba Fabaceae 202
Galega officinalis L. Fabaceae 195, 199
Gossypium barbadens Linn. Malvaceae 189
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 195
Ficus carica L. Moraceae 195
Ficus sycomorus Linn. Moraceae 189
Schwenkia aritime Linn. Solanaceae 189
Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae 195
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Verbenaceae 186
Acetonaemia
Arachis hypogea Linn. Fabaceae 189
Mineral Deficiencies
Euphorbia aegyptica Boiss Euphorbiaceae 189
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 139
Table 6.10
Plants Used for Wound Healing and as Antiseptics
Plants Used Plant Family References
Blepharis ciliaris Acanthaceae 202
Allium sativum L. Alliaceae 193, 199
Angelica sylvestris L. Apiaceae 193
Conium maculatum L. Apiaceae 146, 156
Eryngium campestre L. Apiaceae 193
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae 193
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae 199
Achillea millefolium L. Asteraceae 195
Inula aritim L. Asteraceae 154, 162
Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Asteraceae 193
Schultz-Bip.
Borago officinalis L. Boraginaceae 207
Cynoglossum creticum Miller Boraginaceae 195
Heliotropium strigosum Boraginaceae 203
Brassica oleracea L. Brassicaceae 156
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. Cactaceae 213
Cleome arabica Capparaceae 202
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 195
Beta vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris Chenopodiaceae 193
var. Vulgaris
Hamada elegans Chenopodiaceae 202
Cistus laurifolius L. Cistaceae 193
Sedun telephiuin L. ssp. Maximum Crassulaceae 193
(L.) Krocker
Umbilicus rupestris (Salisb.) Crassulaceae 193
Dandy
Juniperus oxycedrus L. subsp. Cupressaceae 211
Oxycedrus
Equisetum telmateja Ehrh. Equisteraceae 195
Euphorbia cocuneata Euphorbiaceae 198
Mercurialis annua L. Euphorbiaceae 193
Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link Fabaceae 195
Tephrosia vogelii Hook. Fabaceae 192
Quercus pubescens L. Fagaceae 199
Quercus suber L. Fagaceae 214
Hypericum perforatum L. Hypericaceae 162, 195
Crocus sativus L. Iridaceae 193
Marrubium vulgare L. Lamiaceae 145, 154, 164, 193
Teucrium polium L. ssp. Polium Lamiaceae 193
Thymus vulgaris L. Lamiaceae 193
Lavandula latifolia Medik. Lamiaceae 193
(continued)
140 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 6.11
Plants Used for Skin Problems
Plants Used Plant Family References
Dermatosis/Skin Disorders
Conium maculatum L. Apiaceae 146, 156
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae 155, 180
Hedera sp. Araliaceae 167
Achillea millefolium L. Asteraceae 160, 168, 218
Cirsium arvense (L.) Asteraceae 168
Inula viscosa L. Asteraceae 154, 162
Sonchus oleraceus L. Asteraceae 156
Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich Benincaseae 164
Cordia curassavica Boraginaceae 186
Cynoglossum creticum Miller (syn. Boraginaceae 160, 167, 218
Cynoglossum pictum Aiton)
Cynoglossum officinale L. Boraginaceae 160, 167
Echium vulgare L. Boraginaceae 162, 195
Brassica oleracea L. Brassicaceae 156
Lepidium sativum Brassicaceae 185, 196
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 146, 148, 153, 162, 219
Cupressus sempervirens L. Cupressaceae 195
Tamus communis L. Dioscoreaceae 146, 159
Euphorbia cocuneata Euphorbiaceae 185, 198
Hypericum perforatum L. Hypericaceae 162
Marrubium vulgare L. Lamiaceae 145, 154, 164
Satureja montana L. Lamiaceae 154
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 144, 156, 157, 161
Lycoperdon sp. Lycoperdaceae 156
Althaea officinalis L. Malvaceae 146, 156, 183
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 144, 153, 159, 218, 220
Veratrum album L. subsp. lobelianum (Bernh.) Melanthiaceae 146
Arcang
Morus nigra L. Moraceae 162
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae 144
Chelidonium majus L. Papaveraceae 182
Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae 158
Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae 144, 148, 162, 168, 181
Rumex crispus L. Polygonaceae 151
Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae 156
Helleborus viridis L. Ranunculaceae 176
Ranunculus ficaria L. Ranunculaceae 146
Salix alba L. subsp. Alba Salicaceae 159
Scrophularia canina L. Scrophulariaceae 153, 156, 184, 215
Verbascum thapsus L. Scrophulariaceae 159
(continued)
142 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Ringworm
Arachis hypogea Linn. Fabaceae 189
Khaya sengegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Ficus thonningii Blume Moraceae 189
Butyrospermum parkii Kotsky Sapotaceae 189
Table 6.12
Plants Used in the Treatment of Some Bacterial Diseases
Plants Used Plant Family References
Anthrax
Euphorbia schimperiana Scheele Euphorbiaceae 190
Leonotis ocymnifera (Burm. f.) Lamiaceae 190
Iwarsson
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Antimastitic
Buxus semperirens L. Buxaceae 195
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 195
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 195
Avena sativa L. Poaceae 195
Butyrospermum parkii Kotsky Sapotaceae 189
Schwenkia americana Linn. Solanaceae 189
Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae 195
Blackleg
Crepis rueppellii Sch. Bip. Asteraceae 190
Sonchus bipontini Asch. Asteraceae 190
Vernonia myrantha Hook. f. Asteraceae 190
Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich. Cucurbitaceae 190
Erythrina brucei Schweinf. Fabaceae 190
Salvia merjamie Forssk. Lamiaceae 190
Salvia nilotica Jacq. Lamiaceae 190
Sida schimperiana Hochst ex A. Malvaceae 190
Rich.
Cymbopogon citrates (DC.) Stapf Poaceae 190
Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Polygonaceae 190
Clematis hirsute Perr. & Guill. Ranunculaceae 190
Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae 190
Alchemilla abyssinica Fresen. Rosaceae 190
Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae 190
Discopodium eremanthum Chiov. Solanaceae 190
Nicotiana tabaccum L. Solanaceae 190
Solanum incanum L. Solanaceae 190
Urinary Infections
Petroselinum sativum Hoffm. Apiaceae 195
Potentilla reptans L. Rosaceae 162, 195
144 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 6.13
Plants Used for the Treatment of Respiratory and Viral Infections
Plants Used Plant Family References
Respiratory Problems/Pneumonia
Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) Ait. f. Asclepiadaceae 190
Helichrysum italicum (Roth) Don Asteraceae 195
Inula sp. Asteraceae 182
Solanecio mannii (Hook. f.) C. Jeffrey Asteraceae 191
Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Asteraceae 188
Alnus glutinosa L. Betulaceae 153
Borago officinalis L. Boraginaceae 146
Polygonatum multiflorum All. Convallariaceae 157
Polygonatum officinale All. Convallariaceae 157
Mercurialis annua L. Euphorbiaceae 156
Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) Fabaceae 191
Irwin & Barneby
Aesculus hippocastanum L. Hippocastanaceae 157
Mentha pulegium L. Lamiaceae 195
Thymus sp. Lamiaceae
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 148
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 153
Ficus carica L. Moraceae 156
Ficus sycomorus Linn. Moraceae 189
Eucalyptus saligna Myrtaceae 191
Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae 154
Rumex abyssinicus Polygonaceae 190
Helleborus viridis L. Ranunculaceae 176, 195
Eryobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindley Rosaceae 161
Dodonaea angustifolia L. f. Sapindaceae 191
Striga hermontheca Del. Benth Scrophulariaceae 189
Ulmus minor Mill. Ulmaceae 156
Parietaria diffusa Mert. et Koch Urticaceae 178
Rabies
Carduus nyassanus (S. Moore) R. E. Fries Asteraceae 190
Asparagus africanus Lam. Liliaceae 190
Table 6.14
Plants Used in the Treatment of Some Miscellanous Conditions
Plants Used Plant Family References
Anti-inflammatory
Allium cepa L. Alliaceae 193
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae 195
Aristolochia rotunda L. Aristolochiaceae 193
Phyllitis scolopendrium (L.) Newm. Aspleniaceae 193
Helichrysum italicum (Roth) Don Asteraceae 195
Inula viscosa (L.) Aiton Asteraceae 193
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 193
Beta vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris var. Vulgaris Chenopodiaceae 193
Hrpericum perforatum L. Clusiaceae 193
Teucrium chamaedrys L. Lamiaceae 195
Thymus vulgaris L. Lamiaceae 193
Lavandula latifolia Medik. Lamiaceae 193
Althaea officinalis L. Malvaceae 195
(continued)
146 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Analgesic/Antipyretic
Juniperus communis L. Cupressaceae 195
Hypericum perforatum L. Hypericaceae 195
Helleborus odorus W. et K. Ranunculaceae 195
Helleborus viridis L. Ranunculaceae 195
Sprain
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Arecaceae 189
Butyrospermum parkii Kotschy Sapotaceae 189
Emollients
Umbilicus rupestris (Salisb.) Dandy Crassulaceae 193
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae 193
Strengthens Joints
Juniperus communis L. Cupressaceae 195
Antirheumatic
Cupressus sempervirens L. Cupressaceae 195
Fraxinus ornus L. Oleaceae 195
Zérbád (Dropsy)
Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Asteraceae 188
Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae 188
Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth Scrophulariaceae 188
Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae 188
Amomum subulatum Roxb. Zingiberaceae 188
Anhidrosis
Trachyspermum ammi L. Apiaceae 188
Brassica campestris L. var. sarson Prain Brassicaceae 188
Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze Theaceae 188
Amomum subulatum Roxb. Zingiberaceae 188
Salutiferous
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae 193
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 193
Juniperus communis L. Cupressaceae 193
Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. Lamiaceae 193
Hyparrhenia hirta (L.) Stapf in Oliver Poaceae 193
Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae 193
Smilax aspera L. Smilacaceae 193
Parietaria officinalis L. ssp. judaica (L.) Urticaceae 193
Beg.
Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae 193
Diuretic
Scabiosa atropurpurea L. Dipsacaceae 193
Arctostaphylos uvaursi (L.) Spreng. Ericaceae 193
Arundo donax L. Poaceae 193
Abortion
Acacia polyacantha Willd. Fabaceae 191
Aloe secundiflora Engl. Liliaceae 191
Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. Meliaceae 191
General Weakness
Basella alba L. Basellaceae 191
Cucumis aculeatus Cogn. Cucurbitaceae 191
(continued)
148 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Weakening of Bones
Cyathula polycephala Bak. Amaranthaceae 191
Synadenium compactum N. E. Br. Euphorbiaceae 191
Aloe secundiflora Engl. Liliaceae 191
Urtica massaica Mildbr. Urticaceae 191
Dietary Deficiencies
Warburgia ugandensis Spragueb Canellaceae 191
Plectranthus barbatus Andr. Lamiaceae 191
Urtica massaica Mildbr. Urticaceae 191
Nervous/Sensory/Locomotory Ailments
Allium sp. pl. Alliaceae 156
Inula viscosa (L.) Aiton Asteraceae 162
Brassica nigra (L.) Koch Brassicaceae 177
Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae 182
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 147
Satureja montana L. Lamiaceae 181
Teucrium chamaedrys L. Lamiaceae 160
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 144
Papaver somniferum L. Papaveraceae 156
Lolium temulentum L. Poaceae 156, 217
Clematis vitalba L. Ranunculaceae 162
Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae 161
Hyoscyamus niger L. Solanaceae 155
Valeriana officinalis L. Valerianaceae 153, 157
Table 6.15
Plants Used in Different Poultry Conditions
Plants Used Plant Family References
Egg Production
Stellaria media (L.) Caryophyllaceae 195
Fraxinus ornus L. Oleaceae 195
Popover rhoeas L. Papaveraceae 199
Echinochloa crus-galli Beauv. Poaceae 195
Rumex acetosa L. Polygonaceae 195
Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae 195
To Improve Plumage
Phytolacca americana L. Phytolaccaceae 195
Parasiticide
Umbilicus rupestris (Salisb.) Crassulaceae 193
Dandy
Psoralea bituminosa L. Fabaceae 193
Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. Lamiaceae 193
Lavandula latifolia Medik. Lamiaceae 193
Eucalyptus globulus Labill Myrtaceae 193
Plantago coronopus L. Plantaginaceae 193
Asplenium adiantum-nigrum L. Polypodiaceae 193
ssp. onopteris (L.) Heufl.
creates a museum for knowledge and is likely to benefit outsiders. As some practices
are risky or incorrect dosing of medicinal extracts can lead to poisoning, validation
of safety is a minimal requirement. Efficacy may be more difficult to demonstrate ex
situ, and guidelines such as those by the World Health Organization (WHO)30 may
be helpful.
In the validation process, recognition that certain plants are used in combina-
tions is important as there are complex chemical interactions among constituents of
a single plant and with mixtures of plants.31 Other considerations are whether some
plants mixed together increase availability of bioactive compounds or if preparations
diminish toxicity while retaining therapeutic actions.
Various ailments, in humans or their animals, are the result of microbial infec-
tions, nutritional deficiencies, and genetic disorders. Traditional medicine mainly
constitutes the use of plants. Very few plants emprically used in veterinary medicine
have been validated. However, there is no dearth of literature on the phytochemical
aspects of several plants. Although not specifically targeted at veterinary medicine,
antimicrobial and antifugal activities of several plants have been reported in the
literature. An increasing number of researchers have demonstrated that commonly
used herbs and spices such as garlic, black cumin, cloves, cinnamon, thyme, oregano,
allspice, bay leaves, mustard, and rosemary possess antimicrobial properties.32 The
150 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
activity is mainly due to the presence of essential oils.33 The use of plants in different
animal ailments has been rarely validated except as anthelmintics.
As far as could be ascertained, anthelmintic activity of plants is one of the most
important areas subjected to scientific validation in veterinary medicine. There
are more than 150 plants that have been validated for their anthelmintic effects in
animals using standard parasitological procedures. Some of the examples include
Acacia albida;34 Albizia anthelmintica;35,36 Albizia coriavera;36 Albizia lebbek;37
Allium sativum;36 Aloe barteri;37 Ananas comosus;38 Anogeissus leiocarpus;39
Khaya senegalansis;40 Artemisia annua;41 Artemisia brevifolia;42 Artemisia herba-
alba;43 Artemisia inflorescence;44 Artemisia maritime;38,45–47 Artemisia senna;48,49
Azadirachta indica;50,51 Azadirachta indica;52 Vernonia anthelmintica and Bixa
orellana;38 Butea spp.;53–57 Caesalpina crista;58–60 Calliandra portoricensis;61–64
Calotropis procera;65 Carissa edulis;36 Cassia alata;38 Chenopodium album;66,67
Caesalpinia crista;67 Cucurbita maxima;68 Cucurbita pepo;60 Cymbopogon nar-
dus and Cymbopogon citrates;69 Hyoscyamus niger;70 Juglans regia, Musa par-
adisaca, and Scindapsus officinalis;60 Melia azedarach;71–74 Nicotiana tabacum;75
Nigella sativa;76 Peganum harmala;77,78 Punica granatum;79 Swertia chirata;80
Tamarindus indica;36 Trachyspermum ammi;81,82 Vernonia anthelmintica;83,84
Withania coagulans;85 and Zingiber officinale.86 Githiori et al.87 and Jackson and
Miller88 claimed that plants with anthelmintic properties typically contain saponins,
alkaloids, nonprotein amino acids, tannins and other polyphenols, lignins, alkaloids,
terpenes, lactones, glycosides, and phenolic compounds. Other active anthelmintic
compounds include cysteine proteinases, which digest the protective cuticle of the
rodent gastrointestinal nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus;89 anthraquinones,
which are active against Schistosoma mansoni;90 and condensed tannins, which are
active against gastrointestinal nematodes.91
Onions (Allium cepa) and garlic (Allium sativum) have a wide array of veterinary
uses, ranging from treating gastrointestinal complaints (i.e., anorexia, indigestion, or
as a carminative) to proven insecticidal, antiparasitic, repellant, and antiseptic actions.
Sufficient scientific evidence is available regarding the use of Allium species as anti-
protozoal agents against Giardia lamblia, G. intestinalis, Entamoeba histolytica,
Trichomonas vaginalis, and different strains of Leishmania;92,93 antifungals94–96 with
activity against Candida, Trichophyton, Torulopsis, Rhodotorula, Cryptococcus,
Aspergillus, and Trichosporon;97 and as an antibacterial against Pseudomonas,
Proteus, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella, Salmonella,
Micrococcus, Bacillus subtilis, Mycobacterium, and Clostridium.98 The antiviral
activities of various commercial garlic products, including garlic powder tablets and
capsules, oil-macerated garlic, steam-distilled garlic oils, garlic aged in aqueous
alcohol and fermented garlic oil, against herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2, influ-
enza A and B viruses,99 human cytomegalovirus,100 vesicular stomatitis virus, rhino-
virus, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), viral pneumonia, and rotavirus have
also been studied. Evidence from several investigations suggested that the biological
and medical functions of garlic and onions are mainly due to the high organo-sulfur
compound content.101 The biological effects of additional constituents of intact garlic
and onion, such as lectins (the most abundant proteins in garlic and onion); prosta-
glandins; fructan; pectin; adenosine; vitamins B1, B2, B6, C, and E; biotin; nicotinic
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 151
acid; fatty acids; glycolipids; phospholipids; and essential amino acids, have been
studied for over several decades.99 Some proteins, saponins, and phenolic compounds
of onions and garlic can also contribute to their pharmacological activity.102
Artemesia spp. are used as laxatives, purgatives, and anthelmintics in tradi-
tional veterinary medicine. Several essential oils from Artemesia species have
shown important antimicrobial activity against bacteria, yeasts, dermatophytes, and
Aspergillus strains103–105 and have therapeutic potential, mainly in diseases involv-
ing mucosal, cutaneous, and respiratory tract infections. The major constituents of
many of these oils are phenolic compounds (terpenoids and phenylpropanoids) like
thymol, carvacrol, or eugenol, for which antimicrobial and antioxidant activities are
well documented.106
Anacardium occidentale has been reported for its antimicrobial property107 and
is used as an antidiarrheal and antidysentric in veterinary medicine. It has been
reported to contain cardol, methylcardol, cardanol (alkylphenol), and anacardic
acid.108 Cardanol derivatives were found to show antibacterial, antifungal, antioxi-
dant, and antitumor activities.109
Ruta spp. are used for gastrointestinal complaints; blackleg; and nervous, sen-
sory, or locomotory ailments and as an antiparasitic, repellent, and antiseptic in
veterinary medicine. Ruta spp. leaves have been reported to possess antibacterial
activity against Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus, whereas, essential oil
has a slight anthelmintic effect attributed to nonylmethyl ketone, and its odor is
effective in inhibiting the fifth instar of the triatomine Rhodnius prolixus.110–112
Aloe secundiflora is used as an antidiarrheal and antidysentric and in abortion, gen-
eral weakness, and weakness of bones in veterinary medicine. Emodin, an anthraqui-
none, is the virucidal agent (enveloped viruses) in Aloe spp. (A. vera) and possesses
antibacterial, diuretic, vasorelaxant, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and anticar-
cinogenic properties.113 Dhananjeyan et al.90 successfully tested other anthraquino-
nes against the human filarial parasite Brugia malayi and the pathogenic trematode
Schistosoma mansoni.
Mentha spp. are used in gastrointestinal complaints and respiratory and viral
problems, against ectoparasites, and as an antidiarrheal or antidysentric in veterinary
medicine. Mentha spp. oil has been found effective against Staphylococcus aureus,
Salmonella enteritidis, Enterococcus faecium, Shigella sonei, and Micrococcus
flavus.114
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) is used in gastrointestinal complaints, repro-
ductive disorders, respiratory ailments, and skin problems. Flaxseed flour has been
reported to possess antifungal activity.115 Health benefits of flaxseed are associated
with α-linolenic acid (ALA), lignan, and flax dietary fiber.116
6.5 Discussion
As stated by Schillhorn van Veen,19 farmers and herders have historically relied on
empirically derived practices in management and health. Veterinary medicine as
practiced today has its origins in traditional medicine as practiced in prehistory in
China, India, and the Middle East. King Hammurabi of Babylon, for example, laid
out laws concerning the fees veterinarians could charge for treatment of cattle and
donkeys as early as 1800 BC. Early Buddhist Indian society already worshipped
cattle and other animals, and animal health was mentioned in the Rock Edict II
of King Ashoka (269–232 BC). It is suggested that animal hospitals were cre-
ated during his reign (Smith, 1924, as cited by Lodrick20). China, Egypt, and later
Arabia developed into centers of veterinary and other medical practice knowledge.
Schwabe1 compared the beliefs and practices of past and present herders in the Nile
valley and suggested a long tradition behind contemporary ethnoveterinary practice.
Throughout much of history, however, medical knowledge was subordinate to reli-
gious certainties and seen as an empirical art rather than a science. This was also
the case with veterinary medicine, and the distinction between traditional practice
and “studied” empirical knowledge was vague, although early veterinary schools
tried to distinguish between quackery and rational explanation of diseases and their
treatment. These attitudes changed drastically in the 20th century, especially after
World War II, when chemotherapeutic control of disease became predominant and
when diseases were explained and treated in ways based on the understanding of
pathophysiology and immunology. This change was dominated by a rational Western
society and its beliefs and rarely reached the non-Western world, apart from mass
vaccinations, insecticides, and some (sometimes outdated) antibiotics and anthelm-
intics. Indeed, the Western developments in the elucidation and treatment of animal
disease bypassed many livestock owners in poorer developing countries, who contin-
ued to rely on their age-old methods in disease control and often considered Western
animal health care expensive, not embedded in local beliefs and concerns, and not
always in tune with animal welfare.
A compendium of ethnoveterinary medical practices in parts of Africa has been
published.36 In other studies,117–119 the active principles as well as the mechanisms of
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 153
action of some plant extracts that are used in ethnoveterinary medicine have been
discussed. In some of the studies cited here, the appropriate dosages of the plant
extracts required to suppress the growth of causative organisms of some diseases
have been given, thus suggesting the potential of traditional drugs in primary animal
health care.
Mainstream medicine is increasingly receptive to the use of antimicrobial and
other drugs derived from plants as traditional antibiotics (products of microorgan-
isms or their synthesized derivatives) become ineffective and as new, particularly
viral, diseases remain intractable to this type of drug. Another driving factor for
the renewed interest in plant antimicrobials in the past 20 years has been the rapid
rate of (plant) species extinction.120 There is a feeling among natural products chem-
ists and microbiologists alike that the multitude of potentially useful phytochemical
structures that could be synthesized chemically is at risk of being lost irretrievably.121
There is a scientific discipline known as ethnobotany (or ethnopharmacology) whose
goal is to utilize the impressive array of knowledge assembled by indigenous peoples
about the plant and animal products they have used to maintain health.122–125
Plants have an almost limitless ability to synthesize aromatic substances, most of
which are phenols or their oxygen-substituted derivatives.126 There is increasing evi-
dence to support the hypothesis that plants are relatively high in bioactive secondary
compounds and are thus likely to hold promise for drug discovery. Secondary com-
pounds in weeds are important for a variety of ecological functions. Chief among
these are allelopathy, for which secondary compounds inhibit germination and
growth of other plants and as chemical defense against herbivory.127 At least 50 spe-
cies of weeds have been shown to interfere with crops through allopathic secondary
compounds.128 However, because allelopathy usually occurs through the complex
chemical matrix of the soil, it is difficult to conclusively show a causal relation-
ship.129 Investigations into plant antiherbivore defense are perhaps further developed.
The two major antiherbivory chemical defense strategies for plants are metabolically
inactive immobile (or quantitative, as defined by Feeny130) defenses such as tannins
and lignins that reduce digestibility and mobile (or qualitative) defenses such as
alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, or terpenoids.130,131 It is the latter types of compounds
that are the basis for plant-derived pharmaceuticals. Ephemeral, successional, or
r-selected species (all common characteristics of weeds) tend to rely on these sorts
of toxic chemical defenses.132,133 Most of the plant-derived chemicals are secondary
metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been isolated, a number estimated to be
less than 10% of the total.134 Some of these secondary metabolites, such as terpe-
noids, give plants their odors; others (quinones and tannins) are responsible for plant
pigment. Many compounds are responsible for plant flavor (e.g., the terpenoid cap-
saicin from chili peppers). Useful antimicrobial phytochemicals can be divided into
phenolics and polyphenols (e.g., simple phenols and phenolic acids, quinones, fla-
vones, flavonoids, and flavonols, tannins, coumarins, etc.); terpenoids and essential
oils; alkaloids; lectins and polypeptides; mixtures; and other compounds (reviewed
by Cowan135).
The efficacy of different plants based on their traditional or empirical use is
attributed to the compounds or chemical groups given in this section. For example,
phenolics possess a wide spectrum of biochemical activities, such as antioxidant,
154 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
6.6 Conclusions
1. Although ethnomedicine is a readily available alternative to modern veteri-
nary inputs and services, there is a lack of information on the efficiency and
mode of action of many traditional drugs. Standard drugs are often more
effective and convenient to use than traditional remedies. Furthermore, tra-
ditional drugs have not been tested extensively for their effects on organ
integrity. There is also the need to determine the active ingredients and
their amounts in the plant. Such information is important in dosages.
Biochemical studies also would reveal any poisons (such as alkaloids and
cardiac glycosides) that may exist in the plants.
2. The treatments and practices reported in this chapter are based on selected
reviews and papers and need to be validated to identify those that can be
of practical advantage in agricultural development.14 Issues that should be
addressed are efficacy, quality, safety, and standardization of doses. Models
and guidelines to validate and develop human medicines have been devel-
oped, and these could probably be modified and applied to animals.142,143
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7 The Current Status and
Future Prospects of
Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants in Veterinary Health
Care in Southeast Asia
Shanmugavelu Sithambaram,
Murugaiyah Marimuthu, and
Chandrawathani Panchadcharam
Contents
7.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 166
7.2 Countries of SEA........................................................................................... 167
7.2.1 Brunei................................................................................................ 167
7.2.2 Cambodia........................................................................................... 167
7.2.3 Democratic Republic of Timor Leste (East Timor)........................... 167
7.2.4 Indonesia............................................................................................ 167
7.2.5 Lao People’s Democratic Republic.................................................... 168
7.2.6 Malaysia............................................................................................. 168
7.2.7 Myanmar............................................................................................ 169
7.2.8 The Philippines.................................................................................. 169
7.2.9 Singapore........................................................................................... 169
7.2.10 Thailand............................................................................................. 170
7.2.11 Vietnam............................................................................................. 170
7.3 Current Research and Application of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants......... 170
7.3.1 Andrographis paniculata (Hempedu bumi)...................................... 172
7.3.2 Centella asiatica (Pegaga)................................................................. 173
7.3.3 Citrus hystrix (Limau purut)............................................................. 173
7.3.4 Eurycoma longifolia (Tongkat Ali)................................................... 174
7.3.5 Morinda citrifolia (Mengkudu or Noni)............................................ 174
7.3.6 Orthosiphon stamineus (Misai kucing)............................................. 175
7.3.7 Phyllanthus niruri (Dukung anak).................................................... 175
7.3.8 Zingiber officinale (Halia)................................................................. 175
165
166 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
7.1 Introduction
Southeast Asia (SEA) is geographically divided into two regions: mainland SEA (or
Indochina) and the Maritime SEA (or the Malay Archipelago). The subcontinent
(Figure 7.1) includes Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Democratic Republic of Timor
Leste (East Timor), Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), Malaysia,
Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Four of the world’s 25
main biodiversity hot spots lie in SEA (Myers et al., 2000). The major hot spots are
Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam with 29,000, 15,500, 11,625, and 10,500
plant species, respectively (Anon., 2004). Based on traditional and cultural practice,
medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) constitute a major portion of health care in
these parts of the world. For instance, it was estimated that in Lao PDR, about 77%
of the population uses traditional treatments (Sydara et al., 2005). In Indonesia, on
INDIA Fuzhou
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Figure 7.1 Countries of Southeast Asia. (Source: Factbook 2008. Central Intelligence Agency
Office of Public Affairs, Washington, DC. https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/site-policies/index.
html#copy)
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 167
the other hand, 40% of the population uses traditional medicine, with 28% from the
in rural areas (World Health Organization [WHO], 2001). The status of countries of
SEA and their ethnic makeup are discussed briefly in the following section.
7.2 Countries of SEA
7.2.1 Brunei
The source of herbal and medicinal plants in Brunei is its natural forest, which cov-
ers almost 80% of its land area of 5,770 km2. There is no commercial-scale cultiva-
tion in the country, which has about 5,000 native species of plants. Brunei has also
been known for its superior camphor, with medicinal properties derived from the
trunk of Dryobalanops aromatica. Traditional medicine practice is based on the
ethnic makeup of Brunei, which includes Malay (66.3%), Chinese (11.2%), indig-
enous (3.4%), and others (19.1%). Its official religion is Muslim (66.3%), followed by
13% Buddhist, 10% Christian, and 10% others. Most of its traditional medicines are
imported, such as the Jamu medicines from Indonesia.
7.2.2 Cambodia
Cambodia covers an area of 181,035 km2 with a population of more than 14 mil-
lion people. The ethnic makeup of Cambodia includes about 90% Khmer followed
by 5% Vietnamese, 1% Chinese, and 4% of others. About 95% of Cambodians are
Theravada Buddhist, with 5% of other religions. Traditional medicine has been
practiced for thousands of years, and the traditional practitioners are known as Kru
Khmer since only the rich can afford modern medicine. The research and documen-
tation of MAP in Cambodia is very limited. Some of the important plants are listed
in Appendix 7.1.
7.2.4 Indonesia
Indonesia consists of 17,000 islands and is the world’s largest archipelago
(Figure 7.1). It is separated from the peninsula of Malaysia and Singapore by
the Straits of Malacca and the South China Sea. The ethnic groups of Indonesia
are Javanese (40.6%), Sundanese (15%), Madurese (3.3%), Minangkabau (2.7%),
Betawi (2.4%), Bugis (2.4%), Banten (2%), Banjar (1.7%), and others (29.9%). The
main religions are Muslim (86.1%), Protestant (5.7%), Roman Catholic (3%), Hindu
168 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
(1.8%), and others (3.4%). The official language is Bahasa Indonesia, but other com-
monly used languages include English and Dutch, while the local dialect is mainly
Javanese. About 60% of Indonesia is under forest cover, which represents about
10% of all tropical forests of the world. It is second largest in biodiversity after
Brazil, and about 90% of medicinal plant species of Asia can be found there. About
40% of Indonesia’s population uses traditional medicine, with 70% of users from
rural areas (WHO, 2001). The well-known traditional medicine is called Jamu, and
it is reported to be preferred over other “available over-the-counter” Western drugs
(Stevensen, 1999).
7.2.6 Malaysia
Malaysia is listed as the 14th most biologically diverse country in the world (Anon.,
2006) and ranks fourth in Asia, with over 15,000 flowering plants. Of these, only
about 50 species are used commercially and researched scientifically for their
medicinal properties, although about 2,000 plant species have been reported to have
medicinal values (Soepadmo, 1999). Malaysia is rich in its biological and cultural
heritage, which consists of three main communities: Malay, Indian, and Chinese.
These three major ethnic groups have traditions and knowledge of herbal use for
health and healing spanning generations. The Malays comprise about 50.4% of the
total population, followed by Chinese (23.7%), indigenous (11%), Indians (7.1%),
and others (7.8%). There are about 60.4% Muslims in Malaysia, followed by
Buddhists (19.2%), Christians (9.1%), Hindus (6.3%), traditional Chinese religions
(Confucianism, Taoism, 2.6%), other or unknown (1.5%), and none (0.8%). The
official language is Bahasa Malaysia with other spoken languages, such as English,
Chinese (Cantonese, Mandarin, Hokkien, Hakka, Hainan, Foochow), Tamil, Telugu,
Malayalam, Panjabi, and Thai. In East Malaysia, the most widely spoken indige-
nous languages are Iban and Kadazan. The traditional medicine system in Malaysia
follows its ethnic makeup and includes ayurveda, siddha, traditional Chinese, tra-
ditional Malay, and unani. The indigenous Malay medicinal system has been influ-
enced by those from Arabia, India, Java, and aboriginal races. Based on a survey by
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 169
Aziz (2004), it was observed that about 19% of physicians recommended some form
of herbal remedies for their patients. At present, the Malaysian market for herbal
and natural products has been estimated to be worth more than US$1.5 billion, of
which 90% of the raw materials are imported. However, the use of MAP products in
veterinary health care in Malaysia has been limited.
7.2.7 Myanmar
Myanmar, the largest country in SEA, has an area of 676,553 km2 with about 43%
of its total area under forest. The Myanmar traditional medicine system is generally
based on Buddhist philosophy and ayurveda. Allopathic medicine was introduced
during the colonial period (1885), but its shortage during World War II drove the
people toward traditional medicine (WHO, 2001). The ethnic groups of Myanmar
include Burman (68%), Shan (9%), Karen (7%), Rakhine (4%), Chinese (3%), Indian
(2%), Mon (2%), and others (5%). The Buddhists in Myanmar comprise about 89%,
followed by Christians (4%), Muslims (4%), animist (1%), and others (2%). About
7,000 plant species have been recorded in Myanmar, of which 1,071 species are
endemic (Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2002). The number of tradi-
tional medicine practitioners registered in Myanmar exceeds 8,000 (WHO, 2001).
7.2.8 The Philippines
The Philippines is made up of 7,100 islands, with forest covering only about 20%
of the total land area. The ethnic groups of the Philippines are Tagalog (28.1%),
Cebuano (13.1%), Ilocano (9%), Bisaya/Binisaya (7.6%), Hiligaynon Ilonggo (7.5%),
Bikol (6%), Waray (3.4%), and others (25.3%). The main religious groups are Roman
Catholics (80.9%), Muslims (5%), Evangelicals (2.8%), Iglesia ni Kristos (2.3%),
Aglipayans (2%), other Christians 4.5%, others 2.4%, and none (0.1%). The official
languages are Tagalog (which has eight major dialects) and English. The traditional
medicine practitioners in the Philippines are known as arbolario and have common
roots with other traditional healing methods in SEA countries, including Myanmar,
Cambodia, and Indonesia (Apostol, 2003). There are about 13,500 plant species in
the Philippines, of which 1,500 have medicinal value (Tan, 2003). Herbal medicines
in the Philippines are regulated as over-the-counter medicines, while medical claims
have to be scientifically supported (WHO, 2005). The use of traditional medicine
is more common in rural areas despite the availability of allopathic medicine, with
about 80% of the rural population utilizing herbal remedies (FAO, 2002).
7.2.9 Singapore
The ethnic breakdown of Singapore has hardly changed since the 1980s and now
stands at 76% Chinese, 15% Malays, 8% Indians, and 1.4% others. The 400,000
people who make up the Malay community today have roots throughout the
Malayan archipelago (especially Bali, Java, Sulawesi, Bawean, and Malaysia), with
strong cultural links (Tuschinsky, 1995). The religious makeup is Buddhist (42.5%),
Muslim (14.9%), Taoist (8.5%), Hindu (4%), Catholic (4.8%), other Christian (9.8%),
170 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
other (0.7%), and none (14.8%). The major languages are Mandarin (35%), English
(23%), Malay (14.1%), Hokkien (11.4%), Cantonese (5.7%), Teochew (4.9%), Tamil
(3.2%), other Chinese dialects (1.8%), and others (0.9%). About 45% of Singaporeans
have consulted traditional medicine practitioners at one time (WHO, 2001), while
Jamu, the traditional Indonesian medicine, is widely practiced, especially among the
Malay community (Tuschinsky, 1995).
7.2.10 Thailand
Thailand covers an area of 514,000 km2, of which less than 33% is forest cover.
The ethnic groups of Thailand include Thai (75%), Chinese (14%), and others (11%).
The major religions are Buddhism (94.6%), Muslim (4.6%), Christianity (0.7%), and
others (0.1%). The official language is Thai with some English and ethnic regional
dialects. Thailand’s traditional medicine is famous for its herbal saunas, steam baths,
hot compresses, traditional massages, acupressure, and reflexology, and traditional
medicine practitioners are an important part of country’s health care system (WHO,
2001). Thailand has about 11,000 species of vascular plants, of which 10,200 are
flowering plants. The Thai Traditional Materia Medica lists about 1,400 plants with
medicinal and aromatic properties (Handa, Rakesh, and Vasisht, 2006).
7.2.11 Vietnam
Vietnam covers an area of 330,000 km2, of which 60% is forest. The ethnic groups
of Vietnam are Kinh or Viet (86.2%), Tay (1.9%), Thai (1.7%), Muong (1.5%), Khome
(1.4%), Hoa (1.1%), Nun (1.1%), Hmong (1%), and about 4.1% others. The majority of
the Vietnamese (80.8%) do not have any religious beliefs, with some Buddhists (9.3%),
Catholics (6.7%), Hoa Haos (1.5%), Cao Dais (1.1%), Protestants (0.5%), and Muslims
(0.1%). The official language is Vietnamese, followed by English (a favored second
language), French, Chinese, Khmer, and mountain area languages (Mon-Khmer
and Malayo-Polynesian). Vietnamese medicine is a merger of Chinese, Vietnamese,
and Western medical systems (Ladinsky, Volk, and Robinson, 1987). Western medi-
cine was introduced when the French arrived in Vietnam in the 19th century. Vietnam
is the 16th most biologically diverse country in the world, with some 12,000 plant spe-
cies, of which 40% of the total flora has been identified as endemic (An, 2000).
Table 7.1
Major Commercially Cultivated Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
(for Both Humans and Animals)
Family Botanic Name Country of Cultivation
Acanthaceae Adhatoda vasica Vietnam
Andrographis paniculata Thailand, Vietnam
Apiaceae Ammi majus Vietnam
Angelica acutiloba Vietnam
Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus Philippines, Vietnam
Rauvolfia serpentina Vietnam
Araliaceae Panax pseudoginseng Vietnam
Panax vietnamensi Vietnam
Arecaceae Areca catechu Thailand, Vietnam
Asphodelaceae Aloe barbadensis Thailand
Asteraceae Artemisia annua Thailand, Vietnam
Chrysanthemum morifolium Thailand, Vietnam
Convallariaceae Ophiopogon japonicus Vietnam
Fabaceae Cassia angustifolia Thailand, Vietnam
Lamiaceae Mentha arvensis Thailand, Vietnam
Vitex negundo Philippines
Lauraceae Cinnamomum camphora Thailand, Vietnam
Malvaceae Hibiscus sabdariffa Thailand, Vietnam
Menispermaceae Tinospora crispa Philippines
Myrtaceae Syzygium aromaticum Indonesia, Malaysia
Paeoniaceae Paeonia lactiflora Pall. Vietnam
Piperaceae Piper betle Vietnam
Piper nigrum Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam
Piper retrofractum Indonesia, Thailand
Poaceae Cymbopogon winterianus Indonesia, Thailand
Rubiaceae Morinda officinalis Vietnam
Solanaceae Atropa belladonna Vietnam
Zingiberaceae Curcuma domestica Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam
Kaempferia galanga Indonesia, Vietnam
Zingiber officinale Indonesia, Thailand
Source: Adapted from Handa, Rakesh, and Vasisht, Compendium of medicinal and aromatic
plants: Asia ICS-UNIDO, 2006.
In Malaysia, for instance, 10 major plant species were identified for the evalua-
tion of their efficacy, safety, and cultivation and propagation methodologies. These
10 plants are Andrographis paniculata (Hempedu bumi), Centella asiatica (Pegaga),
Citrus hystrix (Limau purut), Eurycoma longifolia (Tongkat Ali), Ficus deltoidea
(Emas cotek), Labisia pumila (Kacip Fatimah), Morinda citrifolia (Mengkudu or
Noni), Orthosiphon stamineus (Misai kucing), Phyllanthus niruri (Dukung anak),
and Zingiber officinale (Halia). Although there are a number of published reports
172 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 7.2
Herbal Medicines Used for Different Disorders in Animals
Disorders/Use Herbs Used
Degenerative joint disease Picrorrhiza kurroa, Zingiber officinale, Allium sativum
Liver tonic and performance enhancer Andrographis paniculata, Eclipta alba, Phyllanthus
niruri
Ectoparasities: antidandruff, antilice Cedrus deodara, Azadiracta indica
Respiratory conditions and allergy Adhatoda vasica, Solanum xanthocarpum, Glycyrrhiza
glabra, Albezia lebbek, Alpinia galanga, Piper longum,
Hedychium spicatum
Antidiarrheal and gut function stabilizer Aegle marmelos, Holorrhoena antidysentrica, Punica
granatum, Woodfordia fruticosa, Areca catechu,
Symplocos racemosa, Cyperus rotundus, Salmalia
malabarica, Zingiber officinale, Berberis aristata,
Tinospora cordifolia
Renal protection, kidney tonic, and diuretic Tinospora cordifolia, Boerhaavia diffusa, Tribulus
terrestris, Bergenia ligulata, Crataeva nurvala,
Andrographis paniculata, Solanum nigrum, Eclipta
alba, Terminalia arjuna
Immune modulator Ocimum sanctum, Withania somnifera, Tinospora
cordifolia
Source: Adapted from Handa, Rakesh, and Vasisht, Compendium of medicinal and aromatic plants: Asia
ICS-UNIDO, 2006.
regarding the safety, efficacy, and phytochemical properties of these plants, a detailed
study of these species has been initiated as the phytochemical properties are known
to vary between subspecies and geographical locations. For instance, there are at
least four different local subspecies of Phyllanthus, which vary in phytochemical
profiles. Most of the studies on MAPs have been geared toward treatment of human
diseases (e.g., bacterial and viral infections, diabetes mellitus, cancer, and hyper-
tension). Besides these studies, other investigations are ongoing to identify herbs
commonly used by traditional communities. This is being done for the preservation
of local knowledge and identification of new resources (Andersen, Nilsson, and De
Richelieu, 2003). The common MAPs traditionally used to treat various animal ail-
ments in SEA are listed in Table 7.2. Some of the chemical constituents and use of
these MAPs that have ethnoveterinary applications are described briefly next.
Table 7.3
Common Plants Used for Ethnoveterinary Applications in SEA
Parts
Plant Species Used Indications Preparation Dosages
Allium sativum Cloves Poisoning Burn 3 heads of Adults: Drench with 1 cup of the
garlic, pulverize, mixture.
and mix with 1 Young: Drench with 0.5 cup of
glass of water. the mixture. Repeat the
procedure if animal does not
vomit.
Areca catechu Fresh nut Intestinal Pound and mix Chickens: One nut as big as a
worms with enough peanut
water to facilitate Cattle and water buffalo:
drenching. 8–10 nuts
Goats and pigs: 3 nuts
Repeat the procedure after
2 weeks.
Blumea Dried Fluke Pound air-dried Drench 1 time/day for 6 days.
balsamifera seeds infestation ripe seeds and add 1 kg seeds for large ruminants,
a little water. 0.5 kg for small ruminants.
Carica papaya Fresh Cold, cough, Boil leaves for Drench.
leaves fever 15–20 minutes in 0.5 L twice a day for 1–3 days.
1 L of water.
Chrysophyllum Fresh Diarrhea Boil 0.5 kg of Adult cattle and buffalo:
cainito leaves leaves in 3 glasses Drench: 1–2 cups three times/
of water. day for 1–3 days.
Calves, sheep, and goats:
Drench: Half the amount given
above.
Gliricidia septum Fresh External Pound the leaves Swine and ruminants:
leaves parasites (the number of Apply the juice of leaves on the
leaves will affected area.
depend on the Repeat the procedure two or
severity of the three times/day until the
infestation). parasites are eliminated.
Warts Pound the leaves Apply the juice and massage the
(the number of affected part two or three times/
leaves will day until the warts disappear.
depend on the
severity of the
infestation).
Cocos nucifera Water Dehydration Mix water from 3–5 Adult cattle and buffalo:
young coconuts Drench with 2–3 L.
with a cup of Calves, sheep, goats:
brown sugar and a Drench with 1–1.5 L three times/
little salt. day until animal recovers.
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 177
(continued)
178 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 7.4
Agricultural Product Exports of Major SEA Countries (Million US$)
Growth
Country 1991 1998 1999 2000 2001 Rate/Year
Cambodia 35.20 27.20 44.20 26.60 23.10 3.80%
Indonesia 3,122.50 5,054.30 5,135.70 4,946.40 4,368.40 4.10%
Lao PDR 26.80 28.00 33.80 34.30 29.30 −1.90%
Malaysia 4,421.80 7,756.40 7,117.50 5,821.00 5,515.50 2.80%
Myanmar 220.40 300.20 267.30 364.80 453.70 4.80%
Philippines 1,260.90 1,717.90 1,358.40 1,539.80 1,443.60 1.30%
Thailand 5,880.50 7,097.40 7,158.60 7,275.30 7,422.50 1.80%
Vietnam 617.40 2,373.10 2,428.40 2,191.80 2,036.40 14.20%
products they evaluated contained high levels of lead. Despite these observations,
herbal medicine can be regarded as generally safe.
In general, the use of pharmaceutical plant products (botanicals or phytomedi-
cines) in veterinary health care in SEA is limited. However, recent years have seen
an increase in the use of such products in veterinary practice, especially in produc-
tion animals. An example is Utrifit®, an herbal product used by cattle farmers to
tone the uterus and improve breeding efficiency. This product is a combination of
a number of herbs, such as Citrullus colocynthis, Piper longum, Piper nigrum, and
Zingiber officinale.
However, most such products are at the moment imported. There are intensi-
fied research efforts to evaluate indigenous medicinal plants for use especially in
production animals in view of the magnitude of the agricultural and livestock indus-
tries in SEA (Tables 7.4 and 7.5, respectively) and the anticipated expansion.
Table 7.5
Livestock Production Indices of Major SEA Countries
Country 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Cambodia 120.3 124.2 134.8 147.7 169.7 156.7
Indonesia 110.3 132.6 134.4 116.3 121 128.4
Lao PDR 111.6 133.3 140 151.4 174.8 196.1
Malaysia 125.9 145.4 149.1 152.9 136.7 150.7
Myanmar 103.6 107.7 121.3 137.7 157.6 181.7
Philippines 102.9 117.7 137 154 162.9 197.7
Thailand 121.7 126.7 132.1 132.3 130 139.9
Vietnam 111.9 125.2 137.8 159.1 183.4 210.6
Furthermore, the total ban by the European Union on the use of antibiotic feed
additives (AFAs) and growth promoters in January 2006 has resulted in the search for
plant alternatives. This is basically due to the fact that a number of plants have potent
antimicrobial components. Wiart et al. (2004) screened 72 methanol extracts from
the leaves, bark, and roots of 50 plant species used in traditional medicine for their
putative antibacterial and antifungal properties. They observed that 10 species—
Peristrophe tinctoria, Polyalthia lateriflora, Knema malayana, Solanum torvum,
Celosia argentea, Eclipta prostrata, Ancistrocladus tectorius, Dillenia suffruticosa,
Piper stylosum, and Rafflesia hasseltii—displayed broad antimicrobial activities. At
present, the detailed phytochemical constituents of most plants have not been fully
ascertained, but these plants were selected following their ethnomedical uses (Wiart
et al., 2004).
9000
8000 Control
Leaf
7000 Powder
Faecal egg count (n/g)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 3 6 8 10 13 16 20
Days post-treatment
Figure 7.2 Effect of feeding Melia excelsa on the total fecal egg counts.
soybean meal (Table 7.6). The differences in digestibility parameters between thyme
oil and garlic powder could have been due to their different antimicrobial effects.
The authors further evaluated thyme oil and garlic powder for in vitro antimicro-
bial effects on chicken gut microbes (Shanmugavelu, Brooker, et al., 2004). Total gut
microbiota of the chicken rather than selected microbes were used in the assay. The
interesting observation in the study was the potent antimicrobial effects of thyme oil,
which virtually reduced the fermentative activity (an indication of microbial viabil-
ity) of most microbes after 6 h of incubation in vitro. Nevertheless, fermentative
Table 7.6
Effect of Addition of Thyme Oil and Garlic Powder on the Nutritive Value of
Soybean Meal
Treatment Groups
Soybean Meal
Soybean Meal Soybean Meal Plus Garlic
Parameters (SBM) Plus Thyme Oil Powder p
ADMD 0.43 0.47 0.43 .081
TDMD 0.58 0.62 0.57 .076
AME (MJ/kg) 10.89a,b 11.76a 10.79b .028
TME (MJ/kg) 13.20a,b 14.08a 13.10b .026
AMEn (MJ/kg) 10.92a,b 11.64a 10.82b .039
TMEn (MJ/kg) 12.32a,b 13.04a 12.22b .037
ADMD = apparent dry matter digestibility coefficient; TDME = true dry matter digestibility coeffcient;
AME = apparent metabolizable energy; TME = true metabolizable energy; AMEn and TMEn are
AME and TME corrected for nitrogen, respectively.
a,b Different superscripts between columns differ significantly ( p < .05).
182 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
1.4
1.2
Control
Volume of gas produced (ml)
1 Garlic powder
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2 4 6 8 10 24
Time of measurement (h)
Figure 7.3 Effect of thyme oil and garlic powder on the fermentative characteristics of
chicken duodenum and jejunum gut microbes.
activity resumed after 24 hours (Figure 7.3). This observation led to the evaluation
of this herbal extract in an in vivo study in which thyme oil was fed at two concentra-
tions (1 and 10 g/kg) compared with the control in a diet based on maize-soybean
meal (Shanmugavelu et al., 2005). The potent antimicrobial activity demonstrated in
vitro failed to improve performance similar to those fed AFAs (Table 7.7).
Table 7.7
Performance of Birds Fed Maize-/Soybean-Based Diets Supplemented with
Enzyme and Thyme Oil
Treatment Groups
Control Thyme Oil
1 g/kg 10 g/kg
Parameters Mean SEM Mean SEM Mean SEM p
Body weight (g, 21 days) 731.60a 15.503 725.50a 15.899 585.82b 16.032 .0001
Average daily feed intake (g) 52.43a 0.982 52.88a 1.191 45.49b 0.788 .0001
Average daily gain (g) 36.71a 0.756 36.41a 0.774 28.64b 0.800 .0001
Feed conversion efficiency 0.70a 0.005 0.69a 0.004 0.63b 0.012 .0001
Coefficient of ADMD (19–21 days) 0.75 0.004 0.75 0.005 0.73 0.006 .0582
AME (MJ/kg, 5–7 days) 14.10ab 0.164 13.88b 0.129 14.40a 0.246 .0226
ADMD = apparent dry matter digestibility; AME = apparent metabolizable energy; SEM = standard
error of mean.
ab Different superscripts between columns differ significantly ( p < .05).
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 183
7.7 Conclusions
Southeast Asia has the right environment for the development of MAPs for use
for both human and animal application by virtue of its rich biological and cultural
diversity, available infrastructure, and scientific expertise. The current interest and
support by governments of the region and additional collaborative ventures with
other organizations outside SEA may help realize these efforts to develop products
for use in both humans and animals.
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The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic 187
Appendix 7.1
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Common Use
in Countries of Southeast Asia
(continued)
188 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
(continued)
190 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
(continued)
192 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
(continued)
194 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Source: After Handa, S.S., Rakesh, D.D. and Vasisht, K. (2006). Compendium of medicinal and aro-
matic plants Asia. United Nations Industrial Development Organization and the International
Centre for Science and High Technology (ICS-UNIDO), Trieste, Italy.
8 Evidence-Based
Botanicals in
North America
Wendy Pearson and Michael I. Lindinger
Contents
8.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 195
8.2 Native American Herbs for Treating Respiratory Ailments.......................... 196
8.3 Native American Herbs as Anti-inflammatory Agents................................197
8.4 Native American Herbs for Controlling Endoparasites.................................200
8.6 Conclusions....................................................................................................204
References...............................................................................................................204
8.1 Introduction
North America has rich historical resources from which to draw information on
ethnoveterinary medicine. The relationship that Native Americans wrought between
themselves and the plants and animals around them was unique and seamless and
existed within the mantra that all—humans, animals, and plants—were part of
the natural world without divisions of hierarchy or ownership. Native Americans
embraced animals as their equals within the natural world and believed that animals,
like humans, held their own spiritual power.1 Similarly, plants were an important and
integral coefficient in the equation of natural life. Plants offered food for families
and livestock, medicines for the sick, smoking for social and spiritual enlightenment,
and poisons for hunting wild game. This inherent, spiritual harmony within which
Native Americans, plants, and animals existed provided for medicine systems for
humans and animals that were virtually indistinct from each other. The knowledge
that Native Americans had of the uses of plants around them was applied without
prejudice to the animals in their care.
Native Americans did not usually regard physical problems in themselves or in
their animals as separate from spiritual problems, and even when a physical remedy
was applied, the cause of the ailment might still be ascribed to evil spirits. Treatment
was generally applied by the shaman, who was most often also an herbalist. In
excess of 220 natural remedies of the Native Americans have been listed in the U.S.
Pharmacopeia or the National Formulary since 1820, a testament to the efficacy of
their ancient art of healing.
195
196 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
* A good discussion of general principles of North American Indian medicine can be found online at
http://www.healing-arts.org/mehl-madrona/mmtraditionalpaper.htm
Evidence-Based Botanicals in North America 197
2600 BC.25 It was cultivated by the Choctaw Indians in gardens prior to 1775 and was
used for such varied applications as treating skin diseases, increasing fertility, stimu-
lating appetite, suppressing coughs, and treating rheumatism, abdominal diseases,
hemorrhoids, and spleen enlargement.26 An ostensible panacea, garlic has also been
one of the most highly studied plants in contemporary pharmacology and ethnobo-
tanical science. It is now well accepted that fresh garlic, or garlic processed as an
extract or dried powder, can be an effective antibiotic and anti-inflammatory agent,
with application to the treatment and prevention of respiratory disease. Aqueous gar-
lic extract strongly promotes clearance of pathogenic pulmonary bacteria in mice27
and is among the most potent herbal inhibitors of a wide range of pathogenic organ-
isms in vitro, including Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, Candida
albicans, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and
Salmonella spp.28,29 Furthermore, dietary garlic supplementation is associated with
significant protection of children against acute respiratory tract infection,30 perhaps
in part by inhibiting expression of cell adhesion molecules on endothelial cells31 and
limiting migration of neutrophils into pulmonary tissues.32,33 These data indicate the
important prophylactic potential of garlic in animals. Indeed, oral garlic supplemen-
tation can prevent the onset of the common cold in people.34
Although the evidence is strong for prophylactic and treatment roles of garlic and
its derivates in respiratory disease of animals, it is prudent to note the potential toxic-
ity of garlic in excess. High dietary inclusion rates of garlic, and its various deriva-
tives, has been associated with hemolytic anemia in rodents,35 horses,36 dogs,37–39 and
sheep.40 When administering large amounts of garlic products to animals, it is impor-
tant to monitor the oxidation status of red blood cells to preempt inadvertent anemia.
Furthermore, garlic may alter foregut microflora in ruminants,41 which may affect
digestibility of other feed ingredients. The oral LD50 of aqueous garlic (Allium sati-
vum) extract is 174 mL/kg in rabbits, and the oral LD50 of allicin (the primary bioactive
precursor) is 204 µg/kg.42 An alkaloidal extract of Eqyptian garlic (Allium ampelopra-
sum) has a subcutaneous injection LD50 of 128 mg/kg and MLD of 100 mg/kg.43
North American natives also commonly utilized bark from native trees to treat
respiratory ailments.44 But, despite occasional reports of efficacy,45 there is little sci-
entific evidence to support this practice. Bark of the choke cherry (Prunus serotina)
was considered a particularly important cough suppressant by Native Americans,
but its use is not advisable due to association of Prunus sp. ingestion with cyanide
poisoning of goats46 and cows47 and congenital defects in pigs.48
plants to counter the pain associated with arthritis, and this practice continues even
in contemporary ethnoveterinary medicine.10
Cayenne (Capsicum annum) has a 9,000-year history of use by Central and
South American Indians.55 The plant was a specific treatment of pain and inflam-
mation and is today the most widely consumed herb worldwide.55 Cayenne is native
to Central and South America and became naturalized in North America during the
16th century. Capsicum species were cultivated in the Tehucan Valley in Mexico as
early as 4000 BC, during the Coxcatlan era.56 Capsicum is currently approved by the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the topical relief of pain due to rheumatoid
arthritis, osteoarthritis, and various neuralgias.
The majority of published efficacy research relating to cayenne is on a class of
its putative bioactive principles, the capsaicinoids, which are found in the fruit.
The capsaicinoid content of whole powdered fruit varies from 0.1% to 1.5%.57,58
Capsaicin, a phenolic vanillyl amide of isodecenoic acid, accounts for 40–50% of
the total capsaicinoid content. Capsaicin can be administered orally59,60 or injected
subcutaneously,61 resulting in stimulation of catecholamine (adrenaline) secretion
from the adrenal medulla.61 This causes stimulatory, sympathomimetic effects simi-
lar to those associated with ingestion of coffee and tea. The most common mode of
administration of capsaicin, however, is percutaneously. Absorption across the skin
has been demonstrated in humans, rats, mice, rabbits, and pigs,59 supporting its use
in topical tinctures and creams. Clinical reports on treatment of knee62 and hand63
osteoarthritis with topical capsaicin have revealed significant improvement in pain
scores after 2 weeks of treatment. These results are confirmed by a meta-analysis
of studies using topical creams containing capsaicin64 and in a randomized, double-
blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial.65 A comprehensive review of the medical
literature has concluded that the pain-relieving effect of topical capsaicin was compa-
rable to acetaminophen, intra-articular steroids and hyaluronic acid, and nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in patients with knee osteoarthritis.66 However, a
subsequent review evaluating effectiveness of capsaicin on chronic musculoskeletal
or neuropathic pain concluded its effectiveness was only moderate to poor.67
Much has been published on potential mechanisms by which capsaicin exerts its
anti-inflammatory activity in arthritis. In general, two primary mechanisms have been
proposed: (1) Capsaicin depletes stores of substance P from capsaicin-sensitive nerve
endings within the synovial membrane,68 which may be responsible for the inhibitory
action of capsaicin on neuron-dependent progression of osteoarthritis,70,71 and (2) cap-
saicin stimulates metabolic activity of synoviocytes, as evidenced by dose-dependent
increase DNA and collagen synthesis by the cells when exposed to capsaicin.72
Capsicum is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration, and capsaicin is considered to be safe and effective as an external anal-
gesic counterirritant.73 Capsaicinoids at moderate to high concentrations are irritant to
mucosal surfaces lining the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems,73 and contact der-
matitis may result from the direct handling of chili peppers containing capsaicin.74 The
oral LD50 for capsaicin in rats is between 160 and 190 mg/kg and in mice as low as 118
mg/kg, with hemorrhage of the gastric fundus observed in some of the animals.58,73
White willow (Salix alba) is native to Europe and introduced to temperate areas
of North America. In Native American culture, willow has a long history of use
Evidence-Based Botanicals in North America 199
as an anti-inflammatory, and its bark, leaves and catkins have been used to treat a
wide array of health conditions.75 There are over 500 species of Salix, of which the
main ones in North America are S. nigra (black willow), S. hookeriana, S. lucida,
S. scouleriana, S. sitchenis, and S. barclayi. The glycoside salicilin was isolated
from willow bark in 1838 by the Italian chemist Rafaele Piria and developed into
acetylsalicyclic acid (ASA; aspirin) by Bayer in the late 1930s. The salicin content
of S. alba bark is only about 0.5% compared to 1–10% in other species. Other phe-
nolic glycosides also found in willow include salicortin, salireposide, picein, tran-
drin, the acetylated forms of salicin, and esters of salicylic acid and salicyl alcohol.
Flavonol glycosides include narigenin, isolaipurpouroside, and isoquercitin in leaves
and bark.58,76–78
In contrast to many ethnobotanical therapies, there have been a number of clini-
cal trials assessing the safety and efficacy of willow bark extracts. Such extracts are
recommended for treatment of fever, rheumatism, and general pain by the European
Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP). Research assessing efficacy of
willow bark extract in reducing pain has produced equivocal results, although
largely supportive of its use. On the positive side, clinical trials have demonstrated
that willow bark extract is significantly better than placebo for treating patients
with chronic low back pain after about 1 month of treatment79,80 and not signifi-
cantly different from rofecoxib (Cox-2 inhibitor) after 6 months of treating arthri-
tis patients.81 Similarly, a standardized willow bark extract (240 mg salicin/day)
was provided to osteoarthritis patients, who observed a significant improvement in
pain after 2 weeks.81 Extract of white willow containing less than one-sixth of the
amount of salicin as an ASA product showed at least equivalent efficacy as ASA in
inhibiting leukocytic infiltration, preventing elevation of the rise in cytokines, and
suppressing prostaglandin production, and was even more effective than ASA in
inhibiting leukotriene formation and Cox-2 production.82 These results suggest that
the anti-inflammatory activity arises from more than just salicylin and raises the
importance of further research characterizing white willow with respect to other
bioactive compounds.83
However, other authors have reported poor analgesic effect of white willow.
Using white willow extract standardized to the same dose of salicin as reported by
Chrubasik et al.,79 Bierget et al.84 reported no significant improvement in pain scores
of patients with osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. The lack of improvement
observed in these patients may result from other bioactive constituents present in
white willow that were not standardized in the same way as salicin.
There is a dearth of safety information available on white willow extract. Most adverse
effects are associated with the content of salicin, which are significantly less in incidence
and magnitude than those of ASA.85–87 Salicin is poorly absorbed by the gastrointestinal
tract,85 which probably contributes to its very high LD50 in rats, which is 1,890 mg/kg.76
Generally, white willow extract is considered safe and well tolerated.80,81
Contemporary North American ethnoveterinary medicine continues to use Salix
sp. as a remedy for pain, arthritis, and muscle soreness in horses10 and ruminants.88
There is currently no research reporting effects of Salix sp. in companion animals or
livestock. However, research in laboratory animals and humans supported its use as
a moderate analgesic and anti-inflammatory in veterinary medicine.
200 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), like cayenne and willow, has a long history of
use as a native anti-inflammatory, particularly for the treatment of inflammatory
joint diseases and urinary tract infections.89 Nettles, despite their perfect adaptation
to North America, are not native but were brought from England by John Josselyn
in the mid-17th century. This hardy little plant thrives throughout temperate regions
across the globe.
The phytochemistry of nettle has been reasonably well characterized58,90 and con-
sists predominantly of flavonoids (glucosides and rutinosides of quercetin, kaemp-
ferol, and isorhamnetin), acids, β-sitosterol (-3-O-glucoside), polysaccharides, fatty
acids, and minerals.
A detailed review of clinical anti-inflammatory literature on nettle has been pub-
lished.90 Of eight in vivo studies performed on humans with osteoarthritis, rheuma-
toid arthritis, or other rheumatic diseases, all studies showed significant improvement
in pain score over time, with some studies showing significant improvement com-
pared to placebo. In vitro, treatment of various cell cultures with nettle extract has
resulted in reduced release of the inflammatory mediators tumor necrosis factor α
(TNF-α) and interleukin 1β.91,92 An extract of nettle has also demonstrated a signifi-
cant capacity for inhibiting expression of chondrocyte matrix metalloproteinases,93
the enzymes responsible for the destruction of articular cartilage in arthritic condi-
tions. The precise mechanisms are not known but may be associated with inhibition
of nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) activation.94
The toxicity literature for stinging nettle has also been summarized by Chrubasik
et al.90 The intraperitoneal LD50 of aqueous extract in mice is 3,625 mg/kg. Higher
doses were associated with a decrease in spontaneous activity, loss of muscle tone,
and hypothermia. Low toxicity was observed after oral and intraperitoneal adminis-
tration of up to 2 g/kg. Intravenous doses of 4,500 mg/kg caused transient hypoten-
sion and cardiac arrhythmias. The LD50 for intravenous injection in mice is 1.9 g/kg,
and for chronic oral application in rats is 1,310 mg/kg. Chronic subcutaneous admin-
istration is associated with diarrhea. There is a report95 of three horses with an appar-
ent transient (resolved within 4 h) neurological disorder resulting from nettle rash
that showed signs of ataxia, distress, and muscle weakness, and two of them had
urticaria. In general, nettle is considered safe and may be an effective treatment for
inflammatory disorders.90
reported that garlic was totally ineffective in treating parasitic infections in don-
keys.103 This result was most likely due to the fact that the garlic used in the study
was cooked and crushed, a process that probably inactivated the bioactive principles
(allyl sulfides).104,105 There are no reports on the efficacy of garlic to treat parasitic
load in companion animals. Also, although use of garlic as an antiparasitic in ani-
mals may be warranted, it is important to monitor potential development of anemia
in animals fed diets with high garlic inclusion rates (see respiratory health).
Elecampane (Inula helenium) is an herb that found initial popularity not as
a medicine for people but as a veterinary medicine. It was used in the European
Middle Ages as an ostensible panacea in horses, hence one of its common names
“horseheal.” 75 It came to the New World with the early American colonists and
was adopted by Native Americans as a treatment for bronchitis and chronic lung
diseases* and to dispel intestinal parasites. There is a small body of contempo-
rary literature supporting the use of I. helenium as an anthelmintic. An aqueous
extract of I. helenium effectively caused atrophy, degeneration, and necrosis of
the viscera of liver flukes, while reducing their recovery to about 2% in exper-
imentally infected rabbits.106 This extract also reduced egg-laying capacity of
liver flukes in rabbits.107 Intestinal roundworms are also susceptible to elecam-
pane. Infective larvae of roundworms exposed to an extract of I. helenium in
vitro were killed in about 40 days, and the eggs of exposed adult worms were
killed in about 20 days.108 There are no scientific reports of elecampane being
used as a general anthelmintic in livestock or companion animals. The main
adverse effect associated with elecampane is hypersensitivity.109,110 Development
of parasitic resistance to conventional anthelmintics is an important problem
across the full spectrum of domesticated animals.108,112 It would be of value to
determine the chronic effectiveness of elecampane in animals with respect to the
development of parasite resistance and to identify any species-specific charac-
teristics of the herb.
Other common herbs used by North American natives to combat endoparasites
include juniper branches (Juniperus communis), parsley (Petroselinum crispum),
stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), celery (Apium graveolens), carrots (Daucus carota),
and sunflower (Helianthus annuus) seeds.10 Evidence for efficacy of these plants for
managing parasite load is sparse. One article described the ability of sunflower meal
combined with lucerne to reduce the need for anthelmintic drenching of grazing
sheep and to improve their productivity without directly affecting wormload.113 It
is unclear whether the effect resulted from the sunflower meal, the lucerne, or the
combination of the two. In contrast, significant direct cidal effect of a purified extract
of carrot on roundworms (Caenorhabditis elegans) and microworms (Panagrellus
redivivus) has been reported,114 and the essential oil of celery is toxic to cercariae of
Schistosoma mansoni.115
Gastric ulceration is another critically important disease in livestock and veteri-
nary practice, with clinically and economically important morbidity and mortality
* Significant relaxant effect of elecampane volatile oils has been demonstrated on tracheal smooth
muscle in guinea pigs (Reiter and Brandt 1985), providing a scientific basis for its use as a respiratory
tonic.
202 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
8.6 Conclusions
Ethnoveterinary medicine in North America persists as an important health care
strategy for livestock and companion animals. A rich and colorful history sur-
rounds the use of a wide range of native and naturalized plants across the con-
tinent, and contemporary scientific investigation is providing new information
on how well these plants are altering pathophysiological processes of important
veterinary diseases. There is substantial evidence for willow and cayenne to treat
inflammation and pain in animals, and there is good scientific rationale for the
use of mullein and garlic in respiratory disease. Garlic also holds potential as
an anthelmintic, as does elecampane, but further research is needed to confirm
the anthelmintic action of these plants in a number of veterinary species. The
safety profile of the majority of the plants discussed appears to be acceptable,
but species-specific research is greatly lacking, and it is possible that toxici-
ties may appear in some species that are not identifiable in others. The safety
of garlic is guarded, with significant risk of anemia existing at higher doses.
Veterinarians are cautioned to conduct regular hematological assessments of
those animals chronically consuming garlic or those consuming garlic in high
acute quantities.
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9 The Medicinal Use
of Native North
American Plants in
Domestic Animals
Ronette Gehring and Kelly Kindscher
Contents
9.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 213
9.2 Echinacea Species......................................................................................... 214
9.2.1 Botany and Chemical Constituents................................................... 214
9.2.2 Use in Human Medicine.................................................................... 215
9.2.3 In Vitro Studies and Animal Models................................................. 215
9.2.4 Documented Uses in Veterinary Medicine....................................... 216
9.2.4.1 Swine.................................................................................. 216
9.2.4.2 Cattle................................................................................... 219
9.2.4.3 Poultry................................................................................. 219
9.2.4.4 Horses................................................................................. 220
9.2.4.5 Dogs.................................................................................... 220
9.3 Other Plants................................................................................................... 221
9.3.1 Eupatorium Species L. (Asteraceae)................................................. 221
9.3.2 Rumex patientia L. (Polygonaceae)................................................... 222
9.3.3 Rhus aromatica and Rhus trilobata.................................................. 222
9.3.4 Lepidium virginicum L. (Brassicaceae)............................................. 223
9.3.5 Clematis hirsutissima Pursh (Ranunculaceae).................................. 223
9.4 Contemporary Uses.......................................................................................224
9.5 Conclusion.....................................................................................................224
References............................................................................................................... 227
9.1 Introduction
More than 250 plant species have been documented as being used by native North
Americans for the treatment of animals (UKCropNet, 2008; Moerman, 2003).
Research investigating the safety and efficacy of these remedies is relatively scarce,
however, especially when compared with the data available for ethnoveterinary sys-
tems from other parts of the world. Reasons for this may include the comparatively
213
214 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
9.2 Echinacea Species
Echinacea angustifolia has been the most widely used medicinal plant of native
American cultures in the Great Plains region of North America, where it is com-
monly found in grassland habitats. (Although these peoples have often been grouped
together and collectively referred to as Plains Indians, they include a variety of for-
merly independent nations with distinct languages and cultures.) Echinacea species
were used to treat many different conditions, including colds, infections, bee and
insect stings, snakebite, headache, toothache, and wounds (Kindscher, 1992). These
uses may be attributable to immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, local anesthetic,
or anti-infective properties of the plant. Scientific research in both humans and
domestic animals has focused on the immunostimulatory characteristics of the plant
and its chemical constituents.
Several potentially active constituents have been isolated from Echinacea. These
include (1) caffeic acid derivatives (echinacoside, cichoric and chlorogenic acids,
and cynarin), which may play a role in stimulating phagocytosis; (2) alkylamides
(echinacein and several isobutylamides), which may be responsible for local anes-
thetic and anti-inflammatory activity; (3) inulin and other high-molecular-weight
polysaccharides, which stimulate macrophages and may possess anti-inflammatory
activity; and (4) essential oil components (humulene, echolone, vanillin, germac-
rene, and borneol), several of which have insecticidal properties. Echinacea also
contains polyacetylenes, nontoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids, and flavonoids, of which
the biological effects, if any, are presently unknown (Combest and Nemecz, 2002;
Mills and Bone, 2000). Cichoric acid and the isobutylamides have been used as
quality markers for echinacea products, but there is as yet no consensus about which
phytochemicals should serve as the definitive standardization markers (Letchamo
et al., 1999; Osowski et al., 2000). Variability in active phytochemical composition
due to growth conditions, time of harvest, milling, and storage conditions have been
postulated as the cause of variable activity of echinacea-containing preparations.
9.2.4.1 Swine
The species for which the most information on echinacea is available is swine. The
earliest research suggesting that echinacea may be effective in stimulating immune
responses in this species is an in vitro study of the effect of a commercially avail-
able combination product (Influex™) on the function of porcine polymorphonuclear
neutrophils (PMNs) (Stahl et al., 1990). Influex, which is an alcoholic extract of
Echinacea, Aconitum, Apis, and Lachesis containing 2.4 × 10 −2% ethanol, was diluted
with 0.9% NaCl to obtain a standardized echinacoside concentration of 0.03 µg/mL.
The Medicinal Use of Native North American Plants in Domestic Animals 217
This was then added to PMN preparations and experiments conducted to measure
adherence, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, and chemiluminescence. A positive control
(2.4 × 10 −2% ethanol in 0.9% NaCl) and a negative control (0.9% NaCl solution)
were included in each experiment. The Influex drops significantly increased PMN
adherence, chemotaxis, and phagocytosis compared with both the positive and nega-
tive controls. Interestingly, the ethanol alone (positive control) inhibited all these
activities compared to the 0.9% NaCl alone (negative control). Chemiluminescence
was inhibited to a greater extent by ethanol alone than by Influex, but both these
groups showed lower spontaneous and elicited chemiluminescence compared with
the negative control. The authors suggested that the Influex drops may act inde-
pendently and in a contrary manner on the oxidative metabolism (inhibitory) and
contractile apparatus (stimulatory) of porcine PMNs. Another explanation offered
for the observations was that the inhibitory effect on oxidative metabolism reduces
exposure of the contractile apparatus to breakdown by reactive oxygen species,
thereby indirectly stimulating the reactive oxygen species. The authors concluded
that Influex is a potentially effective remedy to strengthen nonspecific immune
defense mechanisms in pigs. A disadvantage of this study is that a combination
product was used, making it impossible to distinguish between effects of echinacea
and the other constituents.
The first in vivo experiments in pigs were conducted by researchers at Iowa
State University, who investigated whether adding echinacea to pig rations could
improve performance under intensive production conditions (Holden, McKean, and
Franzenburg, 1999). Five groups of 20 pigs each were fed rations to which echinacea
was added at different levels (0%, 0.1%, 0.5%, and 2.0%). For the fifth ration, 50 g/ton
Mecadox® (carbadox) was added as a positive control. The echinacea used in this
study contained 0.08% echinacoside on a weight/weight basis. The pigs were fed for
5 weeks, and production parameters, including average daily gain (ADG), average
daily feed intake (ADFI), and weight gain-to-feed ratio (G:F) were measured. In the
0- to 2-week period, there was a significant decrease in feed conversion efficiency in
the group fed 0% echinacea compared to all the other groups. In the periods 0–3 and
0–4 weeks, the groups that were fed rations with the two higher levels of echinacea
(0.5% and 2.0%) were significantly more efficient at feed conversion than the groups
fed the lower levels (0.0% and 0.1%). Total performance for the entire experiment,
weeks 0–5, was not statistically different between any of the groups, including the
positive control. This suggests that subclinical stress was minimal for the duration of
the experiment, and further research would be needed to determine whether echina-
cea affords an advantage to pigs that are stressed by disease and population pressure.
Another finding from this study was that the meat from a single animal that was fed
the highest level of echinacea (2.0%) had a higher off-flavor score than the others that
were slaughtered. The off flavor was, however, not objectionable.
Researchers in Germany also investigated the effect of supplementing feed with
aerial parts of Echinacea purpurea on weight gain in piglets (Ahrens, Lang, and
Erhard, 2003). At weaning, animals (n = 52) were divided into treatment and control
groups, and the diet of the treatment groups was supplemented with either 1% or 5%
echinacea. Standardization of the supplement by a specific chemical constituent was
not mentioned in the publication. The weight of animals in the group fed echinacea
218 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
at 5% was significantly lower compared to the other two groups on days 63 and
77 postweaning (the last 2 days measured). The authors attributed this to lower
feed intake due to the bitter taste of the ration. Serum and salivary samples were
also analyzed for immunoglobulins. Immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels were found to
be significantly higher on day 35 postweaning in the group fed 5% echinacea, but
salivary IgA levels were significantly lower in the group fed 1% echinacea on day
77 postweaning. The authors concluded that these results suggest that echinacea
should be supplemented at a high level for a short period.
The potential for echinacea to provide resistance against swine viral diseases has
also been investigated (Hermann et al., 2003). The authors looked at the effect of
dietary Echinacea purpurea on growth performance, level of viremia, and ontogeny
of antibody response in nursery-age pigs challenged with porcine reproductive and
respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). Weaned pigs (25 ± 1 day of age; n = 120) from
a PRRSV-naïve herd were randomly allotted to one of eight pens (n = 5) in two sepa-
rate rooms (four pens/room). The pigs were fed one of four isocaloric and isolysinic
diets: (1) basal diet; (2) basal diet plus carabdox (0.055 g/kg of diet on an as-fed
basis); (3) basal diet plus echinacea (2% of total diet); and (4) basal diet plus echi-
nacea (4% of total diet). The echinacea used in this study contained 1.35% cichoric
acid. Seven days after starting the diets, all pigs in one room were inoculated intra-
nasally with PRRSV. Body weight and serum samples were collected weekly from
all the animals, and serum samples were analyzed for the presence of PRRSV and
PRRSV-specific antibodies. All challenged pigs became infected with PRRSV, and
all unchallenged pigs remained free of infection. Feeding echinacea at either 2%
or 4% of the diet did not significantly increase ADG, ADFI, or G:F in PRRSV-
challenged animals, and it did not affect the rate or level of antibody response detect-
able by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or the level and duration of
PRRSV in serum. However, there were also no statistically significant differences
in ADG, ADFI, or G:F ratio between PRRSV-challenged and unchallenged ani-
mals, regardless of the diet. It is therefore possible that, like in the study by Holden,
McKean, and Franzenburg (1999), the conditions of this study were not sufficient to
elicit measurable responses in the PRRSV-challenged pigs that could be significantly
mitigated by the echinacea.
Most recently, researchers in Germany studied the influence of administering
Echinacea purpurea to pregnant and nursing sows on the immune system, health
status, growth performance, and carcass quality of their offspring (Kuhn et al.,
2005). Expressed juice of the aerial plant parts (a standardized human prepara-
tion made from 4.2% dry matter diluted in 22.5% ethanol) was supplemented in the
feed of pregnant and suckling sows at a dose of 0.125 mL/kg body weight divided
into two daily doses in six intervals (5 days of treatment followed by 2 weeks of
break, respectively). Treatment started 30 days postinsemination and continued until
21 days postpartum. Blood samples were taken from sows and piglets at various
times during treatment and analyzed for immunoglobulin content (IgG and IgA)
as well as C-reactive protein (CRP). In the piglets from echinacea-treated sows, the
greatest increase in IgA, IgG, and CRP was observed on the first day postpartum
(p = .0004, p < .0001 and p = .05, respectively). This difference became less as the
The Medicinal Use of Native North American Plants in Domestic Animals 219
piglets grew older. In contrast, the sows did not show significant differences in IgA,
IgG, or CRP until 21 days postpartum, when IgA levels were significantly higher
in the control (untreated) group (p = .002). There was a trend toward lower rates of
therapeutic treatment of piglets from echinacea-treated sows up to day 70 of age (p =
.08). There were no significant differences in growth performance and carcass qual-
ity of the offspring from echinacea-treated and untreated sows.
In summary, results of studies in swine suggested that echinacea may potentially
be useful for stimulating nonspecific immunity and protecting animals from disease
as well as enhancing production. However, the differences between treated and con-
trol groups or the sample sizes used in the studies were not large enough to demon-
strate significant effects in vivo.
9.2.4.2 Cattle
The potential of echinacea to modulate immune function in cattle was supported
by two studies, one in vitro and the other in vivo. In the in vitro study, flow cyto-
metric methods were used to evaluate the effects of culturing bovine leukocytes for
44 h in the presence of echinacea, either alone or as a combination product together
with Thuja occidentalis and elemental phosphorus (EquiMun®) (Schuberth, Riedel-
Caspari, and Leibold, 2002). The authors found that both EquiMun and echinacea
reduced the size and enhanced the viability of polymorphonuclear cells but had no
effect on mononuclear cells.
The in vivo study evaluated the effects of echinacea on the immune function of
transitional dairy calves using a single, small (n = 10), placebo-controlled design (Gill
et al., 2002). The treatment group received a dose of 2.5 g echinacea supplemented
daily for 17 days in the normal calf ration. Formulation and concentration of marker
compounds in the supplement were not mentioned in the article. Findings of the study
included significant decreases in the percentage of monocytes and B cells. CD4+
T-cell levels were significantly increased. No significant effects on neutrophil func-
tion, packed cell volume, serum protein concentrations, or body weight were found
in this study.
9.2.4.3 Poultry
Echinacea has been shown to significantly increase weight gain in broiler chickens
following live vaccination and subsequent challenge with multiple coccidia species
(Allen, 2003). Birds were supplemented for 2 weeks with a ground root preparation
of Echinacea purpurea mixed into a broiler starter ration at 0% (control), 0.1%, and
0.5% (wt/wt). Half the birds in each treatment group were immunized orally with
a half-dose of a live vaccine containing a proprietary mixture of a small number
of live oocysts of four coccidia species (Immucox®, Vetech Laboratories, Ontario,
Canada). After 2 weeks, the birds were switched to an unsupplemented ration and
then challenged by oral administration of 1,000 times the dose of Immucox after
another 2 weeks. The higher weight gain in the supplemented animals persisted
through the 2-week supplement of withdrawal and subsequent challenge infec-
tion. Supplementation also significantly lowered total gut lesions scores at 6 days
postchallenge.
220 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
9.2.4.4 Horses
In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial with eight healthy horses, it
was found that echinacea increased the phagocytic ability of isolated neutrophils
and boosted peripheral lymphocyte counts but decreased the number of neutrophils
at certain sample times over the course of a 42-day treatment regimen (O’Neill,
McKee, and Clarke, 2002). The authors attributed the last observation to neutrophil
migration from the peripheral circulation into the tissues. An increase in the size and
concentration of peripheral red blood cells and the concentration of hemoglobin and
packed cell volume were also observed.
This study (O’Neill, McKee, and Clarke, 2002) used a powdered extract of
Echinacea angustifolia root, standardized to 4% echinacoside, administered twice
daily for 42 days as a top-dress on the feed given to the horses. There was a 14-day
washout period between treatments. The strength of this study is its rigorous experi-
mental design. However, the statistical analysis (paired difference t tests comparing
treated vs. untreated at each sample time) did not account for possible period effects;
therefore, differences in conditions between the two periods cannot be excluded.
Also, the clinical significance of the observations is unknown in horses.
9.2.4.5 Dogs
Researchers in Germany and Switzerland conducted an open multicenter clinical
trial to assess the efficacy of echinacea powder for the treatment of chronic and
seasonal upper respiratory tract infections in dogs (Reichling et al., 2003). A total
of 41 dogs were enrolled in the study, and subjects varied widely with regard to age,
breed, and weight. Criteria for inclusion in the study were nonspecific and included
“kennel cough,” “nonthriving young animals,” and inflammation of the upper respi-
ratory tract. Chronic disease was defined as a condition expected, in the opinion
The Medicinal Use of Native North American Plants in Domestic Animals 221
of the investigator, to continue for more than 8 weeks if left untreated. Animals
receiving concurrent treatment were excluded from the study.
Echinacea powder (standardized to between 0.6% and 2.1% chicoric acid) was
administered daily by mixing it in moist food at a dose of 0.3 g echinacea per 10 kg
body weight. Overall efficacy of the treatment was indicated by comparing the sever-
ity and resolution of clinical symptoms that existed before and after 4 and 8 weeks
of treatment in each individual. The scale for this parameter was very good, good,
moderate, or insufficient. In addition, the severity of 12 different clinical symptoms
was scored on a scale of 1 to 4 at examinations after 4 and 8 weeks of treatment.
Body weight and temperature were also recorded.
Improvement in the disease condition was assessed as either “good” or “very
good” in 92% of dogs after 4 weeks of treatment and in 95% of dogs after 8 weeks
of treatment. Small, but statistically significant, decreases in body temperature were
observed. There were also significant reductions in the severity of clear nasal secre-
tions, enlarged lymph nodes, dry cough, dyspnea, and dry lung sounds after both 4
and 8 weeks of treatment.
The authors concluded that echinacea is an acceptable alternative for the treat-
ment of chronic and seasonal respiratory tract infections in dogs. However, several
weaknesses in the study design preclude a definitive conclusion regarding its effi-
cacy. These weaknesses include lack of a control group and specific diagnosis prior
to inclusion in the study, as well as the subjective nature of the outcome measures.
9.3 Other Plants
9.3.1 Eupatorium Species L. (Asteraceae)
Eupatorium perfoliatum, which occurs throughout the eastern half of the United
States, is documented to have been used by the Iroquois for the treatment of fever
in horses (Herrick, 1977). This is consistent with its use as a febrifuge in humans.
American Indians and early settlers used this plant to treat a wide range of condi-
tions, ranging from colds and influenza to dengue fever, malaria, and typhoid. It
was also used, apparently successfully, for the treatment and prevention of influenza
in the “Spanish flu” epidemic of 1918, as well as flu epidemics of the 19th century
(Lloyd, 1 AD, 1924b). The remedy was taken as a hot tea to induce sweating.
The plant’s common name, boneset, alludes to the term breakbone fever, or a
fever that is so severe “it feels like one’s bones have broken.” Breakbone fever is
also the old name for dengue fever (Foster and Tyler, 1999). Although boneset does
not have documented antipyretic or anti-inflammatory properties, xyloglucurans
from the polysaccharide fractions of aqueous extracts have been shown to increase
phagocytosis (Wagner et al., 1985). This suggests that at least some of this remedy’s
efficacy in the treatment of a wide range of infectious conditions could be attrib-
uted to immunostimulatory activity. Eupatorium species are a source of sesquiter-
pene lactones, which have been shown to have antitumor activity (Kupchan et al.,
1969; Herz, Kalyanaraman, and Ramakrishnan, 1977) as well as flavonoid glyco-
sides (Ramachandran Nair et al., 1995). Arabino-(glucurono)xylans isolated from
222 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
its range stretches from the Midwest through the western United States. Following
the change in nomenclature, the range of Rhus aromatica is limited to the Eastern
United States.
Borchert et al. (2004) showed that an aqueous extract of the root cortex of Rhus
aromatica inhibited carbachol- and KCl-induced contraction of human bladder mus-
cle strips and whole rat bladders in a dose-dependent manner (range 0.01–0.1%).
Interactions with the muscarinic receptors were also demonstrated using radioligand
and inositol phosphate accumulation studies. The authors concluded that the inhi-
bition of muscarinic-mediated contraction of bladder muscle by extracts of Rhus
aromatica could be beneficial to patients with bladder dysfunction, but its clinical
efficacy would need to be demonstrated in controlled clinical trials. Likewise, the
benefit in horses must still be investigated. Rhus spp. are a rich source of condensed
tannins (Min et al., 2007).
9.4 Contemporary Uses
Native North American medicinal plants are rarely mentioned in contemporary texts
on veterinary herbal medicine. Echinacea is a notable exception. Topical formula-
tions of Echinacea spp. are listed as treatments for wounds, skin infections, snake-
bites, and insect bites. Administered systemically, this herb is used in animals as an
immune stimulant, specifically for the treatment and prevention of upper respiratory
tract infections. It may also have benefit in the prevention of cancer (Wynn and
Fougere, 2007).
Another native North American plant that is listed in modern veterinary herbal
Materia Medica is Eupatorium perfoliatum. Potential veterinary indications for this
herb are listed as fever, upper respiratory infection, bone or muscular pain, and fever
in horses (Wynn and Fougere, 2007).
9.5 Conclusion
Native North American plants offer a rich resource of medicinally active compounds
that remains largely untapped. Historically, herbal remedies were not considered a
priority by funding agencies and the pharmaceutical industry. In addition, the use
of indigenous plants was largely surpassed by European herbs as a Westernized
culture came to predominate in North American societies. More recently, however,
there has been resurgence in interest in natural remedies and products that are pro-
duced locally from indigenous resources. This offers considerable opportunities to
contribute to the knowledge base on these plants through basic and applied veteri-
nary research.
The Medicinal Use of Native North American Plants in Domestic Animals 225
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The Medicinal Use of Native North American Plants in Domestic Animals 229
Contents
10.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 231
10.2 Methodology.................................................................................................. 233
10.3 Medicinal Plant Usage................................................................................... 233
10.4 Scientific Studies........................................................................................... 250
10.5 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 251
References............................................................................................................... 252
10.1 Introduction
Medicinal plants have a long history of use in the treatment of both human illnesses and
animal diseases.1–6 However, research into ethnoveterinary medicine has been largely
neglected in favor of human ethnomedicine. Although numerous ethnobotanical inven-
tories of medicinal plant use in humans have been created, ethnoveterinary medicine
remains poorly described. This scarce description of ethnoveterinary resources belies the
important role they play for small-scale farmers, whose lack of regular access to essen-
tial medicines for their livestock greatly hampers productivity. According to the United
Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the lack of drugs to treat diseases
and infections causes losses of 30–35% in the breeding sector of many developing coun-
tries, where poor animal health remains the major constraint to increased production.7
In many of these countries, there has been a decline in funding for veterinary
services and for animal health care in general.8 Traditional medicine based on phy-
totherapy may complement and offer alternatives for animal disease control, in par-
ticular for resource-poor breeders. However, more studies are needed to investigate
the efficacy of these ethnobotanicals. The first step in this direction is to record and
describe the plants used and to identify them correctly on a taxonomic level.9
231
232 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Farmers and pastoralists in several countries use medicinal plants in the mainte-
nance and management of livestock wellness. It is an established fact that medicinal
plants, for several centuries, have been widely used as a primary source of preven-
tion and control of livestock diseases. In fact, interest in such uses in the veterinary
sector has resulted primarily from the increasing cost of animal health care and the
search for new veterinary medicines and vaccines.10
Latin America is a vast region spanning parts of North America, almost all of
South America, and much of the West Indies. It encompasses 19 countries as well
as Puerto Rico, a commonwealth territory of the United States, and, arguably, even
parts of the southwestern United States.11 In Latin America and the Caribbean, the
population stood at 577 million in 2008 and is projected to increase to 778 million
by 2050.12 It is the most urbanized region in the developing world, with around three-
quarters of the population living in urban areas.13 The population of Latin America
is a composite of ancestries, ethnic groups, and races, making the region one of the
most—if not the most—racially and ethnically diverse in the world. The specific
composition varies from country to country: Some countries have a predominance
of a mixed population, in others people of Amerindian origin are a majority, some
are dominated by inhabitants of European ancestry, while others are primarily of
African descent. Most Latin American countries also have large Asian minorities.
Europeans are the largest single group, and they and people of part-European ances-
try combine to make up approximately 80% of the population of the subcontinent.14
Besides being one of the world’s principal culture regions, Latin America is dis-
tinguished from other world regions by a set of common cultural traits that include
language, religion, social values, and civic institutions deriving principally from the
Iberian Peninsula. Spanish and Portuguese are predominant languages. Catholicism
is practiced by the vast majority of the region’s inhabitants, and social customs and
civic institutions bear many similarities to those of Spain. Nevertheless, the region is
not culturally monolithic. Indigenous cultures and peoples have influenced national
and subnational cultures, affecting language, religion, music, food habits, social
customs, and civic institutions. African immigrants originally brought as slaves
also have influenced the region’s culture, although their effects have been most pro-
nounced in Brazil, the Caribbean, and coastal areas of Central and northern South
America. The cultural impact of other immigrants, including those from Italy, Asia,
the Middle East, and even a few from North America, has been minor.11
Agriculture and rural economic activities are major sources of employment in
Latin America.15 In particular, livestock raising is an economic activity linked to
local consumption or export. In this region, there are areas in which livestock pro-
duction is the mainstay of the economy, second only to mining and timber.16
The total territory of Latin America, supracontinental in scale, contains the great-
est ecological and biological diversity of the planet, mainly concentrated in the vast
intertropical regions.17 Together, the Latin American countries are home to a large
part of the world’s biodiversity. Brazil alone possesses about 20–22% of all existing
plants and microorganisms. However, it is estimated that no more than 25,000 plant
species have been the subject of any sort of scientific investigation. Latin American
countries have thousands of plant species, and they are also very rich in animals,
microorganisms, and marine resources.18
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America 233
The adaptation of the various human groups to the rich biological resources has
generated invaluable local knowledge systems that include extensive information on
plant uses in general and medicinally useful species in particular. It is not surprising,
therefore, that a vast majority of the world’s biological diversity, as well as the rich-
est sources of traditional knowledge of plant uses, are found in the less-developed
countries where people live close to nature.19 In spite of the very rich natural
resources, these countries have never properly used their great biodiversity to the
benefit of their own economic development. Furthermore, due to the uncontrolled
exploitation, the biological diversity in these countries is being lost year by year, and
important animal and plant species are disappearing.18
The medicinal flora of Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands has
been the focus of much ethnobotanical research and bioprospecting over the last two
decades. The current and potential value of medicinal plants as traditional remedies
and commercial pharmaceuticals is widely acknowledged. A search of the literature
clearly shows that over the last 25 years, few, if any, of the fields in Latin American
science have progressed as rapidly as the research on natural products.18 However,
studies on the therapeutic use of plants for veterinary purposes have been neglected
when compared to plants used for human medicine; little attention has been paid to
the cultural, medical, or ecological significance of ethnoveterinary practices.
Latin and South America’s rich biological and cultural diversity make them excep-
tional locations for examining and increasing our knowledge of floristic resources for
veterinary use and to draw attention to the need to protect traditional knowledge and
biodiversity. In that context, the aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the
use of plants in ethnoveterinary medicine in Latin and South America, identify those
species used as folk remedies, and discuss the implications of their use. This study rep-
resents the first review of ethnoveterinary traditions in this region, and we hope to stim-
ulate further discussions about this use of plants and its implications for conservation.
10.2 Methodology
To examine the diversity of plants used in traditional medicine in Latin America,
all available references or reports of relevant folk remedies were examined. Only
taxa that could be identified to species level are included in this review. Scientific
names provided in publications were updated according to Tropicos of the Missouri
Botanical Garden (http://www.tropicos.org/). The sources analyzed were Agra et
al.,20 Almeida et al.,21,22 Barboza et al.,23 Bussmann and Sharon,24 Carretero,25 De-la-
Cruz,26 Faria et al.,27 Lans and Brown,28,29 Lans et al.,30–32 López,33 Lucena et al.,34
Marinho et al.,35 Scarpa,36 and Sikarwar.37
to treat diseases that usually affected the target animals. In Latin America, as else-
where in the world, humans use the fauna in several ways, for instance, as food and
for fur, leather, pets, ceremonial rituals, medicines, and finally the controlled use of
animal traction in production techniques and work.2,39–46 Throughout the world, and
in all production systems, livestock diseases lead to mortality and reduced produc-
tivity. Prevention, control, and eradication of diseases among domesticated animals
are major concerns as such diseases lead to economic losses and possible transmis-
sion of the causative agents to humans, with possible public health implications. The
use of plants to re-treat animal disease and improve production therefore naturally
arose as a response to the problems that domestic fauna faced.
The obvious observation that we made was that this area is underresearched, as
can be seen from the small number of studies available in the scientific literature. It
is self-evident that there is an urgent need for more studies into ethnoveterinary prac-
tices in the region. The available literature revealed that at least 203 plants belong-
ing to 66 families have been used in folk veterinary medicine in Latin America
(Table 10.1). The number is certainly underestimated since the number of studies
on the theme are limited and have only been done in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,
Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Trinidad and Tobago. The family with the most medici-
nal plants utilized was Fabaceae (14%), followed by Asteraceae (6%), Euphorbiaceae
(6%), and Solanaceae (4%). Other species recorded are distributed in 62 different
families. Species of those families are also used frequently in Africa, Europe, and
Asia. In Italy, for example, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Euphorbiaceae appear among
the popularly used families.47 In Ethiopia, Yineger et al.48 reported that the fami-
lies Asteraceae, Solanaceae, Fabaceae, and Lamiaceae were the most popular, while
in studies in the African and European Mediterranean, Pieroni et al.49 found that
Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Euphorbiaceae were the most widely used taxa in eth-
noveterinary medicine. It therefore appears that the botanical families used in Latin
America are also utilized broadly in the other parts of the world.
Analysis of the published information showed that some ethnoveterinary prac-
tices were common to various countries; that is, the same plant species or different
parts of it can be used for treating animal diseases, although not necessarily for the
same disease. Chenopodium ambrosioides L., for instance, is used as an antipara-
sitic in Argentina and Brazil.23,36 Also in these countries it is a useful cicatrizant of
wounds.35,36 In Brazil and Trinidad and Tobago, Momordica charantia L. is used to
treat ectoparasites in livestock.30,35 The use of different herbal remedies for the same
ailment is popularly practiced in the region,50 and this may be due to the flexibility
it allows when there are seasonal changes in the availability of certain plant species.
Therefore, substitution is possible and quite common in the use of plants.
It was also observed that certain medicinal plants were recorded in just one country.
For instance, Funastrum gracile (Decne.) Schltdl. is used as a galactagogue in cows
in Argentina,36 Ziziphus joazeiro Mart. bark is used as a vermifuge and cicatrizant
in Brazil,35 while Staelia scabra (C. Presl) Standl is popular in Mexican veterinary
medicine.33 This may be due to the availability of, and access to, the species, floral
endemicity, and the unique cultural knowledge specific to certain areas. Some eth-
nobotanic studies have demonstrated that the diversity of plants known and used by
human populations could be influenced by the plant diversity in the environment.50–54
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America
Table 10.1
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America
Family/Plant Name Parts Used Veterinary Uses Country Author
Acanthaceae
Barleria lupulina Lindl. L Snakebites Trinidad and Tobago 30
Justicia secunda Vahl L Rashes Trinidad and Tobago 30
Ruellia tuberosa L. R Anthelmintic, estrus induction Trinidad and Tobago 28
Amaranthaceae
Achyranthes indica (L.) Mill. L, R To induce estrus Trinidad and Tobago 28
Amaranthus quitensis Kunth AP Horse hematuria Argentina 36
Amaranthus viridis L. AP Horse hematuria Argentina 36
Anacardiaceae
Anacardium occidentale L. BK Antidiarrheal, anti-inflammatory, antiparasitical Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago 21, 28,
(endoparasites), cicatrizant 35
Astronium urundeuva (Allemão) Engl. L Cicatrizant, for treating myiasis Brazil 21
Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão BK, L Cicatrizant Brazil 35
Schinus fasciculata (Griseb.) I.M. Johnst. AP Uterine atony in goats and cow, retained placenta Argentina 36
Spondias mombin L. Not mentioned Retained placenta Trinidad and Tobago 28
Annonaceae
Annona squamosa L. L Scabies treatment Brazil 35
Apiaceae
Cicuta virosa L. AP To treat animal wounds Ecuador 24
Apocynaceae
Aspidosperma pyrifolium Mart. AP, BK External parasiticide Brazil 21, 35
Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco Schltdl. ST Injuries, vulnerary Argentina 36
(continued)
235
236
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America
237
(continued)
238
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America
239
(continued)
240
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America
241
(continued)
242
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America
243
(continued)
244
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America
245
(continued)
246
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America
247
(continued)
248
Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America
Family/Plant Name Parts Used Veterinary Uses Country Author
Costus scaber Ruiz & Pav. ST Used for snakebites Trinidad and Tobago 30
Curcuma longa L. RI For retained placenta, wounds Trinidad and Tobago 28, 31
Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) Maas L To repel ectoparasites from chickens and ducks and their Trinidad and Tobago 29, 30
environments
Zingiber officinale Roscoe R Antiseptic, antiphlogistic Brazil 35
Zygophyllaceae
Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb. DU Expectorant Argentina 36
AP = aerial parts; BK = bark; BU = bulb; DU = duramen; FL = flower; FR = fruit; GR = grounds; LA = latex; L = leaves; MR = cob; NU = nutgalls; R = root; RI = rhizome;
SE = seed; SP = sprouts; ST = stalk; STG = stigma; TU = tuber.
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America 249
Access also exerts a significant role in influencing the type of medicine used. Phillips
and Gentry,51 investigating the useful plants of Tambopata, Peru, reported that easily
accessed plants offer more possibilities for local populations to experiment with their
uses, thus having a greater probability of being introduced into the local culture. As
remarked by Alves and Rosa,55 the use of local, more easily accessible resources is
possibly related to historic aspects (i.e., medicinal knowledge focusing on species
familiar to the locals, reflecting transmission of knowledge through generations) and
to financial constraints that limit access to alloctonous resources.
Common plant uses by distantly located and distinct ethnic groups point to a
similar evolution of indigenous knowledge and may confirm the credibility of the
medicinal value of the plants. The information on popular plant uses in one location
could be useful to other places having the same plants but not using them the same
way. The value of studies comparing the ethnobotany of distant and distinct regions
within a country or of different countries is universally recognized now. Such com-
parative studies yield valuable information on the uses and properties of plants and
the width and depth of indigenous knowledge.37
It is known that the use of medicinal animals is common in several countries in
Latin America,2,56,57 and that often there are overlaps in the medicinal use of both
plants and animals in traditional medicine for humans.2,58 Similarly, in ethnovet-
erinary medicine, these overlaps also occur. In semiarid areas of Brazil, medicinal
plants are used in association with animal parts for ethnoveterinary purposes. This
is not surprising given that the use of animal products is common in traditional
medicine, although scientific studies into these practices are rare. Barboza et al.23
recorded the utilization of animals (zootherapeutics) as sources of medicines in folk
veterinary medicine (ethnoveterinary medicine) in semiarid northeast Brazil and
verified that 15 different animal species are used in the prevention or treatment of
veterinary diseases in that region. There therefore appears to be a close association
between phytotherapeutic and zootherapeutic practices in traditional medicine, both
human and veterinary.
Animal and human medicine have been closely linked throughout history. Some
diseases affect both animals and humans and can be treated with similar remedies.
This way, many plants used in ethnoveterinary medicine are also used for the treat-
ment of human diseases. In Brazil, for instance, São Caetano’s melon (Mormodica
charantia L.), the purga potato (Operculina hamiltonii), and the pumpkin’s seed
(Cucurbita pepo L.) are used as vermifuge in veterinary medicine, probably similar
to the same way they are prepared in human medicine.21,27 A similar trend has been
observed by Lans et al.32 in Canada, where the utilization of a popular medicine
composed of Juglans nigra and Artemisia annua is used for the treatment of dogs
with roundworms based on the usage of this medicine for humans. Studies in the
traditional management of diarrhea in humans59 have shown that Psidium guajava is
widely used in ethnoveterinary medicine.60 In Trinidad and Tobago, the ethnoveteri-
nary uses of Psidium guajava and Anacardium occidentale for diarrhea have trans-
ferred directly from similar use in humans.61 The use of the seeds of Pouteria sapota,
Manilkara zapota, and Mammea americana for ectoparasite control in dogs is pos-
sibly derived from the human folk use against the chiggoe flea (Tunga penetrans
Linn.).62 This practice is also reported for M. americana seeds in Suriname63 and by
250 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
the Chocó Indians.64 In Calabria region, southern Italy, erva lupara (Scrophularia
canina L.) is used in ethnoveterinary medicine and in human ethnomedicine.65 These
results support other studies that have revealed that in most traditional societies there
is no clear division between veterinary and human medicine.66
Scarpa36 reported a strong parallel among the plants used in traditional veteri-
nary medicine by the Chaco nation in the Argentinean northwest, where 60% of the
reports stated as therapeutic correlate to plants used by humans. Such similarities
of uses of plants is evidence of the fact that ethnoveterinary practices and human
ethnomedicine have probably followed two main evolutionary pathways: one based
on the observations of self-medication in animals (zoopharmacognosy) and the other
related to human folk medicine, as reported by Pieroni et al.49 The use of folk rem-
edies in animals to treat diseases or conditions based on similar or identical illnesses
that attack humans has been termed the “human model for diseases in animals” by
Barboza et al.23 The relationships between ethnoveterinary and human ethnomedi-
cine on this perspective can be easily explainable since mammals are the main stock
animals (e.g., cattle, sheeps, goats, pigs, among others). Regarding this, animals usu-
ally face health problems that also affect humans, being noticed in identical symp-
tomatology by several people or communities. However, this cannot be taken as a
rule for all particular cases.
10.4 Scientific Studies
Many diseases affect livestock and other animals, and causal organisms of disease
include protozoa, viruses, bacteria, fungi, and helminth parasites. Ticks are impor-
tant vectors of several economically important ailments, such as heartwater, ana-
plasmosis, sweating sickness, and babesiosis, and several plant remedies are used
to rid animals of ticks. Ethnoveterinary medicine may play a significant role in the
management of such diseases in a cost-effective and accessible manner, and there
are an increasing number of publications in the scientific literature reporting on the
ethnopharmacological activity of plants used in traditional veterinary medicine. One
example is Aloe species, which have been in use as broad-spectrum therapeutics in
ethnomedicine.67 Their antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities have been
established, as extensively reviewed by Reynolds and Dwecks.68 Aloe vera has been
shown to have antibacterial activity against a wide range of both Gram-positive
and -negative bacteria.67 Aloe-emodin, an anthraquinone from many species of aloe,
was shown to have effect against four strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus69 and showed activity against S. aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Proteus
vulgaris, and Bacillus subtilis.70 Also, high levels of antibacterial efficacy in extracts
of Ziziphus mucronata (Rhamnaceae) were observed.71 Compounds were isolated
from leaves of this species: 2,3-dihydroxyl-up-20-en-28-oic acid and zizyberanalic
acid.72 The first compound demonstrated excellent activity against Staphylococcus
aureus, promoting claims of the efficacy of a Ziziphus mucronata leaf paste in
treating bacterial infections in animals and humans. A promising area of research
involves the investigation of antitick activity of plant extracts, entailing observa-
tion of tick repellent and toxic effects of plants. Allium species were investigated for
repellency and toxicity against Hyalomma marginatum rufipes adults.73 The acetone
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America 251
extract of Allium porrum revealed a high repellency index (65–79.48%), and Allium
sativum dichloromethane extract was toxic to 100% of ticks within an hour of expo-
sure. Essential oils from the aerial parts of Lippia javanica and Tagetes minuta were
repellent toward the ticks in a concentration-dependent manner.73 In a growth inhibi-
tion bioassay, it was shown that Tagetes minuta essential oil delayed molting to adult
stage of 60% of engorged nymphs of Hyalomma marginatum rufipes.73
As apparent in the examples above, the chemical constituents and pharmacological
actions of some plant products are already known to some extent, and ethnopharmaco-
logical studies focused on plant remedies could be important in clarifying the eventual
therapeutic usefulness of this class of biological remedies. Unfortunately, relatively
little research has been conducted on the bioactivity of plants used for ethnoveterinary
purposes in particular. As pointed by McGaw and Eloff 74 (see also Chapter 2), it is
essential to evaluate not only the bioactivity but also the safety of such plant treatments
if their use is to be promoted and potentially developed for commercial purposes. It is,
however, expensive and ethically complex to conduct in vivo experiments, and large
quantities of test material and specialized facilities are required.
10.5 Conclusion
Our results have found that a substantial number of plant species (n = 201) are used
in veterinary traditional medicine, and that the vast majority of these species are
collected from the wild. This indicates the very rich ethnomedical knowledge of the
local population in relation to plants used in ethnoveterinary medicine. However,
considering the wealth of biological resources in the subcontinent, this finding is a
gross underestimation of the length and breadth of plants used for ethnoveterinary
purposes. This justifies the call for more and extensive anthropological and scientific
studies on the subject.
Medicinal plants represent an alternative or a complement to conventional medi-
cine in Latin America as they do elsewhere in resource-poor countries, particularly
in Africa and Asia. As pointed by Alves and Rosa,75 the linkages between biodiver-
sity and human health are especially important for developing countries. Biodiversity
is a source of invaluable raw materials and materia medica. Traditional medicine is
widely available and affordable, even in remote areas, and generally is accessible to
most people. In many developing countries, a large part of the population, especially
in rural areas, depends mainly on traditional medicine for their primary health care
because it is cheaper and more accessible than orthodox medicine.76–78
The documentation and conservation of medicinal plants (for humans and ani-
mals) is therefore highly recommended. Many parts of Latin America are rapidly
being altered, both ecologically and culturally. According to Calixto,18 despite the
many individual efforts of the governments to preserve the biological resources for
future generations in Latin America, traditional knowledge, especially that associ-
ated with traditional medicine, is fast disappearing. The protection and revival of
traditional medical knowledge and practice in thousands of ethnic communities is an
important means of providing affordable and sustainable health care. The knowledge
that traditional health practitioners, women, and farmers can bring to identifying,
implementing, and managing environmental conservation and cultivation programs
252 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
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11 Ethnoveterinary Medicine
in Southern Africa
Viola Maphosa, Peter Tshisikhawe,
Kaizer Thembo, and Patrick Masika
Contents
11.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 257
11.2 Medicinal Preparations.................................................................................. 258
11.3 Plants Used in Southern Africa..................................................................... 259
11.3.1 Amaryllidaceae.............................................................................. 259
11.3.2 Anacardiaceae................................................................................ 259
11.3.3 Apocynaceae.................................................................................. 275
11.3.4 Asparagaceae................................................................................. 275
11.3.5 Asphodelaceae............................................................................... 276
11.3.6 Asteraceae...................................................................................... 276
11.3.7 Combretaceae................................................................................. 276
11.3.8 Euphorbiaceae................................................................................ 277
11.3.9 Fabaceae (Leguminosae)............................................................... 278
11.3.10 Geraniaceae.................................................................................... 278
11.3.11 Hyacinthaceae................................................................................ 279
11.3.12 Lamiaceae (Labiatae)..................................................................... 279
11.3.13 Solanaceae......................................................................................280
11.3.14 Vitaceae..........................................................................................280
11.4 The Way Forward.......................................................................................... 281
11.5 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 281
References............................................................................................................... 282
11.1 Introduction
Ethnoveterinary medicines (EVMs) have been in use since time immemorial.
The era of treating EVM and any other ethnic knowledge system with suspi-
cion and labeling it as myth, superstition, and witchcraft is long gone (Wanzala
et al., 2005). The role of EVM in livestock development in resource-poor settings
is beyond dispute (Martin, Mathias, and McCorkle, 2001), and a great number
of professionals have since the 1970s recognized, documented, and studied the
potential effectiveness of the traditional animal health care practices embodied in
native and local communities. Part of this work has also extended to attempts to
validate traditional use in laboratory in vitro assays. It is, however, important to
257
258 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
11.2 Medicinal Preparations
Many aspects of EVM need to be taken into account, for example, methods of prepa-
ration and administration of the remedy, as well as management practices to limit the
impact of the disease (McGaw and Eloff, 2008). Medicinal plants are prepared and
administered in several ways; they may be prepared and used either individually or in
combinations for therapeutic purposes. These will be in different formulations, such as
powder, paste, decoction, infusion, and so on, and are usually administered either orally
or topically.
A decoction is prepared by boiling herbs or plant materials such as leaves, roots,
or barks. The decoction is then cooled, after which the water extract is strained and
administered to animals either orally or topically. This differs from an infusion,
which is prepared by soaking the plant material (maceration) (e.g., leaves, roots, or
barks) in cold water for some time.
A paste is prepared by pounding or crushing fresh plant material, which can then
be topically applied to affected areas, especially when treating wounds in animals.
A small quantity of water may be added, especially when the paste is being prepared
from woody plant species, whereas water may not be required for paste prepared
from succulent species. Water may again be added if plant material was dried first.
The medicinal materials are first dried and then pounded into powder. The pow-
der may be either dissolved in water for animals to be given orally or placed on
affected areas, especially wounds, thereby covering the wounds.
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa 259
11.3.1 Amaryllidaceae
The Amaryllidaceae occur largely in the Southern Hemisphere with the distribution
centered mainly in South America and southern Africa (Arroyo and Cutler, 1984).
Of the 64 genera, there are those that are endemic and unique to the two regions.
Amaryllidaceae species are used widely for treating cattle, with the bulbs being
the most commonly used, despite fatalities due to the toxic alkaloids that are known
to occur in this taxa (Hutchings et al., 1996). Toxicity symptoms include excessive
salivation, nausea, dizziness, dysrhythmias, visual disturbances, and dermatitis.
Apart from the alkaloids, flavonoids have also been reported (Louw, Regnier, and
Korsten, 2002).
Boophane disticha is used to treat redwater and constipation in cattle and
to facilitate the healing of broken limbs (Dold and Cocks, 2001) as well as to
induce abortion (Van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001). It is also used to treat
wounds and has some antibacterial activity (Shale, Stirk, and Van Staden, 1999).
It contains toxic and apparently hallucinogenic alkaloids (De Smet, 1996). Of
the 130 species of Crinum worldwide, 30 are endemic to southern Africa and
widely used in traditional medicine (Nair et al., 2000; Hutchings et al., 1996). In
cattle, it is used to treat scabies (Begum and Nath, 2000). Crinum species con-
tain phenanthridine alkaloids (Fennell and van Staden, 2001), which are used as
analgesics and possess antitumor, antiviral, and anticholinergic activity (Lewis,
1990; Pham et al., 1998). In Zimbabwe, the bulbs of Crinum macowanii are used
as emetics and to improve lactation in both animals and humans (Mavi, 1994).
11.3.2 Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae Lindl., more widely known as the cashew family, is economically
important because of its widely cultivated edible fruits and nuts (e.g., mangoes and
pistachio and cashew nuts; Pell, 2004). It has over 700 species distributed in 82 gen-
era in the tropics.
In southern Africa, Ozoroa, Rhus, and Sclerocarya are the important medicinal
taxa and are widely used in treating both humans and animals. Ozoroa paniculosa is
260
Table 11.1
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes
Amaryllidaceae Ammocharis Used medicinally for cattle Unspecified Alkaloids, organic acid, and
coranica (Gerstner, 1938) parts hemolytic saponin (Watt and
(Ker-Gawl.) Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
Herb.
Amaryllidaceae Crinum moorei Used medicinally for cattle Unspecified Lycorine, cherylline,
Hook. F. (Gerstner, 1938) parts crinamidine, crinidine,
dihycrinidine, powelline, and
phenols (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962)
Anacardiaceae Ozoroa Abdominal problems in animals Bark, root bark Volatile oil (Watt and Breyer-
paniculosa (Hutchings et al., 1996); diarrhea, Brandwijk, 1962)
(Sond.) R. & A. red water, sweating sickness (Van
Fernandes der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001)
Anacardiaceae Rhus lancea L.f. Diarrhea, gall sickness (Van der Roots, bark Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001) shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
Anacardiaceae Sclerocarya birrea Diarrhea, fractures (Van der Merwe, Bark Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
(A. Rich.) Swan, and Botha, 2001) shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
Hochst. Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
Apiaceae Heteromorpha Zulus use bark for colic, scrofula, Bark, roots Falcarindiola and sarisan
trifoliate and vermifuge for horses (Gerstner, (antifungal) (Villegas et al.,
(Wendl.) Eckl. & 1938); Xhosa use roots for 1988)
Zeyh. threadworm in horses (Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962); red
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa
water, gall sickness (Masika, van
Averbeeke, and Sonandi, 2000)
Apocynaceae Secamone Infectious diseases in cattle (L.J. Aerial parts Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
filiformis (L.f.) McGaw, personal communication, shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
J.H. Ross 2009) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
Apocynaceae Strophanthus Given to cattle for snakebite Unspecified Cardiac glycosides stropeside and
speciosus (Ward (Hutchings et al., 1996) christyoside (Watt and
& Harv.) Reber Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
Araliaceae Cossonia spicata Leaves applied in hot fomentations Leaves, bark Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
Thunb. to goats paralyzed in their hind shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
quarters (Palmer and Pitman, Merwe, and Eloff, 2007);
1972); bark used for retained antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
placenta in stock, leaves used to mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
treat endometritis and vaginitis in
cows, bark decoction for gall
sickness in cattle (Dold and Cocks,
2001; Masika, van Averbeeke, and
Sonandi, 2000)
Asclepiadaceae Sacrostemma Stem used to encourage lactation in Stems, aerial Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
viminale (L.) R. cows, galactogue in cows (Dold parts mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
Br. and Cocks, 2001); wounds and
maggots (Luseba and van der
Merwe, 2006)
Asphodelaceae Aloe arborescens Used to drench sick calves Leaf decoctions Aloin, barbaloin, aloes emodin,
Mill. (Hutchings et al., 1996) aloenin, polysaccharides,
lectins, and other compounds
(Hutchings et al., 1996)
261
(continued)
262
Table 11.1 (Continued)
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes
(continued)
263
264
Table 11.1 (Continued)
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes
Celastraceae Maytenus Administered by Zulus to stock Bark and leaf Dulcitol, a spermidine alkaloid,
heterophylla animals for diarrhea (Watt and infusions celacinnine, triterpenoids,
(Eckl. & Zeyh. ) Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962 ) maytansine (Hutchings et al.,
N.K.B. Robson 1996)
Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium Decoctions made from plants mixed Unspecified Hydrocyanic acid, potassium
album L. with Chenopodiun ambrosioides oxalate, ascorbic acid,
administered to goats and sheep for sitosterol, oleanic acid (Watt
anemia (Hutchings et al., 1996) and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962;
Hutchings et al., 1996)
Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium Decoctions made from plants mixed Unspecified Saponins (Watt and Breyer-
ambrosioides L. with Chenopodium album Brandwijk, 1962); flavonoids
administered to goats and sheep for quercetin and oxalic, malic, and
anemia (Hutchings et al., 1996) succinic acids; triterpenoid
glycosides, chenopodoside
A and B, amino acids, ascaridole
(Hutchings et al., 1996)
Colchicaceae Gloriosa Used to kill lice, for skin eruptions, Corms Colchicine, chelidinic acid, various
superba L. tick infestations, and screw-worm on alkaloids, and other constituents
cattle (Gerstner, 1939; Roberts, 1990) (Hutchings et al., 1996)
Combretaceae Combretum Conjunctivitis (Masika, van Drops from Antibacterial, antifungal (Masika and
caffrum (Eckl. & Averbeeke, and Sonandi, 2000) squeezed Afolayan, 2002)
Zeyh.) Kuntze leaves
Cucurbitaceae Cucumis africanus Used as animal medicines by the Unspecified Toxic cucurbitacins (Hutchings
L.f. Xhosa (Hutchings et al., 1996) et al., 1996)
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa
Dioscroreaceae Dioscorea Sores and wounds in animals and Water heated in An alkaloid and organic acids
dregeana (Kunth) humans by Xhosa (Watt and scooped out (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,
Dur. & Schinz Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) tuber 1962)
Dioscroreaceae Dioscorea Swollen udders and uterine problems Lotions from Diosgenin (Watt and Breyer-
sylvatica (Kunth) in cows (Watt and Breyer- boiled crushed Brandwijk, 1962)
Eckl. Brandwijk, 1962) inner parts of
tubers
Euphorbiaceae Jatropha zeyheri General ailments, diarrhea (Luseba Roots Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
Sond. and van der Merwe, 2006) mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
Euphorbiaceae Ricinus Administered as purgative to calves Powdered seed Seeds contain a fixed oil, ricin, Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
communis L. refusing to suckle (Hutchings et al., lipases, and ricinine (Trease and shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
1996); constipation, internal Evans, 1983) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007);
parasites (Van der Merwe, Swan, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
and Botha, 2001) mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
Euphorbiaceae Synadenium Eye infection, blackquarter (Luseba Milky latex Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
cupulare (Boiss.) and van der Merwe, 2006) shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
L.C. Wheeler Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
Fabaceae Adenopodia Powdered roots used by Zulus to Roots, bark Saponins (Watt and Breyer-
spicata (E. Mey.) fatten goats (Hutchings et al., Brandwijk, 1962)
Presl 1996); Mfengu use bark for colds
in horses (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962)
Fabaceae Calpurnia aurea Zulus use plant to destroy maggots Unspecified Alkaloids (Hutchings et al.,
(Ait.) Benth. in sores (Bryant, 1966) parts 1996)
Fabaceae Calpurnia villossa Unspecified The alkaloid oroboidine
Harv. parts (Hutchings et al., 1996)
265
(continued)
266
Table 11.1 (Continued)
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes
(continued)
267
268
Table 11.1 (Continued)
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes
(continued)
269
270
Table 11.1 (Continued)
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes
Rutaceae Clausena anisata Dysentery in cattle (Hutchings et al., Bark infusions Terpenoid hydrocarbons,
(Willd.) Hook. f. 1996) alkaloids, coumarins, and many
ex Benth. other compounds (Hutchings
et al., 1996)
Salicaceae Salix L. spp Retained placenta (Masika, van Decoction or Antibacterial, antifungal (Masika and
Averbeeke, and Sonandi, 2000) infusion of Afolayan, 2002)
unspecified parts
Sapindaceae Hippobromus Leaf and root infusions used to clear Resinous and oily substances in Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
pauciflorus (L.f.) mucus from noses of sheep and goats wood and leaves (Watt and shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
Radlk. (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962); Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
root infusions given to stock animals
with cough (Hutchings et al., 1996);
leaf sap used for inflamed eyes in
animals and humans (Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Masika,
van Averbeeke, and Sonandi, 2000);
bark used for heartwater and diarrhea
in cattle (Dold and Cocks, 2001)
Sapotaceae Sideroxylone Preparations administered by Zulus Unspecified Cinnamic acid, kaempferol, and
inerme L. as tonics to calves and goats parts, bark leucanthocyanidins from bark
(Hutchings et al., 1996); Xhosa use (Hutchings et al., 1996)
bark for gall sickness in stock (Watt
and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962); bark
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa
decoction for red water in cattle
(Dold and Cocks, 2001)
Solanaceae Datura Powdered leaves are applied by Zulus to Powdered leaves Alkaloids, including
stramonium L. animal and human bruise and wounds hyoscyamine and hyoscine
to draw out inflammation and pus (Oliver-Bever, 1986)
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
Solanaceae Solanun Ringworm in cattle and horses, also Fruit Solanine (Watt and Breyer-
aculeastrum Dun. for anthrax (Hutchings et al., 1996) Brandwijk, 1962)
Solanaceae Solanum Fruit sap and leaf paste used for Fruit, leaves Solanin, solanidine, azosolanidin,
hermannii Dun. sores on sheep and horses by Xhosa quinhydrone solasonine,
and Sotho (Watt and Breyer- solasodine, solasodamine from
Brandwijk, 1962) fruit (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962)
Solanaceae Withania Used to stimulate milk production in Unspecified Many compounds, including
somnifera (L.) cows (Gerstner, 1941); roots used parts, roots choline, tropanol,
Dun. for black gall sickness in cattle glycowithanolides, withanolides,
(Luseba and Van der Merwe 2006) withaferine, and withasomnine
diarrhea (L.J. McGaw, personal (Hutchings et al., 1996 and
communication, 2009) references therein)
Sterculiaceae Dombeya Newcastle disease in chicken (Luseba Leaves and Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
rotundifolia and Van der Merwe 2006); infectious flowers shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
(Hochst.) Planch. diseases in cattle (L.J. McGaw, Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
personal communication, 2009)
Thymelaeaceae Gnidia capitata Heartwater in cows, anthrax (Dold Root decoction Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
L.f. and Cocks, 2001) shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
(continued)
271
272
Table 11.1 (Continued)
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes
Thymelaeaceae Gnidia kraussiana Preparations injected near the site of Unspecified Flavone heteroside from roots,
Meisn. the fractured limbs of stock animals parts toxic diterpenoid fraction,
by the Sotho (Guillarmod, 1971) polysaccharides, daphnane
orthoesters (Hutchings et al.,
1996)
Typhaceae Typha capensis Decoctions taken or applied Unspecified Quercetin 3′-dimethyl ether
(Rohrb.) N.E. Br. externally to aid expulsion of parts 4′-glucoside from leaf
afterbirth in animals and humans (Hutchings et al., 1996)
(Roberts, 1990)
Urticaceae Poulzozia mixta Retained placenta, bloat, vaginal Roots, leaves, Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
Solms discharge (Van der Merwe, Swan, stems shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
and Botha, 2001) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
Verbenaceae Lantana rugosa Pastes or infusions used for animal Leaves Volatile oil and the alkaloid
Thunb. and human eye complaints (Watt lantanin (Watt and Breyer-
and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) Brandwijk, 1962)
Vitaceae Cissus Used by Zulus as a drench for sick Aerial parts A steroidal mixture and Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
quadrangularis L. horses (Watt and Breyer- triterpenoids (Hutchings et al., shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
Brandwijk, 1962), aerial parts 1996) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007);
used as poultice for wounds, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
lumpy skin disease, and as tick mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
repellent (Luseba and Van der
Merwe, 2006)
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa
Vitaceae Rhoicissus Cattle diseases (Pujol, 1990); Tubers Antibabesial (Naidoo et al., 2005)
tridentata (L.f.) diarrhea in goats and sheep (Dold
(Lam.) Willd and and Cocks. 2001); heartwater,
Drum. redewater, internal parasites,
general ailments, abortion (Van
der Merwe, Swan, and Botha,
2001)
Zingiberaceae Siphonochilus Administered to horses as Rhizome Volatile oil with a characteristic
aethiopicus prophylactics against horse infusions sesquiterpenoid, α-terpineol and
(Schweinf.) B. L. sickness (Watt and Breyer- other monoterpenoids (Van
Burtt Brandwijk, 1962) Wyk, Van Oudtshoorn, and
Gericke, 1997)
273
274
Table 11.2
Traditional Medicinal Plants Used in Treatment of Commonly Encountered Disease Conditions in Farm Animals
Source: From McGaw and Eloff (2008). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 119 (3): 329–330. With permission of Elsevier.
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa 275
used for abdominal problems, diarrhea and red water in livestock (Hutchings et al.,
1996; Van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001), while Rhus species are popular for
diarrhea and gall sickness (Van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001).
Little chemistry has been done on O. paniculosa. Anacardic acids and ginkgoic
acid, both compounds that showed in vitro anticancer activity, were isolated from the
related O. insignis (Rea et al., 2003). The anacardic acids have been isolated from
other members of the Anacardiaceae family as well as several tirucallane triterpenes
(Liu and Abreu, 2006).
Rhus species are widely recognized to possess a host of biological activities,
among them antifibrogenic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antimicro-
bial, and antimutagenic ones (Rayne and Mazza, 2007). They possess flavonoids and
tannins (Ahmed, Galal, and Ross, 2001). The Morula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) is
held in high esteem in the cultures of many Bantu people, especially the VhaVenda
in Zimbabwe and South Africa. It is rich in flavonol and epicatechin derivatives
(Galvez et al., 1992; Braca et al., 2003). It is probably the high tannin content in
S. birrea and Rhus spp. that explains their popular use in treating diarrhea in both
humans and animals. Ethanol extracts of S. birrea showed good activity against
Haemonchus contortus, a pathogenic nematode in small ruminants (Mamidou et al.,
2005). An infusion of Protorhus longifolia is used to treat heartwater and para
typhoid in cattle (Cocks, 2006).
11.3.3 Apocynaceae
There are about 90 genera and 700 species of Apocynaceae in southern Africa,
with remarkable endemism, particularly in South Africa’s KwaZulu Natal Province
(Ollerton et al., 2003).
Powdered root decoctions of Acokanthera oppositifolia are used to treat pain, snake-
bite, anthrax, and tapeworm (Adedapo et al., 2008). In addition, polyphenolics occur
that naturally have antioxidant activity. Powdered roots are administered orally or as
snuff to treat pain and snakebite, and root decoctions are used against anthrax and tape-
worm (Adedapo et al., 2008). However due to the occurrence of cardiac glycosides, this
genus is also considered to be toxic to animals (Kellerman, Coetzer, and Naude, 1988).
11.3.4 Asparagaceae
Asparagaceae is a monogeneric family previously included under Liliaceae, and it has
100 perennials arising from tubers and rhizomes (Dinan, Savchenko, and Whiting,
2001). It is widely distributed in Africa, Europe, western Asia, and Australia.
In Zambia, root decoction of Asparagus spp. has been used for blackwater fever
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) and to treat fevers in Malawi, Zambia, and
Tanzania (Morris, 1996).
Norlignans, carotenoids, alkaloids, flavonoids, and steroidal saponins have been
isolated from various Asparagus species (Sharma, Sati, and Chand, 1982; Shao et al.,
1997; Debella et al., 1999; Yang et al., 2004; Saxena and Chourasia, 2001). The phyto
ecdysteroids, which are typical of this Asparagaceae, have been shown to disrupt ste-
roidal hormone action in pest species (Dinan, Savchenko, and Whiting, 2001). Some
276 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
11.3.5 Asphodelaceae
Worldwide, there are some 800 species in the Asphodelaceae family, mostly herbs
with rhizomes or tubers. There are 360 Aloe species described so far, and these
are known to occur mainly in Africa and Arabia (Dagne and Yenesew, 1994). The
African-Arabian succulent genus Aloe L. (Aloaceae/Asphodelaceae) is represented
by approximately 120 infrageneric taxa in southern Africa, including A. ferox Mill.,
a species long used in commercial natural products (Glen and Hardy, 2000). Aloe
has over the years proved to be one of the most important sources of biologically
active compounds. Over 130 compounds belonging to different classes, includ-
ing anthrones, chromones, pyrones, coumarins, alkaloids, glycoproteins, naphtha-
lenes, and flavonoids, have been isolated from various species (Dagne et al., 2000;
Reynolds, 2004). Aloin A is the most important commercial product of aloe, and it is
used in the culinary and pharmaceutical industries (Abegaz et al., 1999)
The most frequently used species in southern Africa are Aloe ferox and A. marlothii
because of their wide distribution (Grace et al., 2008). In South Africa, Aloe ferox
has been reported in the ethnoveterinary control of ticks (Moyo and Masika, 2008),
whereas in Tanzania, the extract of Aloe secundiflora was useful in the control of
fowl typhoid in chickens (Waihenya et al., 2002). Leaf exudates of Aloe species are
used to treat the drinking water of chicken as a bird flu prophylactic and tonic in most
of rural southern Africa (personal observation).
11.3.6 Asteraceae
The Asteraceae (= Compositae) is the largest family of vascular plants, with over
23,000 species and wide distribution on all continents except Antarctica (Panero and
Funk, 2008).
Plants from this family have been reported to possess polyacetylene phenylhepta-
trine and chalcomenes (Graham, Graham, and Towers, 1980; Hoffman and Hoelzl,
1988). Bidens pilosa and Brachylaemia discolour are used to control helminths in
equines and in calves, sheep, and goats (Hutchings et al., 1996). Some plants from
this family have been used to treat heartwater in goats, diarrhea in lambs, and gall
sickness in livestock (Dold and Cocks, 2001).
11.3.7 Combretaceae
The Combretaceae occur in both tropical and subtropical climes and consist of
20 genera in about 300 species with Combretum, Terminalia, and Quisqualis the
largest and most important (Eloff, Katerere, and McGaw, 2008).
Combretum caffrum is used to treat conjunctivitis (Masika, van Averbeeke, and
Sonandi, 2000), and C. paniculatum is used for fertility problems in animals (Luseba
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa 277
and Van der Merwe, 2006). Terminalia sericea is used to treat wounds in animals
(Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006) as well as diarrhea (Van der Merwe, Swan, and
Botha, 2001). In Kenya, combretums are used as anthelmentics for small ruminants
(Githiori, Athanasiadou, and Thamsborg, 2006). Aqueous and organic leaf extracts
of C. apiculatum, C. hereroense, and C. mossambicense showed good activity in
in vitro assays against the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (McGaw
et al., 2001).
Members of the Combretaceae have been extensively studied and shown to have
broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity (Katerere et al., 2003; Martini, Katerere, and
Eloff, 2001; Eloff, Katerere, and McGaw, 2008). Several flavonoids, triterpenoids,
and stilbenoids have been isolated and shown to be biologically active.
11.3.8 Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae occur in different habitats of the tropics, and as result of their cos-
mopolitan nature, they have developed various life-forms, including herbs, shrubs,
stunted succulents, and tall canopy trees (Balakrishnan and Chakrabarty, 2007).
Phytochemical studies have shown the presence of flavonoids, saponins, diterpenes,
phorbol esters (Bagalkotkar et al., 2006), and triterpenoids (Uzabakiliho, Largeau,
and Casadevall, 1987).
Different species are used for diseases such as blackquarter, constipation in cattle
and goats, and diarrhea (Luseba and van der Merwe, 2006), as well as eye infections,
pneumonia, as a tonic, and for fertility enhancement in livestock (Van der Merwe,
Swan, and Botha, 2001).
Luseba and van der Merwe (2006) reported that Synadenium (= Euphorbia) cup-
ulare is used for eye infection and blackquarter. East Coast fever (ECF) is treated by
topical application of the sap of Synadenium grantii (Synadenium umbellatum [SU]
Pax [synonym: Euphorbia umbellate]) (Tabuti, Dhillion, and Lye, 2003).
Jatropha is a multipurpose plant that has become of particular interest in the
burgeoning biodiesel industry (Openshaw, 2000). Although originally a tropical
American plant (Mujumdar, Upadhye, and Misar, 2000), Jatropha curcas has now
spread to Africa and Asia. It has been cited for use in gastrointestinal problems in
cattle for both constipation and diarrhea (Luseba and van der Merwe, 2006). The
antidiarrheal activity is thought to be effected via inhibition of elevated prostaglan-
din biosynthesis and reduced gut motility (Mujumdar, Upadhye, and Misar, 2000).
Petroleum ether extracts of J. curcas were found to be active against the dengue
vector Aedes aegypti and the lymphatic filariasis vector Culex quinquefasciatus
(Rahuman et al., 2008). The oil of J. curcas showed good effect in the treatment of
sarcoptic mange in sheep in a field trial (Dimri and Sharma, 2004). A toxalbumin,
curcin, which occurs in J. curcas and J. multifida, makes these species, particularly
the seeds, like those of Ricinus communis, highly toxic (Botha and Penrith, 2008).
Ricinus communis is administered as a purgative to calves refusing to suckle
(Hutchings et al., 1996) and for constipation and internal parasites (Van der Merwe,
Swan, and Botha, 2001). Methanolic extracts of R. communis have been shown to
inhibit adult Setaria digitata, the cattle filarial worm (Nisha et al., 2007). The seeds
are the main source of ricin and ricinine, which are toxic but can also be therapeutic
278 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
(Aslani et al., 2007). In spite of the risk of poisoning, of which horses and sheep are
most prone, there are few cases of accidental poisoning in livestock (Aslani et al.,
2007). The leaves contain flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins (Chen, Zhang, and
Chen, 2008).
11.3.9 Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
Fabaceae is a large family consisting of trees, shrubs, vines, and herbs bearing bean
pods. It is made up of 730 genera and more than 19,000 species (Wojciechowski,
Mahn, and Jones, 2006). Many of the trees are an important source of tannins. Species
from this family are used to treat various animal diseases, ranging from bacterial
diseases to diseases and conditions caused by internal and external parasites (see
Table 11.1). For example, Peltophorum africanum has many ethnomedical and ethno
veterinary uses; rural farmers use the root and bark extracts to treat diarrhea, dys-
entery, and infertility and to promote well-being and resistance to diseases in cattle
(Bizimenyera., Githiori, Swan, et al., 2006). Leaf, root, and bark extracts of P. afri-
canum inhibited egg hatching and larval development of Trichostrongylus colubri-
formis, an important cause of parasitic gastroenteritis in ruminants (Bizimenyera,
Githiori, Eloff, et al., 2006). It contains coumarins (Mebe and Makuhunga, 1992),
flavonoids, and tannins (El Sherbeiny et al., 1977). Calpurnia aurea is used to kill
maggots in wounds (Bryant, 1966) and for the treatment of dysentery and diarrhea in
animals and ticks (Adedapo et al., 2008). Quinolizidine alkaloids have been isolated
from this species (Asres et al., 1986).
A bark decoction of Schotia latifolia is used in the treatment of red water in cattle.
No previously recorded uses were found in the literature (Dold and Cocks, 2001).
Schotia brachypetala, on the other hand, is used to treat infectious diseases in cattle
(McGaw, Van der Merwe, and Eloff, 2007).
Stilbenes and phenolics are reported to be present in S. brachypetala (Drewes,
1971), and antibacterial fatty acids have been isolated from the leaves (McGaw,
Jäger, and van Staden, 2002).
11.3.10 Geraniaceae
The Geraniaceae family consists of 800 species in seven genera. Coumarins and
tannins have been isolated from most plants from this family (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962). Pelargonium, a genus of this family, is one of the most important
traditional medicines in southern Africa for both humans and animals. Pelargonium
reniforme Curtis is used to treat diarrhea in goats and cows, heartwater in cattle, and
liver disorders in cattle and sheep (Dold and Cocks, 2001). Roots have been used
to prevent purging in horses and to dress wounds (Brendler and van Wyk, 2008).
Pelargonium sidoides, on the other hand, while also cited for use in horses for simi-
lar use, is used to treat dysentery in cattle (Lewu, Grierson, and Afolayan, 2007)
and, when mixed with Ziziphus mucronata, is employed as a dewormer in calves
(Smith, 1966).
Anthocyanins (pelargonidin, cyanidin, and delphinidin, among them), various
coumarin derivatives, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, phenylpropanoid derivatives,
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa 279
and a diterpene have been isolated from both P. sidiodes and P. reniforme (Mitchell,
Markham, and Boase, 1998; Kolodziej, 2007).
11.3.11 Hyacinthaceae
The Hyacinthaceae family consists of 700 genera and 1,000 species of herbaceous
perennials (Pfosser and Septa, 1999). Saponins, homoisoflavanones, steroids, car-
diac glycosides, and alkaloids have been reported from the Hyacinthaceae (Louw,
Regnier, and Korsten, 2002), some of which confer toxicity on members of the
family (Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000). Homoisoflavanones have anti-inflammatory,
antibacterial, antihistaminic, antimutagenic, and angioprotective properties as well
as being potent phosphodiesterase inhibitors (Heller and Tamm, 1981; Della et al.,
1989). Species from this family have been used to treat diseases such as gall sick-
ness in animals (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962), diarrhea in goats, and intestinal
parasites and retained afterbirth in cattle (Dold and Cocks, 2001)
Scilla natalensis (= Merwilla natalensis) is reported for use in cattle against “lung
sickness” (Hutchings et al., 1996), while S. nervosa has been used as a purgative for calves
(Gerstner, 1941). Organic extracts of S. natalensis showed high lethality against nema-
todes in anthelmintic assays (Sparg, van Staden, and Jäger, 2002). Homoisoflavanones
have been isolated from the bulbs of S. kraussii, S. dracomontana, and S. natalensis
(Crouch, Bangani, and Mulholland, 1999). Scilla nervosa has yielded homoisoflavanones
and stilbenoids, including resveratrol (Bangani, Crouch, and Mulholland, 1999).
Ledebouria cooperi was reported by Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) to be
used in cows to ensure that calves were of the same gender, while Ledebouria revo-
lute is used to treat gall sickness and diarrhea. Homoisoflavanones and chalcones
have been isolated from these species (Pohl et al., 2001).
Bulb decoctions of Urginea (Drimia) species are used for intestinal dis-
eases and endoparasites and for retained placenta (Dold and Cocks, 2001; Van
der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001). In vitro antibabesial activity of extracts of
U. sanguinea was negative (Naidoo et al., 2005). They, like Scilla spp., are also
well-known poisonous plants that are an important component of materia medica
in southern Africa. Toxicity is due to the presence of cardiac glycosides (one of
which has been called transvaalin), and ingestion by cattle leads to respiratory
problems, muscular tremors, and finally death (Kellerman, Coetzer, and Naude,
1988; Mulholland and Drewes, 2004). Fresh bulbs of U. sanguinea have yielded
phloroglucinol and phenolic acids, in particular salicylic acid (Mulholland and
Drewes, 2004). Several bufadienolides have been isolated from the bulbs of
Urginea maritime (Kopp et al., 1996).
11.3.12 Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
Lamiaceae (commonly known as the mint family) contains over 200 genera and
7,000 species of most aromatic plants that are important culinary herbs (e.g., basil,
mint, rosemary, and sage) (Heywood et al., 2007).
Many plants from this family are used to treat gall sickness (Dold and Cocks,
2001; Hutchings et al., 1996), heartwater and anthrax (Dold and Cocks, 2001), and
280 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
eye inflammation (Masika, van Averbeeke, and Sonandi, 2000). A diterpene diol,
ibozol and related diterpenoids, and large amounts of α-pyrones have been isolated
from some plants of this family (Zelnik et al., 1978).
Leonotis is used in the drinking water of poultry to prevent disease and for gall
sickness in cattle (Hulme, 1954). In Ethiopia, the Bale people use it to treat anthrax
(Yineger et al., 2007). Diterpenes have been isolated from the Asian species Leonotis
nepetaefolia (Govindasamy et al., 2002). Little work has been done on the southern
Africa species despite their widespread occurrence and use.
The powdered aerial parts of Plectranthus laxiflorus Benth (= Plectranthus
albus Gürke) are used as drenches for animals (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
Plectranthus is a large genus containing about 300 species of ornamental and
medicinal value plants found in tropical Africa, Asia, and Australia. In East Africa,
Plectranthus spp. are mostly used as dry season fodder (Lukhoba, Simmonds,
and Paton, 2006). While the chemistry of P. laxiflorus remains unexplored, many
related species have yielded abietane, phyllocladane, kaurane, clerodane, and lab-
dane diterpenoids, triterpenes, and sesquiterpenes (Rijo et al., 2007), many of which
have insect antifeedant and antibacterial activity (Wellsow et al., 2006).
11.3.13 Solanaceae
The Solanaceae contains both important agricultural food plants (e.g., potato and
tomato) and famous toxic plants (e.g., Datura and Belladona [deadly nightshade])
(D’Arcy, 1986).
Many compounds, including glycowithanolides, withanolides, and hyoscyamine
(Hutchings et al., 1996; Oliver-Bever, 1986), have been isolated in some taxa of this
family. Species like Solanum panduriforme are used for the treatment of bacterial
diseases, diarrhea, eye infections (Van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001), and
respiratory problems (Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006).
The Solanaceae are a source of steroidal saponins and glycoalkaloids that are
pesticidal (Silva et al., 2005). Aqueous extracts of roots and berry of S. aculeastrum
have shown molluscicidal activity due to steroidal alkaloid glycosides (Wanyonyi
et al., 2002). Several species have potent molluscicidal activity (Silva et al., 2005)
and larvicidal activity (Chowdhury, Ghosh, and Goutam, 2008).
Solanum nigrum, S. lichtensteinii, and S. tettense are recognized as poisonous
plants in southern Africa (Botha and Penrith, 2008). The first two cause diarrhea,
while S. tettense poisoning results in neurotoxicosis. Interestingly, of the three spe-
cies, only S. lichtensteinii has been recorded for ethnoveterinary use. However,
S. nigrum is an important plant in traditional medicine worldwide, and sapogenins,
flavonoids, and alkaloids have been isolated from this species and tested in many
different assays (Mallika and Devi, 2006; Ji et al., 2008; Kuo et al., 2000).
11.3.14 Vitaceae
Vitaceae are a family of dicotyledonous flowering plants, including Cissus quadran-
gularis, which is used as a poultice for wounds, for lumpy skin disease, and as a tick
repellent (Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006); Rhoicissus tomentosa, which is used
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa 281
11.5 Conclusion
Although the concept of local knowledge is global in its importance, its practical
application is very much at the local level, where further investments should be con-
centrated on improving, if possible, a range of practices that are appropriate and
sustainable. According to Mathias (2007), animal health care services in rural areas
can be improved by urgently tapping from all available resources, including ethnove-
terinary practices. It therefore requires people to get more information on the effi-
cacy of EVM and more documentation of validated information. With the escalating
costs of medicines for animal health care, as well as resistance to conventional drugs
by some parasites, livestock owners will continue to do what they can to protect the
health of their animals; hence, use of EVMs cannot be ignored.
282 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
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12 Ethnoveterinary Plants
Used in East Africa
John B. Githiori and Peter K. Gathumbi
Contents
12.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 289
12.2 Parasitic Diseases..........................................................................................290
12.2.1 Babesiosis..........................................................................................290
12.2.1.1 Erythrina abyssinica.......................................................... 291
12.2.1.2 Prunus africana.................................................................. 291
12.2.2 Trypanosomosis................................................................................. 291
12.2.2.1 Adenia volkensii Harms, Passifloraceae (Kiliambiti)......... 292
12.2.2.2 Fagara chalybea [Engl.] Engl. Rutaceae
(= Zanthoxylum chalybeum) Engl...................................... 292
12.2.2.3 Salvadora persica L., Salvadoraceae.................................. 293
12.2.3 East Coast Fever (Theileriosis).......................................................... 293
12.2.3.1 Adansonia digitata L., Bombacaceae................................. 293
12.2.3.2 Aerva javanica [Burm. f.] Juss. ex J.A. Schultes,
Amaranthaceae................................................................... 294
12.2.3.3 Euphorbiaceae Species....................................................... 294
12.2.3.4 Other Species...................................................................... 294
12.2.4 Heartwater......................................................................................... 295
12.2.5 Anaplasmosis..................................................................................... 296
12.3 Ectoparasites.................................................................................................. 296
12.4 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 297
References............................................................................................................... 297
12.1 Introduction
Ethnoveterinary medicine has always been a part of traditional medical knowledge
in many parts of Africa. East Africa covers Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Somalia, and Djibouti. In this region, livestock farming is a central part
of the farming activities. For instance, in Kenya, about 69% of the area can only be
used for livestock farming rather than crop agriculture. The farming systems involve
mainly pastoralisms but also include small holder farmers who keep a few animals.
Due to limitation in resources, many of the farmers in these areas rely more or less
on traditional medicine for treatment of their livestock.
289
290 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
12.2 Parasitic Diseases
Parasitic diseases have been described to have the highest effect on productivity of
livestock owned by the poor worldwide. These diseases are the major causes of low
productivity of livestock in tropical and subtropical regions, including East Africa.
Various plants are used to treat different hemoparasitic diseases in East Africa; some
are discussed in depth next.
12.2.1 Babesiosis
Babesiosis is caused by intraerythrocytic protozoan parasites of the genus
Babesia. The disease, which is transmitted by ticks, affects a wide range of
domestic and wild animals and occasionally humans. While the major economic
impact of babesiosis is on the cattle industry, infections in other domestic animals,
Ethnoveterinary Plants Used in East Africa 291
including horses, sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs, assume varying degrees of impor-
tance throughout the world. Two important species in cattle, B. bigemina and B.
bovis, are widespread in tropical and subtropical areas worldwide. The main vec-
tors of B. bigemina and B. bovis are one-host Boophilus spp. ticks, in which trans-
mission occurs transovarially. The acute disease generally runs a course of about a
week. Clinical signs include fever, inappetence, increased respiratory rate, muscle
tremors, anemia, jaundice, weight loss, hemoglobinemia, and hemoglobinuria.
Late-term pregnant cows may abort, and bulls may undergo temporary infertility
due to transient fever.
Three plant species are used for treatment of babesiosis in cattle: the stem bark of
Acacia exocephaleia, Mimosaceae, roots of Erythrina abyssinica Lam. Fabaceae,1
and the bark of Prunus africana [Hook. f.) Kalkman, Rosaceae. They have been
used for treatment of babesiosis in cattle,9 and the last species has also been used as
a laxative in livestock.2
12.2.1.1 Erythrina abyssinica
Erythrina abyssinica is a tree, rarely a shrub, 3–10 m tall, with a rounded crown,
and it is found throughout East Africa. This plant has been found to contain mainly
flavonoids.18,19,97,98 The species was found to have antiprotozoal action and showed in
vitro activity against plasmodium as well as against trypanosomosis. This antiproto-
zoal activity could explain its use in traditional treatment against babesiosis.
12.2.1.2 Prunus africana
Prunus (or Pygeum) africana is an endangered medicinal plant endemic to Africa.
It is mainly found on higher-altitude areas, generally from 1,000 m above sea level.
The African cherry [Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalm.] has been used in the treat-
ment of benign prostatic hyperplasia and other disorders in men. The bark, from
which the treatment is derived, is entirely wild collected. The major exporters of
bark include Cameroon, Madagascar, Equatorial Guinea, and Kenya.84 The active
constituents of Pygeum extract that is derived from this tree include phytosterols
(e.g., beta-sitosterol), which exert anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting production
of proinflammatory prostaglandins in the prostate. Pygeum also contains pentacy-
clic triterpenes (ursolic and oleanolic acids)26 that have antiedema properties and
ferulic acid esters (n-docosanol and tetracosanol) that reduce prolactin levels and
block the accumulation of cholesterol in the prostate.8,40,41,63,80 In animals, chloro-
form and aqueous extracts were observed to manifest hepatotoxicity at dosages of
above 3 g/kg body weight.30,31
12.2.2 Trypanosomosis
Trypanosomosis is caused by protozoa of the genus Trypanosoma and affects all
domestic animals. The major species are T. congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei brucei,
and T. simiae. Cattle, sheep, and goats are infected, in order of importance, by
T. congolense, T. vivax, and T. brucei brucei. In pigs, T. simiae is the most important.
In dogs and cats, T. brucei is probably the most important. Trypanosoma vivax may
occur outside tsetse-infested areas of sub-Saharan Africa. The trypanosomes that
292 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
activity and are described as general growth inhibitors; that is, they can act as anti-
feedants, phytotoxics, and antifungals.89 The quaternary benzophenanthridine alka-
loids (e.g., sanguinarine, chelerythrine, and nitidine) have potent antiplasmodial and
antitopomerase activities.
12.2.3.3 Euphorbiaceae Species
Several Euphorbiaceae species have been cited for use in treating theileriosis
in East Africa. These include the bark of Croton megalocarpus, the whole plant
of Euphorbia triaculeata, and a decoction of the leaves and bark of Synadenium
compactum.1,2,13,32,67–69
Euphorbiaceae consists of about 322 genera and 8,900 species around the world
in both arid and humid tropics, and the plants are found as herbs, shrubs, stunted
succulents, and tall canopy trees.100 The Euphorbiaceae have been shown to possess
flavonoids, saponins, diterpenes, phorbol esters,101 lectins,102,103 and triterpenoids.104
Clerodane-type diterpenes have been isolated from Croton megalocarpus.4
Euphorbiaceae are well known for skin-irritating and tumor-promoting diterpenoids
(e.g., daphnane diterpenoids).23 However, numerous macrocyclic diterpenes (e.g.,
jatrophane, ingol, and myrsinane) from this taxon have also shown good biological
activity (i.e., anticancer, analgesic and antifeedant, among others).66,91 In addition to
the alkaloids, the Euphorbiaceae also contain phenolics, triterpenoids, and steroids.43
Synadenium spp. have shown immunoregulatory,75 fibrinolytic,73 and antitumoral
activity.72
Euphorbia candelabrum Trémaux ex Kotschy, Euphorbiaceae, latex and stem are
also used to treat lymph node enlargement as well as wounds, abscesses, and con-
junctivitis in livestock.38 In Uganda, it is used to treat ECF.21,65
12.2.3.4 Other Species
Leaves and juice extracted from leaves of Agave americana L., Agavaceae, are
also used in treatment of theileriosis wounds and act as a coagulant and an insect
repellant.1 Steroidal sapogenins with anti-inflammatory activity70 and in vitro anti-
leukemic activity99 have been characterized from this species. Antibacterial and
molluscidal constituents have also been isolated and characterized.69,79,86 Agave is a
source of fiber and produces steroidal sapogenins and saponins.105
Cissus quadrangularis, Vitaceae L., seeds, stem, and roots are used to treat theile-
riosis as well as diarrhea, external parasitism, foot rot, and pneumonia.9,32,39,49,62,65,67,90
Cissus quadrangularis is a source of stilbenes, including resveratrol, flavonoids, and
triterpenoids.5,13,35,57 Extracts of the plant have shown a bone fracture healing property
and antiosteoporotic effect78 as well as antibacterial and antioxidant activities.64
Clerodendrum myricoides (Verbenaceae) root is also used in Kenya to treat theile-
riosis, diarrhea, and fever in livestock.95 Spermidine alkaloids have been isolated
Ethnoveterinary Plants Used in East Africa 295
from this species.106 It is traditionally used to treat malaria in Kenya, and methanol
extracts have shown significant suppression of plasmodial parasitemia.107
The leaves of the cucurbit, Gerrardanthus lobatus and the root of Iboza multi-
flora are used to treat theileriosis in cattle in Kenya,9 while the leaves of the latter are
used for ectoparasites.49,67
Plectranthus barbatus leaves are also used to treat ECF fever in Kenya.67
Monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, and phenolics have been reported
in species of Plectranthus.107,108 Plectranthus barbatus is used in French Guyana for
malaria.109 Albizia coriaria and A. zygia, both Mimosaceae, root infusions are used
in Uganda to treat ECF.87,21 The related species A. gummifera is used traditionally to
treat malaria and has spermine alkaloids that exhibited moderate activity against the
malaria parasite in vitro.110
Other ethnoveterinary medicines reported for ECF in East Africa are leaf infu-
sions of Ananas comosus (Bromeliaceae), Aristolochia elegans (Aristolochiaceae),
Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae), and
Clerodendrum myricoides (Verbenaceae) and root infusions of Harrisonia abys-
sinica (Simaroubaceae), Maytenus senegalensis (Celastraceae), and Milicia excelsa
(Moraceae).88
There appears to be a striking correlation between plants that are used to treat
malaria in humans and the use of the plants in ECF. This may be a useful bio-
prospecting angle indicating that plant metabolites may have generalized antihemo-
parastic activity.
12.2.4 Heartwater
Heartwater is an infectious, noncontagious, rickettsial disease of ruminants in
areas infested by ticks of the genus Amblyomma. These include regions of Africa
south of the Sahara and the islands of the Comores, Zanzibar, Madagascar, São
Tomé, Réunion, and Mauritius. Heartwater and its vector are also endemic on the
islands of Guadeloupe and Antigua. Many ruminants, including some antelope
species, are susceptible. Some animals may become subclinically infected and
act as reservoirs. Indigenous African cattle breeds (Bos indicus) appear more
resistant than B. taurus breeds. The causative organism is an obligate intracel-
lular parasite, previously known as Ehrlichia ruminantium. Clinical signs are
dramatic in the peracute and acute forms. In peracute cases, animals develop
fever, followed rapidly by hyperesthesia, lacrimation, and convulsions. In the
acute form, animals show anorexia and nervous signs such as depression, a high-
stepping stiff gait, exaggerated blinking of eyes, and chewing movements. Both
forms terminate in prostration and convulsions. Diarrhea is seen occasionally. In
subacute cases, the signs are less marked, and central nervous system involvement
is inconsistent.
Abrus precatorius (jequirity bean) is used in combination with Carissa edulis
to treat heartwater.9 Several toxic lectins have been isolated from the seeds of A.
precatorius,37 and isoflavanquinones isolated from the roots were found to have
potent anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet, and antiallergic actions.51
296 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Leaves and roots of Carissa edulis are used for heartwater, as a laxative and
purgative, and for treatment of internal parasitism, colitis, gastritis, and peritonitis.9
Lignans and sesquiterpenes have been isolated from this species.2,3
12.2.5 Anaplasmosis
Anaplasmosis is a vector-borne, infectious, hemolytic, rickettsial disease of cattle,
sheep, goats, and other wild ruminants. In cattle, the most common etiological agent is
Anaplasma marginale; cattle also are affected with A. centrale, generally resulting in
mild disease. Anemia results from extravascular hemolysis when parasitized red blood
cell (RBC) membranes are altered and recognized by the reticuloendothelial system.
These RBCs are removed and finally destroyed. Accordingly, antibodies that develop
against the altered cell membrane can cause destruction of uninfected erythrocytes. The
severity of anaplasmosis depends on the species involved and age of the animal. Young
calves seem to have an innate resistance to the disease, while the acute form generally
occurs in cattle from 1 to 3 years. In cattle over 3 years, the peracute or most severe
form, with rapid onset and death, predominates. Animals that survive anaplasmosis
can become carriers for life and act as a reservoir of infection for susceptible animals.
Economic losses from anaplasmosis include abortions, death, weight gain and loss,
decreased milk production, bull infertility, and treatment expenses.
Roots, leaves, and bark of Ficus sycomorus L., Moraceae, are used to treat ana-
plasmosis and other conditions, including colitis, gastritis, and peritonitis and flush-
ing of uterus after abortion in animals.9,38 Ficus sycomorus is native to Africa south
of the Sahel and north of the Tropic of Capricorn, also excluding the central-west
rain forest areas. In Burkina Faso, it has been cited for use in malaria, but in vitro
studies have not shown good activity against Plasmodium falciparum.77
Phytochemical analysis carried out on F. sycomorus demonstrated the presence
of steroids, condensed tannins, flavone aglycones, and saponins.37,38 Extracts of F.
sycomorus have not shown good antibacterial or antifungal activity.50,83 However,
the Ficus genus is a popular herbal remedy that has been used to treat tumors
(internal and external) as well as mastitis, bronchitis, tuberculosis, and diarrhea.52
Phenanthroindolizidine alkaloids, coumarins, stilbenes, flavonoids, and triterpenods
have been isolated from this taxon.34,52
12.3 Ectoparasites
A total of 25 plants have been documented to have activity against ectoparasites.
Leaves are commonly used as insect repellant and for external parasites. Of the 25
species reported to be used for treatment of ectoparasites, 12 utilized leaves. These
included Acalypha fruticosa (Euphorbiaceae), which is also used to treat wounds,
abscesses, foot rot, burns, and pox as well,1 This species was also found to attract
ticks due to its odor.36 It is also an important folk medicine in Saudi Arabia and
India.1 Adenia veneta Forssk. Passifloraceae leaves are used for treatment of external
parasites and mange and as an antifungal.65 Leaves of Adenia multiflorum Klotzsch
Apocynaceae have been used as an insecticide and acaricide.1,62 Adenia spp. possess
entomotoxic lectins, which may explain their activity.111
Ethnoveterinary Plants Used in East Africa 297
12.4 Conclusion
Many plants have been identified for use in treatment of parasitic diseases in East
Africa. For many of them, phytochemical analysis is yet to be done. However, there
is a sufficient body of literature for many plants whose phytochemistry has been
done. Most of the plants identified were for treatment of diseases in ruminants; in a
few exceptions, plants were used to treat conditions in camels and poultry. Leaf and
bark were the most commonly used plant parts. In some instances, whole plants were
used, and a mixture of two or more plants has also been widely reported.
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13 Herbal Medicines for
Animal Health in the
Middle East and North
Africa (MENA) Region
Laïd Boukraa, Hama Benbarek,
and Mokhtar Benhanifia
Contents
13.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 303
13.2 Veterinary Medicine in MENA..................................................................... 305
13.3 Contemporary Ethnoveterinary Medicine.....................................................306
13.4 The Most Common Plants Used for Animal Health.....................................309
13.4.1 Urtica dioica......................................................................................309
13.4.2 Artemisia herba-alba.........................................................................309
13.4.3 Thymus capitatus............................................................................... 311
13.4.4 Juniperus phoenicea.......................................................................... 312
13.5 Scientific Evidence of Medicinal Plant Properties Used
in Animal Health........................................................................................... 312
13.5.1 Gastrointestinal Complaints.............................................................. 312
13.5.2 Treatment and Prophylaxis of Helminthiasis.................................... 312
13.5.3 Respiratory Disorders........................................................................ 313
13.5.4 Urinary Disorders.............................................................................. 313
13.6 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 313
Acknowledgments................................................................................................... 314
References............................................................................................................... 316
13.1 Introduction
Since time immemorial, medicinal plants have been used in virtually all cultures to
maintain and restore health. The widespread use of herbal remedies and health care
preparations, such as those described in ancient texts such as the Vedas and the Bible
and obtained from commonly used traditional herbs and medicinal plants, has been
traced to the occurrence of biologically active compounds.
The use of traditional medicine and medicinal plants in most developing countries
for treating disease and maintaining good health has been widely observed (United
303
304 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
as it becomes more arid. For example, there are more than 2,600 plant species that
have been inventoried from the hills of historical Palestine, of which about 700 have
medicinal use (Azaizeh et al., 2006). However, this number and knowledge are under
threat, and only a third of the medicinal plants are still in use in Arab traditional
medicine; many of these are now rare or endangered, such as Euphorbia hirsute
(used as an antiparasitic) and Ophioglossum spp. (for parasites and wounds) (Azaizeh
et al., 2006). A similar decline in knowledge corresponding to loss of biodiversity has
also been noted among informants in the West Bank (Palestine) (Said et al., 2002).
Important livestock in the region includes small ruminants (goats and sheep),
bovines (cattle and buffalo), poultry (chicken and turkey), and camels and equines
valued for draught power (Nordblom and Shomo, n.d.). For religious reasons, there
are no pigs reared in the area.
(Schillhorn van Veen, 1996). EVM was practiced as early as 1800 BC at the time of
King Hamurabi of Babylon, who formulated laws on veterinary fees and charged for
treating cattle and donkeys (Schillhorn van Veen, 1996).
Table 13.1
Medicinal Plants Used by Ethnoveterinarians in Saudi Arabia for Treatment
of Camel Diseases
Latin Name (Arabic) Uses
Tamarix aphylla (Athil) Buds as paste for dermatitis; leaves and buds as eye wash
Rhazya stricta (Harmal) Leaves as vermifuge, purgative; for mange
Zygophylum album (Um thraib) Whole plant and seeds: vermifuge
Zygophylum coccineum (Humadd) Whole plant: purgative, vermifuge
Artemesia abyssinica (Aazir) Whole plant: laxative
Artemesia inculata (Sheeh) Whole plant and seeds: laxative and vermifuge
Blepharis ciliaris (Shokadab) Leaves and seeds: antiseptic; leaves: astringent
Zizyphus nummularia (Sid) Leaves and seeds for old wounds; leave decoction as astringent
Hamada elegans (Rimth) Leaves and bark: antiseptic, hasten wound healing; bark powder
reduces scars
Citrullus colocynthis (Sheri) Pulp: strong vermifuge, purgative; root and seeds for snakebite;
tar for mange
Fagonia pruguieri (Shwaika) Bark for mange
Lepidium sativum (Rashad) Seeds and leaves for gastroenteritis and dermatitis; leaf for
mange
Euphorbia cocuneata (Abu laban) Leaves and latex: antiseptic; purgative; for dermatitis; latex for
snakebite
Cymbopogon schoenanthus (Azkhar) Root decoction for bloat and colic; whole plant laxative
Milolotus alba (Handagog) Leaves and fruits for anorexia; leaves to induce milk let down
Lycium barbarum (Awsag) Fruits and leaves for colic and anorexia; whole plant for
myositis and arthritis; latex and leaves for snake bite
Heliotropium strigosum (Rimram) Seed: vermifuge and wound antiseptic
Cleome arabica (Umzameel) Bark: antiseptic, reduces scars
Haloxylon ammodendron (Ghadha) Leaves decoction for cough
Calotropis procera (Ushar) Fresh leaves and latex for arthritis, latex for scorpion sting; dry
leaves for stomachache, tonic
Colocynthis vulgaris (Handhal) Leaf for mange
Fagonia pruguieri (Shwaika) Bark for mange
Rhazya stricta (Harmal) Leaf for mange
Source: Abbas, Al-Qarawi, and Al-Hawas (2002). Journal of Arid Environments, 50: 367–379. With
permission.
C. procera as a livestock famine food during the famous drought of the 1980s (Fall,
1989; Abbas, Eltayeb, and Sullieman, 1993), while in the Sudan it was fed to cam-
els as a cure for night blindness, a condition precipitated by vitamin A deficiency
(Abbas, 1997). Kumar and Basu (1994) ascribed anti-inflammatory effects to the
latex of C. procera, while Al Qarawi et al. (2000) reported moderate anthelmintic
activity of the latex against experimental hemonchosis in sheep.
Herbal Medicines for Animal Health in the Middle East 309
Table 13.2
Some Camel Infections and Their Treatment with Local Herbs in Tuareg
Land (North Africa)
Common Name Local Name Plant Used Method
Dermatitis Ajwid Balanites aegyptiaca Mixed to bone powder and boiled; put on
the sick parts
Trypanosomiasis Manchach Boscia senegalensis Macerate leaves with tobacco and give to
animal as a drink
Piétin Adyal Acacia senegalensis Barks boiled in water and then put on
Calotropis procera wound
Latex mixed to butter and put on wound
Beat wound Tafaday Maerua crassifolia Macerated leaves cooked in butter and
put on the wound
Sinusitis Anafad Maerua crassifolia Macerated leaves cooked in butter and
inserted into sinuses
Diarrhea Touffite Acacia radiana Macerated leaves mixed to argil, diluted
Boscia senegalensis in water; give to animal as drink
Viper bite Assam Calotropis procera Powder of burned leaves put on swollen
part
13.4.1 Urtica dioica
Stem and leaves of Urtica dioica are known for their anti-inflammatory effect, so
they are used to fight rheumatism and inflammatory pain of the urinary tract. It is
used in folk medicine as a diuretic and antianemic as it is rich in iron.
The leaves are known to be diuretic, anti-inflammatory, antiasthenia, antidiabetic,
astringent, and wound healing. The roots are diuretic and decrease the urine quantity
in the bladder.
The fruit is a tonic and galactogogue. Research has attributed anticancer, antioxidant,
and antiviral effects to this plant (Celik and Tuluce, 2007; van der Meer et al., 2007).
13.4.2 Artemisia herba-alba
The Artemisia herba-alba plant species is rich in essential oils. It is known for its pur-
gative effect, which plays a very important role in controlling intestinal worms. The
leaves of this plant are used in folk medicine to treat diabetes, bronchitis, abscess,
and diarrhea and as an anthelmintic (Le Floc’h, 1983).
Studies conducted in Morocco have shown the powerful effect of Artemisia
herba-alba against leishmania. The strongest leishmanicidal activity was observed with
the essential oil at 2 µg/mL versus the other two strains tested. The aqueous extract
310 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 13.3
The Most Common Medicinal Plants Used
Major Chemical
Scientific Name Local Name Plant Uses Constituents
Cupressaceae Arrar Cough, wounds, and Diterpenes, phenylpropanoids,
Juniperus phoenicea other skin problems furanones
Urticaceae Tazia, Horigh Urine retention, Flavonoids, triterpenes,
Urtica dioica antianemic coumarin
Solanaceae Tasakra Retained placenta, Sesquiterpenes, tropane and
Hyoscyamus albus fractures, and lameness piperidone alkaloids, imino
sugars
Lamiaceae Yazire, Hchiche, Wounds and other skin Sesquiterpenes, diterpenes,
Rosmarinus El-Arnab problems, edema, bite, essential oils
officinalis pneumonia, bronchitis,
antiseptic,
antispasmodic
Thymus vulgaris Zaatar Indigestion, bloat Essential oils, flavonoids
Marrubium vulgare Timret, timriouet, Pneumonia, bronchitis, Diterpene, phenylethanoids,
merouket antiseptic flavonoids
Origanum Timrisitine, Pneumonia, bronchitis, Essential oils
floribundum origan antiseptic, antispasmodic,
appetite stimulant
Asteraceae Cheih, Chiba Wounds and other Essential oils, guaianolide
Artemisia absinthium problems of the skin sesquiterpenes, flavonoids
Artemisia herba-alba Cheih Intestinal worms Sesquiterpenes, flavonoids
Globulariaceae Tasalka Conjuctivis, keratitis, Phenylethanoids, iridoids,
Globularia alypum cataract flavonoids
Lythraceae Hana, henna Fractures, diarrhea Xanthones, triterpenoids,
Lawsonia alba napthoquinones
Zygophyllaceae Harmal Intestinal worms Quinazoline, β-carboline
Peganum harmala alkaloids
Fabaceae
Cassia acutifolia Sna meki Indigestion, constipation Anthraquinones
Ceratonia siliqua Kharoube, carob Diarrhea Tannins, flavonoids, complex
sugars (mannans, galactans)
Geraniaceae Atarchaa, Diarrhea, intestinal Flavonoids, tannins,
Pelargonium tasekroute worms coumarins, phenolic acids
odoratissimum
Alliaceae Bsal Indigestion, colic, Flavonoids, thiosulfinates,
Allium cepa intestinal worms triterpenes
Rutaceae Fidjel Anthelmintic, diuretic, Coumarins, quinolone
Ruta graveolens antispasmodic alkaloids
Rhamnaceae Meliles-sfera Diuretic Anthocyanins, flavonoids
Rhamnus alaternus
Herbal Medicines for Animal Health in the Middle East 311
Table 13.4
Recorded Veterinary Uses of Mediterranean Plants in North Africa
Plant Name Country Part Used Administration Medical Use
Acacia nilotica Egypt Fruits and leaves Decoction Digestive
Acacia tortilis Egypt Leaves, fruits and Decoction Digestive
gums
Achillea Egypt Whole plant Decoction, topic Digestive, skin
fragantissima application disease
Allium cepa Morocco Bulb Fodder Placenta retention
Allium sativum Algeria, Morocco Bulb Fodder Digestive, vermifuge
Althaea officinalis Morocco Whole plant Wrapped in linen Oral inflammation
and placed in the
mouth of the horse
Anabasis articulate Egypt Aerial parts Topic Skin diseases
Angelica Morocco Macerate in vinegar Digestive
archangelica
Artemisia Algeria, Morocco Aerial parts Fodder, decoction Nervous disease,
absinthium digestive
Artemisia Algeria Aerial parts Fodder, decoction, Vermifuge, diarrhea,
herba-alba smoke acaricide
Artemisia judaica Egypt Aerial parts Decoction Urinary disorders
Source: From Pieroni et al. (2006). Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2: 16. With permission.
13.4.3 Thymus capitatus
Thyme (Thymus capitatus) is a well-known plant used in folk medicine. Its leaves
are rich in essential oils largely used in phytotherapy (e.g., thymol, carvacrol, and
312 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
13.4.4 Juniperus phoenicea
Decoction of leaves of Juniperus phoenicea is used to treat diabetes, diarrhea, and loco-
motive problems. Dried fruits are used as powder for ulcer and abscess healing (Le Floc’h,
1983). It is also known for its use as an antiseptic, analeptic, and antiparasitic.
13.5.3 Respiratory Disorders
Many plants are used for respiratory disorders, such as Juniperus phoenicia (contains
essential oils, pectin, camphen, resin, organic acid) and Laurus nobilis (lauric acid,
phellandren, tannin, resin) with antiseptic and balsamic properties and Marrubium
vulgare (marrubin, cholin, tannin, essential oils, glucosids, vitamin C) and Marrubium
deserti (Hammiche, 2006). Rosmarinus officinalis (oleanolic acid, ursolic acid) has
antiseptic and antimicrobial activity. The mechanisms of anti-inflammatory effects
have been attributed to the inhibition of histamine release from mast cells and inhi-
bition of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase activity. Thymus vulgaris, Origanum
floribundum, and Foeniculum vulgare all have antiseptic, expectorant, and anti-
inflammatory properties in cattle (Afifi and Abu-Irmaileh, 2000; Yesilada, 1995).
13.5.4 Urinary Disorders
Decoctions of Urtica dioica and Laurus nobilis are used as diuretics and depura-
tives in animals and humans (Vàzquez, 1997). Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)
is widely used as a folk medicine remedy in different countries for several diseases,
including urinary ailments. Furthermore, several compounds isolated from R. offici-
nalis L. have been characterized and shown to possess potent antioxidative activity
(Liu, 1995). Marrubium vulgare, Origanum floribundum, and Ruta graveolens were
also used in urinary disorders.
13.6 Conclusion
Herbal medicine is probably the oldest medicine for humans and, by extension, for
animals. Unfortunately, the written tradition detailing historical uses of herbs in
domestic animals is scant at best. Veterinary herbalists study the human literature
for clues while using their knowledge of unique animal physiology and biochemistry
to develop treatment recommendations. Herbal medicine can provide benefits that
conventional medicine may not be able to offer. EVMs are often not as fast acting
and potent as allopathic medicines. They may therefore be less suitable to control
and treat epidemic and endemic infectious diseases (e.g., foot-and-mouth disease,
rinderpest, hemorrhagic septicemia, anthrax, blackquarter, rabies) and acute life-
threatening bacterial infections (e.g., generalized cases of coli- or pyogenes masti-
tis). For these problems, modern drugs might be the best choice. But, for common
self-limiting diseases and conditions such as colds, skin diseases, worm infestation,
wounds, reproductive disorders, nutritional deficiencies, and mild diarrhea, EVM
has much to offer and can be a cheap and readily available alternative to costly
imported drugs. For some diseases, a combination of modern and local remedies and
management practices might be preferable.
314 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Acknowledgments
We are very thankful to all the contributors who have made this study possible:
veterinarians, breeders, and Department of Veterinary Sciences staff.
Artemisia absinthium
Herbal Medicines for Animal Health in the Middle East 315
Ruta graveolens
Thymus vulgaris
316 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Urtica dioica
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14 Ethnoveterinary
and Sustainable
Medicine
Livestock Management
in West Africa
Ifeanyi Charles Okoli, Hamidou
Hamadou Tamboura, and
Mawena Sylvie Hounzangbe-Adote
Contents
14.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 321
14.2 Livestock Production in West Africa............................................................. 323
14.3 Importance of Livestock................................................................................ 324
14.4 Constraints to Livestock Production.............................................................. 325
14.5 Animal Health Management Strategies......................................................... 326
14.5.1 Ethnoveterinary Concepts in Livestock Management....................... 327
14.5.2 Characteristics of Ethnoveterinary Practices in West Africa............ 328
14.5.2.1 Clinical and Epizootiologic Knowledge............................. 328
14.5.2.2 Practices.............................................................................. 328
14.5.2.3 Tools and Technologies....................................................... 329
14.5.2.4 Beliefs................................................................................. 330
14.5.2.5 Breeds................................................................................. 330
14.5.2.6 Human Resources............................................................... 330
14.5.2.7 Herbal Plants Used.............................................................. 330
14.6 Inventory of Plants and Remedies Used in Ethnoveterinary Practices......... 332
14.7 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 341
References...............................................................................................................344
14.1 Introduction
In-depth research into different indigenous animal production paradigms of nutri-
tion, disease causes and treatment, and socioeconomic aspects of animal husbandry
geared toward proper understanding of animal production systems of an area and
formulation of appropriate interventions not only promotes the development of useful
concepts in veterinary medicine but also encourages the maintenance of biological
321
322 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
and cultural diversity (De Haans and Bekure, 1991). In West Africa, the highest
proportion of livestock remains in the care of traditional herdsmen, among whom
ethnoveterinary health care forms a major component of disease management (Lobi,
1984; Agbédé, Téguia, and Manyeli, 1995; Guèye, 1999; Okoli, Okoli, and Ebere,
2002; Okeudo, 2004; Fajimi and Taiwo, 2005; Hounzangbe-Adote, 2001, 2005a;
Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998).
Traditional animal health care practice has remained popular because it is a read-
ily available, low-cost alternative to the relatively costly inputs driven by modern
veterinary services (McCorkle, 1995, 1996; Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1991) in
many rural communities of West African countries. In fact, animals such as the West
African dwarf ruminants, local chickens, and ducks kept in the humid and subhumid
parts of the region hardly receive any form of modern veterinary attention to face the
wide range of diseases (Sonaiya, 1990).
Diseases of high incidence encountered in the area stretching from Senegal to
Cameroon include helminthoses, trypanosomosis, babesiosis, ectoparasitoses, der-
matophilosis, orf, brucellosis, tuberculosis, and heartwater. Major outbreaks of con-
tagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), peste des
petits ruminants (PPR), and black quarter are also recorded.
Considering the popularity of ethnoveterinary practice among stock raisers, it
would seem that the amount of published information available on its diversity and
efficacy in the region is limited. It is, however, established that many of the traditional
medications used in humans are also applied in ethnoveterinary practice (Wahua and
Oji, 1987; Guissou, 1997; Adjanohoun, 1989; Houinato, 1999, 2002). Furthermore,
a number of browse plants utilized in animal feeding are also used to treat the self-
same animals when they fall ill (Wahua and Oji, 1987; Okoli, Okoli, and Ebere,
2002; Adewumi, 2004; Hounzangbe-Adote, 2004). Since plant substances continue
to serve as important sources of drugs for the majority of the world’s human and
animal population and several plant-based drugs are in extensive clinical use, there
is a need for the development of sustainable strategies to exploit Africa’s rich biodi-
versity (Toyang and Wirmum, 1994; Bognounou, 1993). There is an urgent need to
characterize the ethnoveterinary properties of increasingly endangered plant species
to improve animal production on the continent (Ngeh et al., 1995).
According to Leeflang (1993), one of the most positive ways to help planners and
development organizations to find workable solutions to problems of tropical animal
health and production is to conduct research on indigenous veterinary medicine and
to disseminate the findings. Better appreciation of indigenous veterinary skills and
practices and greater sensitivity toward local knowledge systems will enable plan-
ners and development workers to view animal health and production through the
eyes of the people whom their programs are supposed to benefit. Similarly, develop-
ment programs could be better adapted to local problems and therefore become more
likely to yield sustainable results. Insights into local knowledge systems would also
improve communication with livestock owners and facilitate their participation in
decision making about the health care of their animals (Padmakumar, 1998).
Etuk, Okoli, and Udedibie (2005) noted that before any of these animal health
development strategies can be successfully employed in the tropics, issues of pro-
duction systems need to be clearly outlined and integrated to the strategy to ensure
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management 323
power and as a source of manure for cropping (Landais and Lhoste, 1993; Adekunle,
Oladele, and Olukaiyeja, 2002).
In the subhumid savannah and humid south, small ruminant and poultry produc-
tion predominates, with 85% of rural families keeping goats, sheep, chicken, and
local guinea fowl primarily as an investment, a source of income and manure, or
for meat at home or during festivals (Molokwu, 1982; Pagot, 1992; Okoli, 1993).
These indigenous animals, although hardy and well adapted to the environment,
grow slowly and are low in productivity. Most modern farms are commercial poul-
try and pig farms. They are growing in number, especially around major cities. In
Nigeria specifically, cultural and religious prohibitions have restricted pig farming to
the southern parts of the country, while small-scale producers dominate commercial
poultry production (Okeudo, 2884; Etuk et al., 2005; Okoli et al., 2004). The greater
proportion of poultry population in the West African region is thus made up of indig-
enous breeds kept under extensive scavenging and a free-range system (Guèye, 1999;
Sonaiya, 2000; Okeudo, 2004; Ibrahim and Abdu, 1996).
Currently, livestock production in West Africa lends itself to small, medium,
and large (industrial) production (Ikpi, 1992). According to Sonaiya (2000), fami-
lies employ various but largely extensive management systems to take advantage of
common village resources to produce milk, meat, and guinea fowl eggs. Industrial
livestock production is also proving to be a veritable economic recovery tool in most
West African countries (Okeudo, 2004; Etuk et al., 2005; Okoli et al., 2004; Okoli,
Anyaegbunam, et al., 2005).
The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO, 1998), Afolabi (2007) and
Abowei and Hart (2008) estimated the animal protein intake of Nigeria at about
5 g per person per day, 7 g for the Côte d’Ivoire, Mali, and Burkina Faso zone
and 8 g for Senegal, as against 60 g per person per day for North America. The
need for increased animal food products in the daily food intake of West Africans
can therefore not be overemphasized. Demand for animal products in the region,
however, continues to rise, as shown by Delgado et al. (1998), and is driven by
improvements in personal income, population growth, and increasing urbaniza-
tion. Animal food product supply, especially production efficiency, however,
remains low in West Africa despite the increasing number of yearly veterinary
science graduates from various institutions of higher learning (Okoli, 2006). One
way to improve livestock production systems in the region is through harnessing
of ethnoveterinary practices.
14.3 Importance of Livestock
The potential of livestock in sustaining local economies ranging from the village
family to national corporate entities has been acknowledged worldwide (Intermediate
Technologies Development Group and International Institute of Rural Reconstruction
[ITDG and IIRR], 1996; LEISA Editorial, 2002; Renard et al., 2004). In most sub-
Saharan African countries where resource-poor farmers live, livestock production is
almost always the first step in the difficult climb out of poverty. For many, animals
are the prime or only source of livelihood. For many more, they provide additional
sources of income, food, clothing, and labour or traction. Livestock act as a store of
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management 325
wealth and medium of exchange. They are also a vital part of culture and offer the
only way to survive in many difficult environments (Pagot, 1992; Etuk, Okoli, and
Udedibie, 2005). According to Oyesola and Olujide (2000), the livestock sector con-
tributed on average 5.2% to the gross domestic product (GDP) of Nigeria between
1993 and 1997, while figures among the sahelian countries varied from 10% to 12%
(Renard et al., 2004). In view of this acknowledged importance of the livestock pro-
duction sector, factors that tend to impede its continued development and expansion
should not only be identified but also adequate strategy should be developed and
applied to ensure a sustainable growth.
ethnoveterinary interventions are often the first line of defense against potentially
crippling health problems (Agaie et al., 2004). Thus, as stated, a strategic marriage
of the two on a case-by-case basis could be a potentially successful tool in improving
livestock productivity in the tropics (Etuk, Okoli, and Udedibie, 2005).
Furthermore, ethnoveterinary medicine lends itself easily to local adaptation and
application. However, while efficacy of some traditional medicines has been vali-
dated (Bayala, 2005; Tamboura et al., 2004, 2005), standardization of extracts and
dosage regimes needs to be done.
Based on this, health management needs to take cognizance not only of the pro-
duction system and objectives but also of the prevalent IK when prescribing strate-
gies in each locality. This is in agreement with the work of van’t Hooft (2002), who
stated that measures taken to reduce the mortality rate in diversified livestock keeping
should be based on the strategies, the practices, and the knowledge of rural families,
and that such measures should combine traditional and modern veterinary medicine.
the various materials available in their environment and skillfully take advantage
of them.
14.5.2.4 Beliefs
Beliefs are commonly thought of as superstitious, something negative that has to be
suppressed. Still, some beliefs can be useful because they improve the condition of
the animals or prevent them from getting sick. Examples are the feeding of salt that
has been blessed, protecting animals against evil winds, and not letting animals on
pastures where other animals have died from diseases such as anthrax. Therefore,
it is advisable to have a close look at beliefs and encourage these if they promote
animal health.
14.5.2.5 Breeds
Local breeds, such as dairy buffalo, are the outcome of centuries of selection. At
first sight, they may produce less than introduced breeds, but they may not score
as poorly if both input costs and outputs are considered instead of only the outputs.
Local breeds are presently receiving increased attention in connection with attempts
to conserve their dwindling genetic diversity.
14.5.2.6 Human Resources
Knowledgeable farmers, herders, and local healers are repositories of knowledge and
can be valuable partners in development projects.
concoctions (35%). They found significant relationships between the use of IK and
age, marital status, and years of experience of the herdsmen.
Fieldwork at Tahara in northeastern Nigeria reported by Akingboye (1995)
revealed that the majority of the Fulani herdsmen (Bororo) have knowledge of tra-
ditional plant preparations through which common herd diseases are cured. Seeds,
roots, leaves, barks, tubers, and fruits are gathered for processing by grinding, boil-
ing, or soaking in water and are used to tackle skin diseases, wounds, cold, and
reduced appetite. The Fulani rely on the knowledge passed on by their forefathers
to observe signs and symptoms of sickness in animals and to decide on the type
of treatment. Commonly used species include baobab (Adansonia digitata) against
diarrhea and skin disorders; ginger (Zingiber officinale) as a laxative, appetizer, and
antibloat agent; garlic (Allium sativum) as an antidote; African locust beans (Parkia
filicoides) for skin infections, wounds, and worms; tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)
against myiasis, hoof infections, and ectoparasites; and neem (Azadirachta indica)
as an insect repellent (Hounzangbe et al., 2002, 2004; Ibrahim, 1996).
Similarly, Okoli et al. (2002a) surveyed the diversity of plants of ethnoveterinary
importance in southeastern Nigeria. They found that indigenous farmers and heal-
ers utilized 24 plant species in the treatment of common livestock ailments, such
as diarrhea, ecto- and endoparasitic infections, retained placenta, and dehydration,
among others. Methods of preparation and administration were found to include
direct feeding of the plant parts, drenching with aqueous decoction, or direct exter-
nal application of plant juice on affected parts.
Adewumi (2004) reviewed the potential role of herbal plants in livestock pro-
duction in Nigeria and highlighted the results of surveys carried out by different
scientists in Nigeria that showed that herdsmen and indigenous livestock keepers
were competent in the diagnosis of animal diseases and have various methods of
preparation of medicinal plants for the treatment of their animals. These reports
showed that herbs and plant extracts, seeds, leaves, and barks of certain trees,
tubers, and roots were the most commonly used sources of drugs. The review,
however, concluded that the toxicity of plants containing toxic components such
as aristolochic acid and pyrrolizidine alkaloids should be made known to livestock
keepers.
Ethnoveterinary medical practice is also widespread among herdsmen and village
livestock producers in northern Nigeria, which harbors most of the livestock in the
country (Gefu, Abdu, and Alawa, 2000). Modern veterinary inputs and services are
usually not readily available to most of the villagers in the region. Therefore, they
rely on local plants for livestock health management (Adewumi, 2004).
According to Alawa, Jokthan, and Atuk (2002), herdsmen and livestock owners
readily identify signs of disease. They also reported various traditional drugs and
methods of treating some common animal health and production problems among
Fulani herdsmen and village producers. They also noted the use of less-conventional
treatments such as kerosene and spent engine oil. The authors concluded that consid-
ering the combination of ingredients used by the traditional animal health practitio-
ners, it is likely that additive, synergistic, and nutritional effects might be involved in
alleviating the problem of ill health in animals. The descriptive signs for a specific
332 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
disease were fairly common from one producer to another. The diseases and prob-
lems identified included ticks and flea infestations, swollen joints or feet, sprain,
ringworm, retained placenta, pneumonia and other respiratory diseases, poisoning,
and mineral deficiencies and how to improve milk yield. Other diseases and prob-
lems included mastitis, kid navel disease or protection, infertility, helminth infec-
tions, gastric or emetic problems, foot rot, diarrhea and dysentery, bloat, appetite
promotion, anthrax, and acetonemia.
According to Kaikabo, Mustapha, and Dagona (2004), the ancient Bade pastoral-
ists of Nigeria possessed a sophisticated body of ethnoveterinary knowledge about
animal diseases, treatments, and management practices that spaned from generation
to generation to date. Ethnoveterinary practices were adopted by 85.7% of the pasto-
ralists. The major reasons for their adoption were low cost, effectiveness, accessibil-
ity, and practicability.
Sonaiya (2000) reported that the use of natural products in various aspects of fam-
ily poultry is widespread in Nigeria. Owners of family poultry everywhere reported
that they have preparations for treating Newcastle disease (NCD), a viral disease
(Chavunduka, 1976; Nwude and Ibrahim, 1980). Also, the efficacy of natural prod-
ucts in fighting parasites has been established. The use of Ficus exasperata leaves
to remove ectoparasites, especially mites and lice from the body of birds in coops
or overnight housing, is widely reported (Sonaiya, 2000; Okoli et al., 2002b). Most
poultry producers feed hot peppers (Capsicum spp.) to their birds as a prophylaxis or
treatment for common colds (Guèye, 1999; Sonaiya, 2000). Other reports indicated
that feeding peppers to laying hens, apart from enhancing yolk color, also increases
egg size (Brown, 1996).
333
(continued)
334
Table 14.1 (continued)
Plants and Remedies Used by Indigenous Veterinary Healers in West Africa
Mucuna sp. Cesalpiniaceae Leaves, fruits, seeds Applied on teats Mother refusing to Gbego and Hounzangbe-Adote, 2002
suckle kids
Spondia mombin Cesalpiniaceae Leaves Grilled and eaten at the Galactogogue Gbego and Hounzangbe-Adote, 2002
moment of lambing
Tamarindus indica Cesalpiniaceae Fruit Maceration Bloat Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Vigna unguilata Cesalpiniaceae Seeds ground + salt Maceration Brucellosis Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Anogeissus leiocarpus Combretaceae Bark Decoction Abdominal pain Fagnissè, 2006
Fruits Decoction Vermifuge Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Roots + seeds — Bovine pestis Aké-Assi, 1992
Guiera senegalensis Combretaceae Whole plant — Heals, enhance physical Aké-Assi, 1992
Nodes on tillage Maceration performance Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Roots Maceration (per os) + Brucellosis
some drops in nose Anthrax
Combretum glutinosum Combretaceae Bark of tillage and roots — Cicatrisant, poison Aké-Assi, 1992
antidote, anticough
Combretum nigricans Combretaceae Leaves — Youngster tonic Aké-Assi, 1992
Combretum micranthum Combretaceae Roots, seeds Cataplasm of powdered Eyes diseases, cough Fagnissè, 2006
Leaves Decoction Vermifuge Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
335
(continued)
336
Table 14.1 (continued)
Plants and Remedies Used by Indigenous Veterinary Healers in West Africa
Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae Whole plant Water and ethanolic Dermatophilosis, plague Emmanuel-Ali, 2002
extract
Euphorbia balsamifera Euphorbiaceae Latex and young leaves — Galactogogue, epizootic Aké-Assi, 1992
lymphangite
Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae Young leaves — Galactogogue Aké-Assi, 1992
Alysicarpus ovalifolius Fabaceae — — Antiallergy Nacoulma-Ouédraogo, 1996
Lonchocarpus laxiflorus Fabaceae Bark Decoction Diarrhea Fagnissè, 2006
Pterocarpus erinaceus Fabaceae Leaves, roots, bark Decoction Diarrhea, bloat, lack of Fagnissè, 2006
Bark Maceration appetite, anemia, Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
bovine pasteurellosis,
tick-borne disease
Avian typhosis
Xeroderris stulhmaii Fabaceae Bark Decoction Abdominal pain Fagnissè, 2006
Hyptis suaveolens Labiaceae Whole plant Water extract Small ruminants Wabi, 2000
dermatophylosis
Tapinanthus bangwensis Loranthaceae Leaves, seeds, fruits — Sterility Aké-Assi, 1992
Gossypium arboreum Malvaceae Seeds Powdered Eye diseases Fagnissè, 2006
Hibicus sabdariffa Malvaceae Seeds Maceration Placental retention; Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
antiallergy Nacoulma-Ouédraogo, 1996
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management
Daniellia oliveri Meliaceae Bark Decoction Bloat Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Khaya senegalensis Meliaceae Bark Maceration, decoction Abdominal pain, Maas, 1991; Fagnissè, 2006.
diarrhea, bloat,
helminthosis, lack of
appetite, anemia,
wounds, bovine
tuberculosis
Acacia ataxacantha Mimosaceae Bark Decoction Diarrhea, fasciolosis, Fagnissè, 2006
snakebites, bovine
tuberculosis
Acacia albida Mimosaceae Bark Maceration Avian typhosis Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Acacia hockii Mimosaceae Rubber — Bovine tuberculosis Fagnissè, 2006
Acacia macrostachya Mimosaceae Leaves Macerated leaves to be Snake bites Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
poured on
Acacia nilotica Mimosaceae Fruit, seeds Powdered Wounds, galactogogue Fagnissè, 2006
Leaves Aké-Assi, 1992
Acacia pennata Mimosaceae Bark Maceration Snakebites, genital Fagnissè, 2006
inflammation
Acacia raddiana Mimosaceae Leaves — Youngster tonic Aké-Assi, 1992
Acacia senegal Mimosaceae Rubber, latex — Intestinal pain Aké-Assi, 1992
Acacia seyal Mimosaceae Bark of tillage — Keratite Aké-Assi, 1992
Dichrostachys cinerea Mimosaceae Bark Decoction in milk Brucellosis Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Parkia biglobosa Mimosaceae Seeds, fruits — Anorexy, abdominal Aké-Assi, 1992
Bark, fruit Decoction pain, diarrhea, bloat, Fagnissè, 2006
Roots laxative Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Black leg disease
Prosopis africana Mimosaceae Young leaves — Hemorroids Aké-Assi, 1992
Roots, fruits Decoction Snakebites, wounds, Fagnissè, 2006
bovine pasteurellosis
337
(continued)
338
Table 14.1 (continued)
Plants and Remedies Used by Indigenous Veterinary Healers in West Africa
Tapinantus sur Balanites Loranthaceae Leaves Powdered Pasteurellosis Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
aegyptiaca Balanitaceae
Piliostigma reticulatum Caesalpiniaceae + Leaves + bark + roots Decoction FMD Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
+ Khaya senegalensis Meliaceae +
+ Lonchocarpus Fabaceae
cyanescens
Butyrospermum parkii + Sapotaceae + Bark + fruits + roots Maceration Avian typhosis Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Diospyros Ebenaceae
mespiliformis
“K” solution from — — Aqueous solution given Bloat Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
sorghum or millet per os
tillage
339
340 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Yohimbine, widely used for sexual virility in men, is also employed for use in
veterinary medicine as an aphrodisiac (Nwude and Ibrahim, 1980). The anti-inflam-
matory as well as the antipyretic activities of Azadirachta indica (neem) have been
evaluated and documented (Okpanyi and Ezeukwu, 1981). Neem is universally rec-
ognized as an effective insecticidal repellant (Birmah, 2000). The anti-inflammatory
and analgesic properties of the methanolic extract of Ramalina farinacea at a dose
of 1,600 mg/kg have been shown to suppress signs associated with inflammation
and gave results comparable to those of indomethacin (Udem et al., 2001). The hot
water leaf extract of Ocimum grattisimum, when given to dogs, produced significant
reduction in the duration of emesis comparable to that of metaclopamide, a standard
antiemetic drug (Udem and Opara, 2001).
Leaves of Cassia occidentalis are used as an anticonvulsant and as a purgative,
Adansonia digitala (baobab) is used as an antidiarrheic in cattle, while Erythrina
senegalensis has a potent diuretic property (Gefu, Abdu, and Alawa, 2000). Guiera
senegalensis, Anogeissus leocarpus, and Sclerocarya birrea have been found use-
ful in overcoming dystocia in domestic animals (Hassan and Zalla, 2005). The root
extract of Nauclea latifolia was observed by Madubuinyi (1995) to possess an anti-
hepatotoxic effect and inhibited the multiplication of Trypanosoma brucei. Alcoholic
extract of a combination of Sorghum bicolor and Telfaria occidentalis reconstituted
at a concentration of 4 mg/100 mL of distilled water proved a potent hematinic in
the treatment of anemic rabbits and was better compared to commercial hematinic
(Adedapo et al., 2002). The activities of Carica papaya extracts against Salmonella
typhi, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli have been documented (Osato
et al., 1993). Similar reports on the antimicrobial activities of certain Nigerian plants
have been reported (Olukoya et al., 1993; Sofowora, 1982; Irobi, 1992; Iwu, 1994;
Etkin, Ross, and Muazzami, 1990).
The antimicrobial properties of the crude extract of Ageratum conyzoides have been
validated (Durodola, 1977). The aqueous extract of Combretum padiculatum was found
to be bacteriocidal at a concentration of 10% and bacteriostatic at 5% against Salmonella
pullorum (Atawodi, 2000). Extracts of A. egypti showed activity against Staphylococcus
aureus, and methanol leaves extract of Balanites aegyptiaca inhibited Staphylococcus
albus and Shigella using the zone inhibition method (Agaie and Usman, 2001).
The anti-infective activities of Vernonia amygdalina and Anona senegalensis
leaves were effective in the treatment of helminthes in cattle (Alawa et al., 2000;
Chiezey et al., 2000) and in chicken (Jisaka et al., 1992; Igile et al., 1994; Abdu and
Faya, 2000). Abdu and Faya (2000) also reported the use of Solanum incanum fruit
to treat coccidiosis in poultry, M. balsamia to treat fowl pox, and Capsicum frute-
scens for the treatment of NCD.
The kern oil of B. aegyptica proved highly efficacious against ectoparasite infes-
tation of camels in northern Nigeria (Oliver, 1960). Skin parasite infections of goats
in southern Nigeria have been successfully treated with leaves of Sida carpinifolia
squeezed and rubbed on lesions (Dalziel, 1937). Burned leaves and twigs of Guiera
senegalensis as well as burned whole plants of Hyptis spicifigera are used individu-
ally as insecticides in Nigeria (Nwude, 1997).
Shea butter (Vitellaria paradoxa) plus salt at a ratio of 100:1 has been efficacious
in the treatment of localized psoroptic mange infection in rabbits, with about 90%
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management 341
efficacy by the 14th day (Fajimi, Taiwo, et al., 2002). Aloe variegata, a green dagger-
shaped plant with a clear viscous gel applied as a gel and spread over mange lesions,
produced an efficacy of over 50% (Fajimi, Ayodeji, et al., 2002). Okolo and Unaigwe
(1984) reported that mange is treated by scrubbing the skin lesions with the fibrous
palm kernel fruit waste with the addition of the mineral lime, kitchen salt, lime juice
(Citrus aurantium), and palm oil for a couple of weeks. Shittu and Bwala (1988)
reported satisfactory results of the seed oil of mahogany (Khaya ivoriensis) against
dermatitis associated with mange and dermatophilosis. Leaf and stem extracts of
tobacco showed 100% efficacy against lice by the second day of application and
maintained this efficacy for about 56 days postchallenge in West African dwarf goats
(Okoli et al., 2002b; Fajimi et al., 2003). Annona squamosa and Tephrosia vogelli,
through their powdered seeds, effectively controlled lice in ruminants.
14.7 Conclusion
The literature so far reviewed reveals the wealth of traditional knowledge embodied
in ethnoveterinary medical practices of the peoples of West Africa. These clearly
constitute untapped resources for possible deployment in sustainable animal health
management systems in the region. Even though a sizable body of published literature
now exists on the subject in the region, it deals mostly with pharmacological screen-
ing of common plants. Useful information on traditional animal health care practices,
however, remains uninvestigated in a sizable proportion of livestock-raising com-
munities in the region. There is therefore the need to investigate and integrate these
results into primary animal health care delivery systems of the subcontinent.
Animal production curricula in the educational institutions in the region still
reflect the ignorance of the special needs of traditional production systems in most
countries, which still constitute the major segment of the industry (Sonaiya, 1990;
Ikeme, 1990; Okeudo, 2004). It is therefore necessary to consider the development of
other alternative pathways for harnessing livestock resources by developing appropri-
ate curricula that will empower a new generation of properly equipped animal health
practitioners. Etuk, Okoli, and Udedibie (2005) reiterated the need to predicate ani-
mal health development strategies in the tropics on issues of production objectives.
There is also the need to clearly outline and integrate these strategies to ensure that
local problems and circumstances are properly accommodated.
This review has also highlighted the fact that traditional animal health caregivers
remain important components of livestock health care systems in West Africa. However,
as observed by Mathias (2004) and Wanzala et al. (2005), traditional healers and their
role in animal health care have been largely ignored by the modern veterinary com-
munity. Veterinary colleges and public veterinary services pay little or no attention
to these local-level experts except perhaps to label them as quacks or witch doctors,
whose practice should even be criminalized. Very little is currently known about eth-
noveterinarians, especially their sociocultural practices and pharmacopoiea (McCorkle
and Mathias-Mundy, 1992). There is an urgent need to study this important group and
design steps for integrating them into the conventional animal health care systems.
Ethnoveterinary practices need to be validated before they can be widely promoted.
This, according to Mathias (2001), constitutes an important component of research
342 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
and could be pursued across several levels, which may include tapping the experience
of local people, searching the literature for available information on the botany, phy-
tochemistry, and in vitro, in silico, and in vivo tests, and other relevant aspects; con-
ducting laboratory and clinical tests on station or in experimental herds; monitoring
the use of remedies in the field; and studying a remedy’s influence on production and
agronomic parameters. The exact method or combination of methods will depend on
the intended use of the practice to be tested and the purpose of the validation.
The impact of ethnoveterinary promotion on the environment has been shown
by McCorkle (1986, 1998) to vary between positive and negative effects. According
to these authors, local practices could be environmentally friendlier than imported
ones. Local tick control methods, for example, are commonly less harmful to the
environment than dipping with commercial chemicals, while projects that stimulate
conservation measures and the establishment of herb gardens help maintain bio-
diversity. On the negative side, large-scale promotion and commercial production
bring with them the danger that heavily used plant species may become scarce or
even extinct. Therefore, projects promoting plant medicines on a large scale should
be required to monitor their environmental impact and explore how far endangered
species can be cultivated. There is the need to continuously monitor the impact of
ethnoveterinary policies and programs in the region.
According to Mathias (2001), understanding local approaches to animal health
care and production and being familiar with the information people have can facilitate
the planning and implementation of appropriate development projects and training
efforts. There are currently limited data on the impact of appropriate ethnoveterinary
projects and trainings executed in the region. Similarly, literature offers little data
on the economic impact of promoting ethnoveterinary projects in the region, while
other issues like intellectual property rights (IPRs) have hardly received any serious
regional attention. These issues will require future research attention by workers in
the region (Wanzala et al., 2005).
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350 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Contents
15.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 353
15.2 History and Development of TCVM............................................................. 353
15.3 Basic Theory of TCVM................................................................................. 354
15.4 Diagnosis and Therapeutics........................................................................... 356
15.5 Herbal Veterinary Medicines........................................................................ 356
15.6 Scientific Evidence and Modern Veterinary Uses of TCVM........................ 358
15.7 Current Status of TCVM in China................................................................ 369
15.8 Veterinary Folk Medicines in China............................................................. 369
15.9 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 370
References............................................................................................................... 370
15.1 Introduction
Traditional Chinese veterinary medicine (TCVM) is the application of traditional
Chinese medical theory to treating disease in animals and maintaining animal
health, including for domestic animals, poultry, pets, marine life, and other wildlife.
TCVM consists of traditional Chinese herbal veterinary medicine and physiothera-
pies such as acupuncture and cupping; it is based on the same traditional Chinese
medical theory but clearly varies in therapeutic forms.
353
354 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Liaoma Collections (published in the 1600s) were considered the most comprehen-
sive ancient theoretical books for TCVM practice in China (Niu, 1991). The modern
corrected edition of the Yuanheng Liaoma Collections includes about 175 herbal
formulas and covers animal disease caused by internal and external factors as well as
some miscellaneous conditions (Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1963).
Compared with some other forms of indigenous ethnoveterinary medicine, the
properties and traditional therapeutic effects of Chinese materia medica for veteri-
nary use are well established in China. The earliest pharmacognosy monographs,
Shen Nong Ben Cao (also known as The Divine Farmer’s Herb-Root Classic;
206 BC to 8 AD), recorded more than 300 herbs for human and animal use. The
first comprehensive herbal pharmacopoeia, Ben Cao Gang Mu (also known as
the Compendium of Materia Medica), was completed in the late 16th century and
included 1,892 herbs and over 11,000 formulas for medicinal uses. Excluding herbs
for both human and animal use, Ben Cao Gang Mu recorded 219 herbal materi-
als specifically for veterinary medicine, animal feeds, and animal growth (Feng,
2000). For example, Fu Zi (Radix Aconiti Lateralis Preparata; the processed root
of Aconitum carmichaeli) was recorded as being used for treating coma and anal
incontinence caused by physical overexertion in apes or monkeys. The herbal mate-
ria medica has continued to evolve and is now a key component of the veterinary
pharmacopoeia. The most recent Chinese Veterinary Pharmacopoeia written in
Chinese (CVP; Commission of Chinese Veterinary Pharmacopeia, 2005) recorded
685 different TCVM, 491 of which are single crude herbal materials. Each mono-
graph in the CVP generally includes the Chinese name, scientific name, herbal
species, microscopic and chemical identification, quantitative determination, pro-
cessing methods, properties in traditional description, indications, and dosages. In
addition, the dosages are documented for different animals. For example, the dos-
age of a common herb Dang Gui (Radix Angelicae Sinensis) is recorded as “Equus
and Bos 15–60 g; Camelus 35–75 g; Ovis and Suidae 5–15 g; Canis and Felis 2–5 g;
Leporidae and Aves 1–2 g.” At present, most Chinese veterinary reference books are
only available in the Chinese language. However, the first English version of CVP
has been published (Commission of Chinese Veterinary Pharmacopeia, 2008).
Table 15.1
Examples of Body Organs Classified by the Five Elements
Element Yang Organ Yin Organ Sense Organ Yin-Yang Properties
Wood Gall bladder Liver Eyes Less yang
Fire Small intestine Heart Tongue Utmost yang
Earth Stomach Spleen Mouth Neutral
Metal Large intestine Lung Nose Less yin
Water Bladder Kidney Ears Utmost yin
356 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
the body organs to each other is interpreted by the relationship of the five elements.
However, it is important to clarify here that the medical terms used in TCVM are
different from those of conventional or orthodox Western medicine, particularly in
describing the name of the organ and the organ function. In TCVM, each organ is
considered to be a holistic energy system rather than the actual anatomical organ as
identified by Western physiology.
The yin-yang concept and the five-element theory fundamentally support the
TCVM theory philosophically, and the basic treatment principle of TCVM con-
cerns maintaining the balance of yin and yang and the balance of the five elements.
However, these two theories are not sufficient to interpret more complicated cases in
actual practice. Other important principles of TCVM include the theory of viscera
(internal organs), the theory of meridian (the longitudinal pathways on the body
where acupuncture points are distributed), and the identification of patterns accord-
ing to states of vital substances such as Qi energy, blood, body fluids, and mind
(Wang, 2005).
crude materials are of plant origin, they are commonly referred to collectively as
“herbal” medicines in most ancient and modern textbooks.
In traditional Chinese medicine, each crude herbal material has to be processed
before clinical use. The simplest method of processing is to cut or slice and dry
the medicinal parts of the plants. Many herbs need more complicated processing
methods to reduce their toxicity or change their medicinal properties. For example,
the toxic herb Aconitum carmichaeli is processed by soaking in frequently changed
water for a prolonged period and then steaming or boiling. The aconitine alkaloids,
responsible for cardiac toxicity, are reduced by up to 90% in the resulting processed
herb, Fu Zi (Radix Aconiti Lateralis Preparata) (Chan et al., 1994).
TCVM herbs are mostly prescribed as compound formulas, and each formula
includes 1–15 or more herbal ingredients. After diagnosis, appropriate herbs or stan-
dard formulas defined for a specific therapeutic pattern are prescribed. The order
of the herbs in each formula reflects the functions of the herbs. The first herbs in a
formula are known as the principal herbs and target the main symptoms; these are
followed by associate herbs, which are thought to assist the function of the princi-
pal herbs and target other symptoms. The next part of the formula comprises the
adjuvant herbs for strengthening the function of the principal herbs and reducing
toxicity; finally the messenger herbs guide the function of all herbs into the right
pattern and harmonize the function of the formula.
In TCVM, a course of treatment is highly individualized depending on the par-
ticular animal’s characteristics (e.g., genera, age, gender) and the TCVM therapeutic
patterns after diagnosis. Herbs are rarely listed by medical condition according to
Western classification; rather, it is usual to describe which herbs could be considered
as priority herbs for a specific diagnosis or disease. In general, approximately 500
herbs have been documented as commonly used in veterinary practice. In practice,
the principal herbs in a customized remedy may be varied for the same condition,
and some principal herbs in a certain remedy are used as associate herbs or adjuvant
herbs in other customized remedies for similar conditions. For example, common
constipation occurring in swine can be divided into a few different patterns on diag-
nosis: constipation due to “excess heat syndrome”; constipation due to “deficiency
of yin and blood syndrome”; constipation due to “asthenia cold deficiency” (Wang,
2005). The common principal herb used for constipation of the excess heat syndrome
type is Da Huang (Radix et Rhizoma Rhei); however, in the remedy for deficiency of
yin and blood syndrome, Da Huang is only considered as an associate herb or is not
used at all due to its strong purgative effects, which can cause “overdeficiency” or
loss of the body’s vital substances. For constipation of the asthenia cold deficiency
type, different formulations, such as suppositories, are recommended since the oral
administration of herbal decoctions may cause strong bowel reactions in swine with
this type of constipation.
The latest CVP (Committee of China Veterinary Pharmacopeia, 2005) records
around 200 standard herbal formulas for various veterinary conditions based on
different TCVM therapeutic patterns. In most cases, the standard or documented
formula for a certain pattern or syndrome is modified by the addition or removal
of herbal ingredients depending on differences in the condition of the particular
animal.
358 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Methods for preparing herbal remedies include making a decoction of the mix-
ture of herbs, making porridges of herbs and grains, or grinding herbs into granules
(to be fed to the animal after mixing with water). Herbal decoctions are commonly
prepared with water, but in some cases, herbs are boiled in rice water or with liquor
to enhance their therapeutic functions. The time of administration (e.g., feeding with
warm or cold medicine, before or after foraging) varies depending on the disease
being treated. For example, animals suffering from spleen-stomach weakness, such
as diarrhea, or suffering from painful conditions (or inflammation) are normally
fed with decoctions before foraging; the associated herbs for this particular method
include Hou Pu (Cortex Magnoliae Officinalis) and Sha Ren (Frutus Amomi).
Decoctions are administered before foraging to improve absorption of the medicine
and reduce digestive burdens on the stomach (Wang, 1991).
(continued)
359
360
Table 15.2 (continued)
Traditional Descriptions, Chemical Constituents, and Pharmacological Data of TCVM Herbs Described in This Chapter
(continued)
361
362
Table 15.2 (continued)
Traditional Descriptions, Chemical Constituents, and Pharmacological Data of TCVM Herbs Described in This Chapter
363
(continued)
364
Table 15.2 (continued)
Traditional Descriptions, Chemical Constituents, and Pharmacological Data of TCVM Herbs Described in This Chapter
365
(continued)
366
Table 15.2 (continued)
Traditional Descriptions, Chemical Constituents, and Pharmacological Data of TCVM Herbs Described in This Chapter
literature. Most of the articles published in the English literature described studies
examining the immunomodulatory and antibacterial or antiviral effects of TCVM.
For example, a Chinese herb, Ma Bian Cao (Herba Verbenae), at a concentration of 1%
(vol/vol) increased bovine blood neutrophil activity by over 40% compared with con-
trol in an in vitro study (Hu et al., 1992). Herba verbenae was recorded in the ancient
Chinese book Ben Cao Gang Mu as a treatment for equine pharyngitis, and it is also
included in the CVP (Committee of China Veterinary Pharmacopeia, 2005). The
study also demonstrated that herbs traditionally believed to have antipyretic effects
(CVP, 2005), such as Chai Hu (Radix Bupleuri) and Jin Yin Hua (Flos Lonicerae),
could stimulate bovine milk neutrophil functions and increase phagocytosis.
Other in vivo and in vitro studies have examined the immunostimulatory effects
of active compounds extracted from Chinese herbs for use as adjuvants to animal
vaccines, such as Newcastle disease vaccine for chickens and rabbit hemorrhagic
disease vaccine (Kong et al., 2006; Sun et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2005). For example,
Kong et al. (2006) showed that Astragalus polysaccharide (constituent of Huang
Qi, Radix Astragali), Isatis root polysaccharide (constituent of Ban Lan Gen, Radix
Isatis), and Epimedium flavone (constituent of Yin Yang Huo, Herba Epimedii) could
optimally enhance the cell proliferation of chick embryo fibroblasts in response to the
Newcastle disease virus when applied at concentrations of 600, 150, and 20 µg/mL,
respectively, compared with the relative controls containing no active herbal constit-
uents (p < .05) (Kong et al., 2006). This study also indicated the importance of cor-
rect concentrations of active compounds used in developing immune stimulators or
adjuvants for the vaccine. In another study (Sun et al., 2006), carried out in zelanian
rabbits vaccinated against rabbit hemorrhagic disease, a rapid increase in serum anti-
body titer (determined by the hemagglutination inhibition test) was observed after
injections of a mixture of Chinese herbal compounds containing Astragalus polysac-
charide and ginsenoside when compared with the control group. Sun et al. suggested
that chemical constituents in Chinese herbs may play an important role in improving
immune response by enhancing peripheral T-lymphocyte proliferation and serum
hemagglutination inhibition antibody titer; therefore, they could be considered for
use as immunopotentiators.
Although isolated chemical constituents from some herbs have been shown to have
certain pharmacological effects, it is not clear whether the same therapeutic effects
will occur if several herbs are used in combination, as is more frequently the case
in TCVM. With combination herbal treatments, there is the potential for synergis-
tic or antagonistic interactions to occur during preparation or administration. Some
veterinary studies have investigated the effects of TCVM mixtures (Lin et al., 1988;
Lin et al., 2000). In a comparative study, a TCVM formula (0.5 g), Koken-Huanglien-
Huangchin-Tang, containing Ge Gen (Radix Puerariae Lobatae), Huang Qin (Radix
Scutellariae), Huang Lian (Rhizoma Coptidis), and Gan Cao (Radix Glycyrrhizae) was
administered orally twice a day to 1-day-old piglets with preweaning diarrhea. The
results showed that, compared with the control (0.5 g lactose), the formula reduced the
incidence of infection (p < .1) during the first 10 days of life and significantly reduced
the duration of preweaning diarrhea (p < .01) (Lin et al., 1988).
A recently developed TCVM formula, Yi-Kang-Kong, was claimed to have poten-
tial antiviral activity against transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) in swine
368 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Chinese literature may be necessary to assess scientific evidence for efficacy and
safety of TCVM for specific animal diseases. Such a review of the extensive existing
literature is needed to identify areas in which there is adequate evidence of safety or
efficacy and those for which more studies are required.
are based on the plant’s reputed therapeutic function, and that veterinary practice is
still influenced by local shamanism. However, the study did not collect specimens
of the plant resources used, so no botanical or scientific validation of the plant uses
was possible. Although this type of investigation is rarely published in the English
or Chinese literature, it still provides a good ethnomedical source for understanding
ethnoveterinary medicine in some remote areas in China.
Several other ethnobotanical studies have been carried out among ethnic minor-
ity groups in China, although most have explored medicines used for human health
(Chen, Chen, and Xiao, 2003; Pei et al., 2006). Information on the medicinal plants
identified in these studies is potentially valuable for development of ethnoveteri-
nary plant medicines. However, the current practices and features of ethnoveterinary
medicines within ethnic minority societies in China are rarely explored and docu-
mented. In addition, some veterinary medicines used in ethnic minority groups in
China might evolve under the influence of TCVM and modern (Western) veterinary
medicine. Therefore, it is suggested that more ethnoveterinary investigations are
needed to explore veterinary practice in remote areas of China and to record their
traditional knowledge.
15.9 Conclusion
TCVM has developed based on ancient Chinese philosophy. At present, it is an inte-
gral part of veterinary medicine in China. However, there have been limited system-
atic investigations of plants used specifically for TCVM treatments. Further studies
investigating efficacy and safety of TCVM and systematic reviews of the existing lit-
erature are needed to support traditional veterinary uses, as well as ethnoveterinary
studies to record traditional knowledge, particularly in remote areas. Collectively,
this approach may help identify safe and effective new veterinary medicines for
pharmaceutical development.
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372 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Contents
16.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 373
16.2 Dutch Ethnoveterinary Traditions................................................................. 374
16.3 Ethnoveterinary Traditions in Europe........................................................... 377
16.4 Emerging Markets for Herbal Pet Products................................................... 378
16.5 Herbal Food Additives for Farm Animals..................................................... 379
16.6 Testing of Products........................................................................................ 382
16.7 Prospects of Herbal Medicines at the EU Level............................................ 383
16.8 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 383
Acknowledgments................................................................................................... 384
References............................................................................................................... 384
16.1 Introduction
The Netherlands is a small country (41.526 km2) in the northwest of Europe, consist-
ing mainly of the fertile deltas of three rivers. Nearly half of the country is situated
below sea level. The climate is strongly influenced by the sea. There are moderate
yearly temperature fluctuations (January 2°C, July 17°C) and rain all year round
(50–80 mm each month). The original vegetation consists of the temperate decidu-
ous forest, partly kept open by big grazers. Of this original landscape, nearly nothing
is left. At present, the Netherlands has the highest population density in the Western
world (465 persons/km2, nearly twice as much as the United Kingdom, 17 times as
much as the United States). The majority of this population is concentrated in the
west part of the country (Holland) and nearest the sea (Anonymous, 2001). In spite
of this fact, the country is the world’s third largest agricultural export nation, both for
vegetable (flowers, vegetables) and for animal products. The agricultural activities use
55% of the land and have been modernized through many technological innovations,
373
374 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
leading to intensification. For example, pig farms have an average of 1,400 pigs on
13 hectares of land, with megafarms holding up to 16,000 pigs (Wisman, 2003). The
dairy producer has an average of 55 dairy cows on the farm, but the 100 largest farms
have 270 cows on 54 hectares of land on average (Pierik, 2001). Apart from the
millions of cattle and pigs, about 92 million chickens, 1.6 million small ruminants
(sheep/goats), and an increasing number of pets (about 135,000 horses and around
5 million cats and dogs) live in the Netherlands (CBS, 2008). The feed for these ani-
mals is mainly imported from other countries. The dense concentration of animals
makes contagious diseases a great risk for farmers. Not only innovative management
systems but also frequent use of antibiotics are used to control and ameliorate against
these risks.
Traditional use of herbs for both humans and animals can be found in hand-
books and textbooks from 1500 to 1900 (Wagenfeld, 1844; Numan, 1844; Ludwig,
1996); afterward, chemical synthetic medicine gained popularity.
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss present-day use of herbal medicines
for animals in the Netherlands, both the traditional use in folk medicine and the
use resulting from modern agricultural innovations and from international trends in
animal health care.
Table 16.1
Eight Plant Genera Most Involved in 168 Ethnoveterinary Recipes Reported
to IEZ 1998–2004
Genus/Species No. Plant Parts Animals Involved Health Problem Example
Allium sativum 11 Cloves Horse, dog, chicken Worms, cough, insect
repellant, general health
Calendula 6 Flower, Dog, cat, horse, sheep, External application on
officinalis Herb guinea pig wounds
Linum 20 Seed Horse, cow, sheep Improving molting; on
usitatissimum wounds; prevent colic
Matricaria 9 Flower Horse, dog, cat, ferret External for prevention of eye
chamomilla infection, cough
Mentha species 6 Leaves Horse, cow, goat, rabbit Colic, scour, hard udder
Taraxacum 8 Herb, root Rabbit, horse, dog, General health improvement
officinalis pigeon
Trigonella foenum 5 Seed Horse Cough
graecum
Urtica dioica/ 15 Herb Horse, chicken, turkey, Regaining strength and
urens pig, cow, goat stimulating milk after
delivery; roborans (tonic to
speed convalescence)
Apart from nettles, there was hardly any harvesting from the wild. The eight rem-
edies mentioned most often are listed in Table 16.1.
The most frequently reported plant (20 times) was Linum usitatissimum, com-
monly called flaxseed. It is used for a range of different health conditions but mainly
for skin and digestive problems in horses and cows. In two cases, it was used for
sheep. Many of the users are enthusiastic about the influence these seeds have on
molting, but they added a warning: The seeds should be boiled before use to neutral-
ize the prussic acid/hydrogen cyanide (HCN). Also, in some cases only the slimy
residue was used, and the seeds were left behind.
Several studies have been conducted in Canada on the feeding of flaxseed to dairy
cows. This was shown to have a positive influence on the milk quality (Gonthier
et al., 2005; Lessard et al., 2003; Petit, 2002; Petit, Germiquet, and Lebel, 2004;
Soita et al., 2003). The beneficial influence of flaxseed on the skin of atopic horses
also has been confirmed by a Canadian clinical study (O’Neill et al., 2002). Flaxseed
has considerable nutritional value due to the presence of α-linolenic acid and soluble
and insoluble fiber (Degenhardt et al., 2002). Lignans have been isolated and found
to be anticarcinogenic, estrogenic, and antiestrogenic. While the α-linolenic acid
may tend to improve milk quality (Dewhurst et al., 2003), the phytoestrogens may
have deleterious effects on fertility and milk production if flaxseed is used in excess
376 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
(Tou et al., 1998). In the Netherlands, flaxseed is part of calf and piglet feed and of
some types of horse feeds. It is not a part of the normal feed for cows or pigs.
The second most popular plant (mentioned in 15 reports) is the nettle. Two Urtica
species, U. dioica and U. urens, are available in the Netherlands, and they are both
being used. These are among the few plants that are collected from the wild. Their
use is very broad, covering all animal species. The use is mostly as a tonic (general
strength improvement) and to aid with recovery. One interesting practice was to rub
the leaf onto a sow’s nipples; the burning sting would make her allow the piglets to
suckle more easily. We also feel that the internal use of the nettle around the period
of delivery is an application that deserves more research. Urtica species contain
lignans, lectins, and steroids (Anonymous, 2007). Polysaccharides and caffeic malic
acid also isolated from Urtica species were found to have anti-inflammatory activ-
ity and stimulated T-lymphocyte synthesis in animal experiments. This genus is in
fact widely used in humans for rheumatism and inflammation of bruises and sprains
(Wang et al., 2008).
The third plant, reported 11 times, was garlic. Allium sativum seems to be a
worldwide remedy that was reported several times for ethnoveterinary use (Mathias,
Rangnekar, and McCorkle, 1998; Pieroni, 1999; Williams and Lamprecht, 2008) and
in case studies in Trinidad and Tobago (Lans, 1996). This is not an indigenous plant
to the Netherlands, but it is cultivated on a small scale. A lot of the reports concerned
commercial preparations sold for horses. Because of the antiparasitic, antibacte-
rial, insect-repellant, antitussive, and antioxidant properties of the organosulfides
in garlic, it appears to make a good equine nutraceutical component (Williams and
Lamprecht, 2008).
Accidents are likely to happen soon as the market for these animal herbal prod-
ucts is booming without enough traditional herbal knowledge left among animal
owners to resist the advertisements. It is known that garlic in large quantities, or its
chronic use, can cause anemia in sheep and anemia or urticaria in horses (Miyazawa
et al., 1991; Parton, 2000; Pearson et al., 2005). It is also known that the aromatic
compounds of garlic pass the ovine placental barrier (Nolte et al., 1992).
The rather popular human remedies Calendula officinalis L. and Matricaria
chamomilla L. were mentioned only for external applications. Other popular plants
were several mint species with several different applications and Trigonella foenum-
graecum L. (Greek hay). This is another herb strongly promoted by the commercial
animal herbal industry, mostly for cough. We could not find studies confirming the
rationality of this use. It has previously been shown to have larvicidal (Halim and
Morsy, 2006) and nematicidal (Zia et al., 2001) activity.
The treatments that were reported most often were alimentary tract and metabo-
lism treatments and dermatological applications. Respiratory, antiparasitic, and
reproductive treatments are also common. There was only one cardiac remedy men-
tioned; this was Crataegus laevigata (Poir) DC (hawthorn), also sold as a commercial
preparation for humans in Europe and the United States. It was noteworthy that this
herb was reported by Zitterl-Egelseer and Franz (1999) as the most prescribed herb
by veterinarians in German-speaking countries, mainly for mild cases of heart fail-
ure in old dogs. Hawthorne (Crataegus species) is one of the most popular European
Ethnoveterinary Medical Practice in the European Union (EU) 377
herbal products. Its cardiotonic and cardioprotective effects are subscribed to the
oligomeric procyanidins and (−)-epicatechin (Svedström et al., 2002).
Table 16.2
Plant Genera Used for Ethnoveterinary Practice in the Netherlands (IEZ
Study) Compared to Genera Reported by Other Recent Studies
Indication
No. Genera Shared Shared
IEZ study (Van Asseldonk and 63
Beijer, 2006)
United Kingdom/Ireland (Allen and 105 23 7 (30%)
Hatfield, 2004)
Spain, Catalonia (Agelet and Vallès, 76 20 8 (40%)
1999)
Italy, Tuscany (Uncini Manganelli, 77 14 9 (64%)
Camangi, and Tomei, 2001)
Italy, south (Pieroni et al., 2004) 55 10 5 (50%)
Austria, dairy (Ludwig, 1996) 37 22 13 (59%)
378 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
110 plant taxa were recorded, with Asteraceae and Lamiaceae the most mentioned
botanical families.
Following requests from several organic pig farmers, the IEZ performed a con-
trolled study of six farms in the Netherlands, testing some traditional Dutch medici-
nal plants. Dried herbs (nettles, fennel, aniseed, and thyme) were fed to both sows and
piglets. They appeared to have a positive impact on piglet survival (Van Asseldonk
et al., 2005) given the fact that on average one extra piglet survived in each nest as
compared to the untreated controls. However, this result could not be repeated by
another researcher (De Vries, Bestman, and Wagenaar, 2006).
Table 16.3
Numbers of Herbal Products and Numbers of Relevant Publicationsa Found
at the Start of the Fyto-V Project in Relation to the Indication for Their Use
Products and Target Species
Small
Therapeutic Uses Publicationsa Sum Cattle Pigs Poultry Ruminants
Alimentary tract (against 5 13 6 6 3 2
diarrhea and constipation)
Alimentary tract (enhancing 96 55 22 26 23 6
appetite and growth)
Alimentary tract (specific 7 24 10 8 9 6
organ functions and special
diets)
Alimentary tract (prebiotic 13 19 8 9 5 2
and dried probiotic)
Dermatological 1 12 11 9 3 9
Genitourinary tract 22 24 20 4 0 10
Immunological 6 2 0 0 0 0
Anti-infective (systemic) 23 0 0 0 0 0
Musculoskeletal 0 1 1 0 0 1
Nervous system 9 5 0 3 4 0
Antiparasitic products, 10 7 2 2 5 2
insecticides, and repellents
Respiratory system 0 7 6 6 2 3
Sum 192 168 86 74 54 41
a The number of publications concerns mostly clinical studies with the product in one of the target ani-
mals and some in vitro studies. Some of the products carry more than one indication and some products
are used in more than one animal species for the same indication. Therefore the sum of the number of
products is not the same as the sum of products for different target species.
In many cases, the plant species used in these feed additives was not public
information, and more transparency would be desirable. Therefore, the listing
in Table 16.4 of the herbs that are most often used for livestock may be biased.
Still, the most important herbs (i.e., oregano, garlic, yeast, cinnamon, and chicory)
can be identified. Several studies exist on the veterinary use of these five plants.
Oregano oil appeared very promising for the prevention of E. coli infections in
the pig gut (Jongbloed, Maiorano, and Wagenaars, 2008). Chicory root is sold as
such or with enriched content of fructooligosaccharides (FOS) that has a probiotic
effect (i.e., stimulates the growth of beneficial microorganisms in the gut). The use
of the other plants seems to be based mainly on tradition or is derived from human
use, for which extensive documentation exists for these herbs (European Scientific
Cooperative on Phytotherapy [ESCOP], 2003).
Ethnoveterinary Medical Practice in the European Union (EU) 381
Table 16.4
Plant Species Used in More Than Four Herbal Products for Veterinary Use
Identified in the Dutch Fyto-V Project with Numbers of Products and
Numbers of Publicized Clinical Animal Studies in Which They Appear
Species
(Botanical Name) English Products Publicationsa Use
Acorus calamus Sweetflag 6 7 Digestive aid
Allium sativum Garlic 12 24 Gut health, antibiotic
Aloe vera Aloe 5 1 External (skin, udder)
Arnica montana Mountain arnica 5 0 External (bruises)
Artemisia absinthium Absinth 7 2 Digestive aid
Cichorium intybus Cichory 8 12 Prebiotic (fiber)
Cinnamomon camphora Camphor 6 0 External (udder)
Cinnamomon zeylanicum Cinnamon 7 16 Gut health, antibiotic
Echinacea purpurea Purple coneflower 6 14 Immune stimulant
Erythraea centaurium Common centaury 11 0 Digestive aid
Foeniculum vulgare Fennel 6 7 Digestive aid
Lavendula officinalis Lavender 5 1 External, skin
Matricaria chamomilla Chamomile 5 0 Digestive aid
Mentha piperita Mint 5 4 External (udder)
Origanum vulgare Oregano 6 37 Gut health, antibiotic
Quercus robur Oak 9 3 Antidiarrhea
Rosmarinus officinalis Rosemary 9 2 Gut health, antibiotic
Saccharomyces spp. Yeast 14 10 Prebiotic (cell walls)
Silybum marianum Milk thistle 13 0 Digestive aid/liver support
Thymus vulgaris Thyme 6 22 Gut health, antibiotic
Trigonella foenum Fenugreek 8 1 Roborans (tonic to speed
graecum convalescence)
Urtica urens Nettle 13 3 Roborans
a Number of publications refers to clinical studies with poultry, pigs, or cows. For all of these herbs,
except for oregano and chicory, which seem to be more specific animal remedies, many studies exist,
both in vitro and animal studies, for the validation of all of these remedies concerning human use
(ESCOP, 2003). All of these herbs are also (part of) registered human medicines in Germany. But, clini-
cal use in animals has for some herbal products only been marginal or has not been tested in spite of a
long tradition. Moreover, not all studies dedicated to agricultural applications were positive. For exam-
ple, the use of Echinacea has strong evidence based on in vitro and clinical studies for humans, and this
herb also is used for animals; it has been tested in products for several animal species, but the results
were disappointing for poultry, and results for pigs were inconsistent. One of the remedies tested on
cows in the Fyto-V project was a herb mixture with Echinacea as an important constituent that showed
in vitro activity against Staphylococcus aureus.
382 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
16.6 Testing of Products
Of the hundreds of products summarized, 10 herbal products were selected for qual-
ity and efficacy tests in the Fyto-V project. Three herbal preparations were clinically
tested on pigs, five on poultry, and three on dairy cattle (one in two animal species). In
general, all these herbal products were very well tolerated during the trials.
The products tested on pigs were a simplex of standardized oregano oil on puffed
wheat; a fixed combination of oregano, aniseed, and lemon peel oil on powdered
chicory root; and a fixed complex mixture of about 10 dried herbs.
All three products showed positive effects as claimed by the suppliers either on
growth or on feed conversion in weaners, but due to large variations per animal there
was no strong significance (.05 < p < .13). Interesting results were found at the time of
slaughtering: Differences in carcass and organ assessments and percentages of meat
and fat were registered as compared to untreated controls. Oregano oil gave less fat,
and the oregano-aniseed-orange oil tended to give on average more meat. A number
of livers were collected for in vitro research of biomarkers regarding gut health.
Promising results were found with gene expression assays for oxidative stress, which
clearly showed health improvement for the animals using herbs in their feed (Groot
et al., 2008).
The five poultry products that were tested for their effects on coccidiosis infection
were developed as feed additives for broilers. They did not cause a reduction of the
effect of an acute Eimeria infection in young layer hens (Lourens and Jongbloed,
2008). However, the synthetic ionophore coccidiostatic that was used as an internal
control for the trial was equally ineffective in this challenge study. On day 28, the
effects of the infection on the gut had disappeared; only a slightly retarded growth
(15 g) remained that was better conquered by the coccidiostatic than by the herbs.
More studies are necessary to determine whether herbal products may perform bet-
ter in the case of milder and chronic infection at a higher age, preferably tested in a
plot that simulates the actual farm problems more accurately.
Three herbal products currently used by several dairy farms in the Netherlands,
and claiming to have a beneficial influence on high cell count, were given to dairy
cows. None of the products made a significant difference in cell count compared to the
control group. Due to an unknown cause, the cell count barely increased at the start of
the trial, unlike the beginning of the prior period. Therefore, this test could not con-
clude whether the effect could have been beneficial in the case of high cell counts.
An important part of the Fyto-V study was the study of quality (in laboratory tests)
and of biological activity (in chemical and bioassays) of the herbal products used in
the animal trials. All but 2 producers of 10 showed documents that proved their
products to be of stable quality. Tests regarding the presence of specific herbs and the
absence of antibiotics, ionophores, and hormones revealed no abnormalities.
All herbal products showed antioxidant activity in the ORAC (oxygen radical
absorbence capacity) tests, but when comparing the feed preparations with and with-
out herbs added, there was no statistical difference. As a result, clinical effects can-
not be accounted for by their antioxidant value.
The three pig products were active against E. coli. Two of three herbal products
tested for dairy cows showed activity against biofilm formation by Staphylococcus
Ethnoveterinary Medical Practice in the European Union (EU) 383
aureus, possibly by reducing bacterial growth. One of them was a fixed combination
of tinctures of seven herbs; the other was garlic extract, enriched to a high percentage
of stable allicin.
These five products were also shown to decrease the functioning of polymorpho-
nuclear granulocytes, thus indicating an immune-modulating effect, without having
a toxic effect.
At the end of the Fyto-V project, it was concluded that some herbal products could
be beneficial to animal health. However, more literature as well as clinical studies
will be necessary to make better judgments regarding the possible benefits and opti-
mal use of these products by farmers. In particular, studies that measure relevant
examples of gene expression profiles promise to provide statistical proof for health
effects of some herbal products for animals (Groot et al., 2008).
16.8 Conclusion
The potential of herbal animal remedies is slowly dawning in the Netherlands and
all over Western Europe, both in the pet care field, in which scientific involvement is
rare, and in the field of animal feed, in which innovative companies are developing
new herbal products. The introduction of herbal and related natural products in the
field of animal feed has contributed to maintaining the productivity of the livestock
after the banning of the use of antibiotics as growth promoters. To gain the benefit of
these promising approaches, the scientific community should get more involved and
support innovative developments in this area. Legislative constraints for these devel-
opments should be evaluated and, if possible, removed. It is of equal importance that
384 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
science is involved in monitoring and controlling the risks accompanying these new
products. Little is known about
• The interaction of natural growth promoters with each other and with vet-
erinary medication (be it negative or, under control, positive).
• The residual or other effects these products have on meat quality. Again,
risks must be assessed here, but there are also some positive signals (e.g.,
feeding on oregano seems to give more unsaturated fatty acids in meat).
The impact on the production and quality of milk and eggs of herbal inges-
tion also needs to be investigated (Gerber, 1997; Wenk, 2005).
• The implementation of natural products within the specific management
situation of each farm. Many general health problems are solved by vac-
cination and balanced feed; the remaining problems are often farm related
and require specific additional products (like herbal supplements) to solve
them. The choice of natural products is overwhelming, and good monitor-
ing of their results in specific situations will be necessary to make better
use of them.
Expertise on these topics needs to be built up by all involved institutions and should
be supported by international cooperation.
Acknowledgments
We thank everyone involved in the studies described. The ethnoveterinary fieldwork
for IEZ was performed by 85 students of two professional universities and received
no funding. The Fyto-V project involved the research activities of 20 people in
seven institutes and two organic farms. M. Groot (RIKILT) coordinated the Fyto-V
project. M. N. Zijlstra (IEZ) edited the literature studies that were gathered in a
spreadsheet and edited this chapter. The Fyto-V project was financed by the Dutch
Ministry of Agriculture, Nature, and Food (LNV) at the request of the Bioconnect
organization.
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17 Herbal Medicines for Pet
and Companion Animals
David R. Katerere and Vinny Naidoo
Contents
17.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 389
17.2 Herbs for Ticks............................................................................................ 390
17.3 Herbs for Skin Diseases.............................................................................. 393
17.4 Herbs for Arthritis and Joint Support......................................................... 394
17.5 Herbs for Intestinal Worms......................................................................... 396
17.6 Herbs for Immunomodulation.................................................................... 397
17.7 Herbs for Behavioral and Cognitive Disorders........................................... 398
17.8 Herbs for Coughing.....................................................................................400
17.9 Pitfalls in the Use of Herbs for Companion Animals................................. 401
17.10 Conclusion...................................................................................................402
References...............................................................................................................403
17.1 Introduction
A cursory glance at the popular literature or a general Internet search reveals that
there is an increasing interest in the use of herbal products for domestic pets and
horses. This mirrors the same interest for using, and self-medicating with, com-
plementary and alternative medicine (CAM) among humans. As with humankind,
there is evidence that animals have been self-medicating for millennia (Huffman and
Hirata, 2004), and in some cases humans may have started to use certain plants on
observing animals using them to good effect (Huffman and Seifu, 1989).
In the 1990s, there was an unprecedented growth in the herbal medicine mar-
ket, with at least 60 million Americans using botanicals (Miller, 1998; Kennedy,
2005). In Germany, the use of “natural remedies” has more than doubled since the
1970s, from 20% in 1970 to 56% of the population in 2002 (Ernst and Dixon, 2006).
This reflects a worldwide trend that has probably exponentially increased for vari-
ous reasons. The reasons most commonly cited are increased cost of medical care
(Dubnick, 1986) leading persons, particularly those of low economic status, to seek
cheaper alternatives; the need for control by patients over their health care that self-
medication appears to satisfy; and globalization, which has led to greater awareness
of other medical systems and philosophies, especially those from China and India
(Ernst and Dixon, 2006). There is also the general perception that “natural is safe,”
389
390 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
and this partly arises due to the adverse effects that are associated with the use of
synthetic chemicals and pharmaceuticals (Dubnick, 1986).
With specific reference to veterinary pharmaceutical products, a good example is
the environmental and human safety concerns arising from the use of topical fipronil
(Frontline®), the premier tick control product in dogs (Geary, Conder, and Bishop,
2004). It is now known to be toxic to fish, bees, rabbits, and game birds (Gupta,
2007). Imidacloprid (Advantage®), a neonicotinoid, has been banned in Germany
because of its toxicity to honeybees (Benjamin, 2008). In India, Nepal, and Pakistan,
the use of diclofenac in cattle was banned because of the threat to the survival of
scavenger vultures, which feed on animal carcasses (Swan et al., 2006).
For the foregoing reasons, there is increased use of botanicals in humans that is now
filtering through to use in their animal companions for the same reasons. The renewed
interest in industrialized countries in traditional veterinary medicine has tracked the
revival in interest of CAMs for human use (Schillhorn van Veen, 1997), and this has
coincided with new-found global interest in green issues and respect for indigenous
cultures and traditional ecological knowledge. Due to globalization, there is also a shift
in human–pet relations that started in industrialized countries and now is spreading to
emerging markets, in which pets are now considered part of family, and their lifestyle
(including food and medicine) has been “humanized” (Reportbuyer, 2009).
Interestingly the acceptance of CAMs by the veterinary establishment appears to
have been more enthusiastic than that by the human medical fraternity. In the United
States, the American Veterinary Medicine Association (AMVA) has spearheaded
the founding of the Veterinary Botanical Medical Association, and professional
associations elsewhere (e.g., Britain and South Africa) have followed suit.
Countries with strong Germanic influence (e.g., Germany, Austria, Switzerland,
and the Netherlands) have been leading proponents of phytomedicine in humans and
more recently in animals. A survey done among veterinarians in Austria, Germany,
and Switzerland, for example, found increasing interest in the use of veterinary
phytotherapies (Hahn, Zitterl-Eglseer, and Franz, 2005), with three-quarters of the
respondents already using herbal products on their patients, often for liver, joint,
kidney, heart, and skin diseases. The same study found that herbal drugs were more
acceptable to pet owners and veterinarians due to the belief that they had fewer side
effects when used for the management of chronic diseases.
This chapter discusses phytotherapies commonly used to treat and maintain health
in companion animals, mainly dogs, cats, and horses. Seven common therapeutic areas
have been selected and are discussed. An apparently glaring omission is in the treat-
ment of allergies, but because allergies in animals are caused by numerous known and
unknown insults, management is symptomatic. The remedies used for skin, immune
modulation, and cough can also be used for managing allergies in pets.
belong to a wide group of parasites that live in or on the skin of animals. The para-
sites that live on the skin include blood-sucking flies, ticks, fleas, and lice (Horowitz,
2003). In seeking appropriate interventions, it is important to understand the parasite
and its life cycle; adult fleas live on the animal, while eggs, larvae, and pupae live
in the environment (i.e., carpet, bedding, and soil), so eradication methods should
be aimed at both populations (Wynn and Chalmers, 2002). Ticks, on the other hand,
may have a one-host, two-host, and three-host cycle and may therefore complete
their life cycle over a longer period of time, thereby contaminating the environment
for a prolonged period if they carry diseases.
The parasites living within the skin are the mites (e.g., sarcoptic and demodectic
mange). Their management is also wide and includes products such as medicated
topical washes, spot-ons, collars, dips, and powders.
In the past, organochlorine and organophosphate compounds were used for tick
and insect control, but these fell out of favor because of their toxicity and persistence
in the environment. They were largely replaced by the pyrethroids (Casida, 1980),
which are synthetic analogues of naturally derived pyrethrins and the formidines.
The natural pyrethrins (from chrysanthemums) and D-limonene (from citrus) are
widely used and investigated for insecticidal activity. The pyrethrins are found natu-
rally in the pyrethrum flower Tanacetum or Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium (Casida,
1980; Kiriamiti et al., 2003). The pyrethrum flower has a history dating to its use
for body lice in central Europe and Persia in the 1800s. Synthetic analogues, the
pyrethroids (e.g., permethrin and cypermethrin), are widely used as domestic, indus-
trial, and agricultural insecticides (Soderlund et al., 2002). Pyrethrins and related
compounds affect the nervous system of insects and other arthropods by disrupting
ion channels (Townsend, 2005). Pyrethrins are rapidly broken down and have little
residual effect, which makes them environmentally safe, while the pyrethroids are
more stable, persist in the environment for longer, and hence are more toxic.
Neem oil, derived from Azadirachta indica, has a broad spectrum of activity and
is safe for all pets, including kittens and puppies. The azadirachtins and salannin are
thought to be the insecticidal constituents of neem oil (Wynn and Chalmers, 2002).
There is good clinical evidence to suggest that spraying fleas for 3 to 5 days with
neem oil gives the best outcome (Wynn and Chalmers, 2002). It has been shown to
be safe not only for kittens and puppies but also for humans.
Azadirachtin and related neem compounds exhibit various actions against insects,
e.g., antifeedancy, growth regulation, fecundity suppression and sterilization, ovipo-
sition repellency or attractancy, changes in biological fitness, and blocked develop-
ment of vector-borne pathogens. These compounds show broad-spectrum activity
against species of insects of medical and veterinary importance (e.g., mosquitoes,
flies, triatomines, cockroaches, fleas, and lice) (Mulla and Su, 1999).
Melaleuca alternifolia (the tea tree) is an Australian plant with a long history of
use among the Aborigines and with proven potent antimicrobial activity (Carson,
Riley, and Cookson, 1998; Allen, 2001). It is the source of tea tree oil (TTO), which
is a complex mixture of terpene hydrocarbons and tertiary alcohols distilled mainly
from plantation stands of Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden and Betche) Cheel of
the Myrtaceae family. Data from individual components suggest that TTO has the
potential to be developmentally toxic if ingested at higher doses; however, TTO and
392 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
its components are not genotoxic (Hammer et al., 2006). TTO has acaricidal proper-
ties and has shown activity against nymphs of Ixodes ricinus (Iori et al., 2005).
Another Australian native and also a member of the Myrtaceae family, the
Eucalyptus (gum tree) also possesses essential oil with fungicidal, insecticidal or
insect repellent, acaricidal, and nematicidal properties (Batishet, Singh, and Kohli,
2008). The lipophilic terpenoids terpinen-4-ol and 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), major
constituents of TTO and gum tree, are known to possess broad-spectrum activity
because of their ability to disrupt cellular membranes and associated receptors and
signalling pathways (Camp, 2004).
Mammea Americana, Pouteria sapota, and Manilkara zapota are used for
ectoparasites in dogs in the Caribbean (Lans et al., 2000). Mammea americana is a
tree from the tropical rain forests of South America that is now domesticated for its
edible fruits (zapote domingo) (Reyes-Chilpa et al., 2008). In Columbia, powdered
seeds are applied in the form of a paste to dogs and humans for the elimination of
fleas, lice, and mange mites. Several coumarins (so-called mammeins) and xantho-
nes with insecticidal and antibacterial activity have been isolated from M. Americana
(Crombie et al., 1970; Yasunaka et al., 2005).
In Canada, fleas and flies on dogs and cats are treated with Artemisia vulgaris
(mugwort), Citrus x limon (lemon), Juniperus communis (common juniper),
Lavandula officinalis (lavender), Melissa officinalis (lemon balm), and Thuja pli-
cata (western red cedar) (Lans, Turner, and Khan, 2008). All of these plants are
aromatic and possess insecticidal activity, probably due to the presence of mono
terpenoids. Limonene, for example, is a common constituent of citrus aromatic or
essential oils and acts by dissolving the cuticle of the adult flea (Wynn and Chalmers,
2002). However, it causes hypersensitivity in cats.
In central Italy, the leaves of the tomato plant (Lycopersicon esculentum) are
placed in dog kennels to repel fleas and other parasites (Guarrera, 1999). Tomato
plants synthesize the glycoalkaloids dehydrotomatine and α-tomatine, possibly as a
defense against bacteria, fungi, viruses, and insects (Kozukue et al., 2004).
Also in Italy, an infusion, leaves, or flowers of the dwarf elder (Sambucus ebulus)
were rubbed on the animal’s body or placed on bedside tables to remove mosqui-
toes or other insects (Guarrera, 1999). Pallets were also made with dwarf elder
branches to prevent fleas in kennels (Guarrera, 1999; Ebrahimzadeh, Mahmoudi,
and Salimi, 2006). Sambucus ebulus contains lectins called ebulitins (de Benito
et al., 1995), which are ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) and inhibitors of pro-
teolytic enzymes and glycohydrolases (Ryan, 1990).
In the United States, the aromatic herbs pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium), pepper-
mint (Mentha x piperita), or spearmint (Mentha spicata) are used in natural flea
collars (Horowitz, 2003). There is no literature that could be found that showed
investigation of the antitick or insecticidal efficacy of the mint. However, it can be
postulated that the role of the monoterpenes is central, and as Wynn and Chalmers
(2002) have suggested, the mechanism is by disrupting the cell wall.
As a direct result of ethnoveterinary information, a herbal preparation contain-
ing oil extracts of plants Cedrus deodare (deodar cedar) and Pongamia glabra was
successfully used in the management of dogs heavily infested with Sarcoptis scabiei
in a controlled clinical study (Das, 1996). The results showed this combination to be
Herbal Medicines for Pet and Companion Animals 393
highly effective, with even the most severely infested dog recovering by day 14 of
treatment. Most importantly, the cure was clinically comparable with a commercial
amitrax formulation. This new formulation was based on previous ethnoveterinary
information suggesting that the individual plants were effective against animal para-
sites on production animals (Sharma et al., 1997).
Lans et al. (2000) have suggested that the treatment of mange mirrors that of
various human skin conditions; for example, Scoparia dulcis (licorice weed) is used
to treat impetigo and herpes, Bixa orellana (achiote) seeds have been used for burns
and wounds; the sap of Musa spp. is used for burns and wounds, while Eclipta alba
has been used as a hemostatic and for bruises and wounds in cattle. These species
are now being used for dogs.
In Tuscany (Italy), numerous remedies are recommended for topical wound man-
agement, such as Pinus halepensis (Aleppo pine), Equisetum telmateia (giant horse-
tail), and Stachys officinalis (Bishop’s wort), among others (Uncini Manganelli,
Camangi, and Tomei, 2001). Pinus halepensis resin is warmed in olive oil or lard
and used in dogs; dried and chopped cauli of E. telmateia may be applied to small
wounds, especially those caused by hematophagous insects. Stachys officinalis is
applied locally to infected and purulent wounds of cats, dogs, and horses. It is rich in
polyphenolic compounds and phenolic acids, which gives it good free-radical scav-
enging properties (Vundać et al., 2007), and it may play a part in wound healing. The
phenylethanoid glycosides have also been isolated from it (Miyase, Yamamoto, and
Ueno, 1996). Nerium oleander (oleander) is applied locally on the skin of dogs and
cats affected by fungal disease. Nerium oleander is well known for the presence of
cardenolides, which are toxic to man and animals; therefore, its application should
be done carefully (Barbosa et al., 2008).
For horse hoof lesions, wonder of the world (Kalanchoe pinnata), young banana
leaves (Musa species), castor bean leaves (Ricinus communis), or turmeric root
(Curcuma longa) may be crushed and stuck onto affected areas with soft candle
wax or epsom salts (Lans et al., 2006). These treatments are used in the horse-racing
industry in Trinidad and British Columbia but have yet to be validated.
cayennne pepper, turmeric, horsetail, and Chinese skullcap are also widely used in
the Middle East, Asia, and the Mediterranean for arthritis and joint pain (rheuma-
tism). Cayenne pepper (Capsicum sp.) is mixed with olive oil to form a paste, which
could be rubbed onto the affected area. The capsaicinoids, acid amides isolated from
the fruits of Capsicum species, are commonly formulated into topical analgesics for
clinical use (Li et al., 2009). Turmeric (Curcuma longa), which is closely related to
another popular spice, ginger (Zingiber officinale), has been widely used either topi-
cally or orally in traditional Chinese medicine and ayurveda for the relief of pain
and inflammation (Anonymous, 2001). The curcuminoids, isolated from Curcuma
longa, have been shown to inhibit cyclooxygenase (Cox) enzymes (Cox-1 and Cox-2)
(Ramsewak, DeWitt, and Nair, 2000). In animal studies, curcumin was shown to
reduce levels of the inflammatory glycoprotein GpA-72, with a concomitant reduc-
tion in paw inflammation (Vitetta, Cicuttini, and Sali, 2008). Ginger, on the other
hand, has been known for its anti-inflammatory effects for centuries. This has now
been validated by research, which showed that gingerols inhibit prostaglandins and
leukotrienes (Ali et al., 2008). Ginger has been found to modulate some biochemi-
cal pathways activated in chronic inflammation (Grzanna, Lindmark, and Frondoza,
2005). It was found to inhibit the induction of several genes involved in the inflam-
matory response, and some of these genes encode cytokines, chemokines, and the
inducible enzyme Cox-2 (Grzanna, Lindmark, and Frondoza, 2005). Ginger extracts
have potent Cox-1 inhibitor effects (Williams and Lamprecht, 2008), but they also
have the tendency to increase proinflammatory cytokines. Ginger has been used in
horses and been shown to reduce postexercise recovery times.
Scutellaria baicalensis (Chinese skullcap) was found to have activity comparable to
the standard treatment in the arachidonic acid (AA)-induced mouse ear edema on topi-
cal application (Cuéllar et al., 2001). It is an important medicine in the Chinese phar-
macopoeia used for inflammation and as an antiviral, anticancer preparation (Li, Jiang,
and Chen, 2004). It contains several constituents (e.g., phenylethanoids, amino acids,
and a large variety of flavonoids). The flavones baicalein and baicalin were shown to be
responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity via free-radical scavenging or antagonizing
ligand-initiated Ca2+ influx leading to inhibited leukocyte adhesion (Shen et al., 2003).
Harpagophytum procumbens (devil’s claw) has validated anti-inflammatory activ-
ity that has been attributed to various iridoid glycosides and acetylated phenolic gly-
cosides (Williams and Lamprecht, 2008). Harpagoside, one of the glycosides, has
been shown to suppress Cox-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in vitro, but
not Cox-1 activity. It also has chrondroprotective effects. Most of the human clinical
studies reported reduced pain intensity and increased joint flexibility, and these stud-
ies have been used to justify the use of devil’s claw preparations in animals, particu-
larly horses. Pearson, McKee, and Clarke (1999) reported an anti-inflammatory effect
in horses due to a reduction of the prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) synovial fluid content.
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) has also been evaluated for use as an
anti-inflammatory and found to reduce both Cox-1 and Cox-2 levels (Williams and
Lamprecht, 2008). It is high in essential free fatty acids, particularly α-linolenic acid
and lignan-type phytoestrogens, of which the main component is secoisolaricires-
inol diglucoside (SDG) (Degenhardt, Habben, and Winterhalter, 2002). Flaxseed
extracts have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity due to
396 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
the presence of lignins and α-linolenic acid (Saleem et al., 2005). The primary use of
flaxseed is to improve hair and coat quality, which is particularly important in show
pets. It is commonly added into the newer scientifically formulated pet foods because
of the high concentration of α-linolenic acid and soluble and insoluble fiber, which
make it of high nutritional value.
Yucca schidigera, native to the southwestern United States and northern Mexico,
is traditionally used for treating pain (Cheeke, Piacvente, and Oleszek, 2006). It
has phenolics that inhibit nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), resulting in suppression
of nitric oxide, an inflammatory agent. Yucca extracts are currently used in feed
additives for livestock and poultry in the United States for their growth-promoting,
nematocidal, and antiprotozoal effects and in horses and dogs for antiarthritic indi-
cations (Cheeke, Piacvente, and Oleszek, 2006).
Arnica montana, native to central Europe and Scandinavia, is a popular homeo-
pathic remedy that has shown good effect in acute inflammation (Macêdo et al.,
2004). The sesquiterpene lactones were found to inhibit NFκB (Klaas et al., 2002).
Arnica preparations, however, should not be used on broken skin as it contains for-
mic acid and arnicine, which may cause cardiac damage and hepatoenteric inflam-
mation (Harman, 2002).
Various other herbs have been cited. In Canada, wormwood (Artemisia absinthium),
rue (Ruta graveolens), peppermint (Mentha piperita), sage (Salvia officinalis), and mug-
wort (Artemisia vulgaris) are recommended for the control of endoparasites in pets,
while worm grass (Chenopodium ambrosioides) is used as an anthelmintic in horses
(Lans et al., 2006; Lans et al., 2007). Other remedies used in horses include aerial parts
of the elecampane (Inula helenium) or wormwood powdered and added to the feed daily
for 1 week. Alternatively, wormwood was given in equal combination with elecampane
(Inula helenium) and thyme (Thymus sp.). Artemisia species have a long history of use
from the time of the Roman Empire, when they were used for Ascaris, Enterobius, and
tapeworm infections (Grove, 1990). The sesquiterpene santonin from Artemisia has been
shown to be active against these worms but not against Oxyuris spp. and cestodes.
Papaya (pawpaw) preparations have a long history of use as human anthelmintic
remedies originating from South America (Behnke et al., 2008). Seeds of papaya
are used for human and farm animal intestinal worm treatment in the West Indies
and India (Quinlan, Quinlan, and Nolan, 2002), and extracts have shown in vitro
activity against Caenorhaditis elegans and other helminths (Wilson et al., 2002).
The anthelmintic activity of papaya, ficus (fig), and pineapple (Ananas comosus)
extracts is attributed to the actions of cysteine proteinase (CP) enzymes (Behnke
et al., 2008). Kermanshai et al. (2001) also suggested that benzyl isothiocyanate may
be the phytoconstituent responsible for activity.
A popular anthelmintic in livestock in Nordic countries stretching back to Greek
times is the powdered rhizome of the male fern (Dryopteris flix-mas) for the treat-
ment of tapeworm infections (Waller et al., 2001). Filicic acid has been identified as
the active compound.
Garlic extracts have shown broad antiparasitic activity against human and non
human parasites. Allicin, diallyl trisulfide, and ajoene have activity against tropho-
zoite, protozoan, plasmodium, trypanosome, coccidian, and flagellate species, and
various mechanisms have been elucidated to explain this broad-spectrum effect
(Williams and Lamprecht, 2008).
Commonly consumed vegetables (e.g., carrot, brassica, pumpkin, and cucum-
ber seeds) also have a long history of use against intestinal worms (Waller et al.,
2001). Tanniferous plants have shown anthelmintic activity that has been attributed to
improved host resistance from better protein absorption as a result of tannin ingestion
or direct nematodicidal activity in both the animal and on the free-living fecal stage.
Feeding culinary herbs with medicinal properties to pets is also feasible, par-
ticularly if they are herbivores, for example, caraway (Carum carvi), parsley
(Petroselinium crispum), chicory (Cichorium intybis), chervil (Anthriscus cerefo-
lium), and dill (Anethum graveolens) (Waller et al., 2001) are used. Some of the spices
(e.g., caraway, thyme, and mint) have shown activity against Trichostronglus larvae
in vitro and in sheep. Their use in pets still has to be scientifically documented.
and suppressor cells) (Dodds, 2002). Immune modulators may have beneficial effects
in the prevention and treatment of cancer, infections, and inflammatory diseases
(Plaeger, 2003; Patwardhan and Gautam, 2005). There are various natural products
offered for immune support, such as Panax ginseng (ginseng), Artemisia annua
(annual wormwood), Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice), Uncaria tomentosa (cat’s claw),
Viscum album (common mistletoe), and Echinacea species, among others (Patwardhan
and Gautam, 2005). There is increasing interest in the use of herbal products for this
purpose in human medicine, but there is little or no research for equivalent veterinary
application.
Various compounds have been shown to influence immunostasis, among them the
phytosterols, lectins, polysaccharides, alkaloids, flavonoids, and terpenoids (Reis et al.,
2008; Mishra, Singh, and Dagenais, 2000; Shao et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2004). The
phytosterols have been shown to improve T-lymphocyte and natural killer cell actions.
In a clinical trial with cats infected with the feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV),
phytosterol-rich supplementation slowed the progression of the disease (Bouic, 1997).
Flavonoids are also known to play a part in immune modulation, although dif-
ferent ones may be immunosuppressive or immunostimulatory (Ielpo et al., 2000).
Quercetin, for example, has shown potent inhibition of the release of lysosomal
enzymes in polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs), which are also called neu-
trophils or granular leukocytes. The immunomodulatory effects of flavonoids are
linked to their antioxidizing effects (Ielpo et al., 2000)
The best-known herb for immune modulation is Echinacea (purple coneflower),
and it is used for the treatment of colds, coughs, and upper respiratory infections in
humans. Polysaccharides from Echinacea have been shown to increase phagocy-
tosis, chemotaxis, and the oxidative burst in neutrophils and macrophages in both
healthy and immunosuppressed animals (Dodds, 2002; Barrett, 2003). The use of
Echinacea in horses is now widespread and has been covered in Chapter 9.
Some mushroom species, such as Grifola frondosa (maitake), Ganoderma lucidum
(reishi), and Lentinula edodes (shitake), enhance macrophage and T-cell function
(Dodds, 2002; Shao et al., 2004). This immunostimulatory activity has been attributed
to polysaccharides and lectins (Singh, Singh, and Singh, 2004; Chen et al., 2004).
As discussed, the use of botanical immunodrugs is of immense interest in human
medicine but is hardly applied at all at the moment in veterinary medicine.
α-Lipoic acid, a dithiol that exists in two enantiomeric forms, the naturally occur-
ring form (R) and the synthetic S, is a good scavenger of hydroxyl, peroxy radicals,
and nitric oxide (Cantuti-Castelvetri, Shukitt-Hale, and Joseph, 2000). It has been
shown to improve memory in aged mice and protect neurons in vitro against hypoxic,
glutamate-, and iron-induced insults. Phosphatidylserine, a phospholipid, has been
reported to improve memory and learning and to offer neuroprotection (Osella et al.,
2008). The fatty acids are required for maintenance of normal brain cell function,
most likely due to their structural importance for cell membrane integrity (Youdim,
Martin, and Joseph, 2000; Calon and Cole, 2007).
In general, with coughs, the dry coughs should be treated with antitussive agents,
which act to inhibit the cough reflex in the cough center, while for productive coughs,
in which animals produce large qualities of phlegm, the cough can be managed
by allowing for better expression of the inspissated mucus. Treatments include the
expectorants, mucolytics, and simple nebulization with plain water.
There is little in the literature that addresses the use of medicinal plants in treat-
ing coughs and related conditions in domestic animals and pets. Lans et al. (2000)
documented some products used in Canada. A commercial herbal product con-
taining lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis), bioflavonoids, and vitamin K was rec-
ommended for the management of exercise-induced pulmonary congestion, while
elecampane (Inula helenium) mixed with cranberry bush (Virbunum opulus), root
of liquorice, and thyme (Thymus sp.) was used for the management of stable cough.
Another remedy for coughing included cloves of crushed garlic (Allium sativum)
added to the feed. Treatment for a runny nose included pure garlic powder and mul-
lein (Verbascum thapsus) fed in grain until recovery (Lans et al., 2000).
17.10 Conclusion
Ethnoveterinary research in the pet industry will become increasingly important in the
future. This is mainly because of a shift in human–pet relations (the so-called human-
ization trend) that started in the United States and Europe and now is occurring in the
emerging markets of China and India, where the nouveau riche regard pets as part of
the family and spending and self-medication habits for pets increasingly mirror those
of the owners (Reportbuyer, 2009). The pet industry is a major segment of the U.S.
Herbal Medicines for Pet and Companion Animals 403
economy and is estimated to be worth US$45 billion in 2009, having doubled in value
since 1998 (American Pet Products Association, 2009). Nearly 90% of this money is
spent on food and medicines, and as with humans, there is a trend toward functional,
condition-specific, or novel ingredient types of foods.
While commonality of use in animals mirrors that of herbal drug therapy in peo-
ple, their use needs to be scientifically validated. This is important to rule out factors
such as species-specific toxicity and to eradicate noneffective medication and quack-
ery. There is widespread acceptance among veterinarians and pet owners regarding
the use of herbal products, but there is a need for greater regulatory oversight to
ensure safety and quality.
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Ethnoveterinary
Botanical Medicine
Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Ethnoveterinary
Botanical Medicine
Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Edited by
David R. Katerere n Dibungi Luseba
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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SF918.H47.E84 2010
636.089’5321--dc22 2009043655
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 10. Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin
America: An Overview..................................................................... 231
Rômulo Romeu da Nóbrega Alves, Raynner Rilke Duarte
Barboza, and Wedson de Medeiros Silva Souto
Chapter 13. Herbal Medicines for Animal Health in the Middle East
and North Africa (MENA) Region................................................... 303
Laïd Boukraa, Hama Benbarek, and Mokhtar Benhanifia
Chapter 17. Herbal Medicines for Pet and Companion Animals......................... 389
David R. Katerere and Vinny Naidoo
Index.......................................................................................................................409
Foreword
From before written history, plants have been known as sources of medicines for
treating human beings. In practically every human culture, there exists a vast trea-
sury of information of this type, and in some civilizations, notably in China and
India, this has developed into a sophisticated system of diagnosis, treatment, and
preparation of the medicine.
As far as “Western” scientific medicine is concerned, natural substances were,
and still are, the source of many isolated chemicals that are incorporated as the
active constituents into familiar pharmaceutical dosage forms such as tablets, cap-
sules, injections, and topical applications such as creams and ointments. The rise and
application of pharmaceutical chemistry enlarged the potential of naturally occur-
ring compounds for use as drugs since they could also be used as “lead molecules” to
improve their efficacy or reduce toxicity by chemical manipulation of the structures.
Traditional plant-based extracts became very marginal in most countries where “sci-
entific” medicine became the norm.
However, in spite of the undoubted successes of such a scientific approach to phar-
maceuticals, the last few decades have witnessed a spectacular rise in interest and
use of “herbal medicinal products” (i.e., plant material or its crude extracts) in those
places where sophisticated technologically advanced medicine was common, as well
as in countries where it has long formed the mainstay of medicines used by ordinary
people. This general interest has been followed by increasing scientific and commer-
cial interest in traditional medicines, and in 1967 the term ethnopharmacology was
coined to describe the scientific discipline investigating the use of these products.
Since that time, scientific investigations in this area have grown apace, as wit-
nessed by the success of scientific journals such as Journal of Ethnopharmacology
and Phytotherapy Research, as well as by good attendance at international confer-
ences dealing with such matters and introduction of university courses. This has
been fueled partly by the pharmaceutical industry seeking new lead compounds but
also by an awakened interest and patrimonial pride in their traditions by many coun-
tries emerging from their colonial past. At one level, such research gives substance
to traditional claims and reinforces the value of the cultural heritage, but if it dem-
onstrates efficacy and safety, it might also lead to substitutes for expensive imported
Western drugs. Since Western drugs are often beyond economic or geographical
reach of many of the inhabitants of these places anyway, scientific study can also lay
the basis for improving the quality of the traditional remedies, thus providing better
grounds for efficacy and safety.
As far as the industrially developed countries are concerned, intensive farming
has been widely practiced but has raised not only food production, but also many
ethical and health concerns, giving rise to the “organic” preference of many consum-
ers. Hence, the investigation of these traditional “natural” medicines might provide
alternatives to current treatments of animals that have caused much concern, such
as the widespread use of antibiotics in young animals, producing residues in food
ix
x Foreword
and thereby the buildup of resistance in humans and other animals. The entry into
the food chain of hormones and other steroids for building muscles and stimulating
growth may affect human metabolism and health. The study of traditional medicines
might provide compounds or extracts with novel structures or different mechanisms
of action, with less-acute or chronic side effects, which would make good substitutes
for the currently used drugs that are raising concern.
This interesting, and in some ways surprising, explosion of scientific interest
and study into traditional materials for helping human health care has only fairly
recently been enlarged to encompass use of traditional medicines for treating ani-
mals. Urbanized and relatively affluent members of society have a mainly emotional
attachment to domestic “companion” animals, on which they are willing to spend
considerable amounts of money, and it is not surprising that herbal products to treat
domestic animals sell well. However, it should not be forgotten that, for most rural
parts of the world, animals are important sources and symbols of wealth and liveli-
hood. When the animal becomes sick or dies, it may mean the loss of transport, aid
to farming, dairy products, meat, and other products such as wool or hair, which
provide extra income or clothing. The death of a single animal may spell the begin-
ning of poverty for a whole family.
It is therefore not surprising that in many societies there is a pharmacopoeia of
substances used to treat livestock and poultry. The growing interest in this from sci-
entists was reflected in a session dedicated to veterinary ethnopharmacology at the
Congress of the International Society for Ethnopharmacology in São Paulo, Brazil,
in September 2008. This book is another indication and is the first, to my knowledge,
to bring together a considerable amount of information about ethnoveterinary medi-
cines from a wide variety of countries. As well as listing plants used, the conditions
for which they are used, and the ways that the plant material is treated prior to use,
this book covers useful topics such as general research methods for testing claimed
effects and safety and the chemical examination of extracts. The inclusion of a chap-
ter on benefit sharing is particularly praiseworthy since it is all too easy for a culture
to have its traditional knowledge “stolen” to be used commercially by an outside
body that returns no benefits.
Dr. Katerere and Dr. Luseba have been fortunate enough to persuade leading
authorities in this field to contribute chapters, and I am sure that it not only will prove
to be a valuable reference source but also will stimulate further research into this
fascinating area, with the end result of improving not only the health of animals and
domestic birds, but also the well-being of their owners and farmers.
Peter Houghton
Emeritus Professor in Pharmacognosy,
Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Division,
King’s College London
Editor, Journal of Ethnopharmacology
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank God for seeing this project through and for the support of PROMEC
Unit, South African Medical Research Council (MRC) and Tshwane University of
Technology (TUT), our employers. We are much obliged to Trish Flaster, Dr. Ronette
Gehring, and Nontuthuko Chamane for proofreading edits and providing some much
needed peer review and scientific input.
We also want to thank John Sulzycki, our editor, and Pat Roberson and Stephanie
Morkert, our project coordinators, and many other dedicated people at Taylor &
Francis, none of whom we have met physically, but who have expertly guided this
project and brought to our dreams to fruition.
We acknowledge the immense contribution that all the authors who are part of
this book have made. Without them, this book would not have known the light of
day, and we hope that this project will be the start of further collaborations among
them in the future.
Last, we thank our families for the obvious sacrifices they have had to make dur-
ing the duration of this project. Tinotenda.
xi
Contributors
Joanne Barnes Raynner Rilke Duarte Barboza
School of Pharmacy Pós-Graduação em Ciência e Tecnologia
University of Auckland Ambiental
Auckland, New Zealand Universidade Estadual da Paraíba
Campina Grande
Hama Benbarek Paraíba, Brazil
Department of Veterinary Sciences Jacobus N. Eloff
Faculty of Agro-Veterinary Sciences Phytomedicine Programme
Ibn-Khaldoune University of Tiaret Faculty of Veterinary Sciences
Tiaret, Algeria University of Pretoria
Onderstepoort, Republic of South Africa
Mokhtar Benhanifia
Department of Veterinary Sciences Peter K. Gathumbi
Faculty of Agro-Veterinary Sciences Department of Veterinary Pathology,
Ibn-Khaldoune University of Tiaret Microbiology, and Parasitology
Tiaret, Algeria University of Nairobi
Nairobi, Kenya
Laïd Boukraa Ronette Gehring
Department of Veterinary Sciences Department of Clinical Sciences
Faculty of Agro-Veterinary Sciences (Agricultural Practices)
Ibn-Khaldoune University of Tiaret College of Veterinary Medicine
Tiaret, Algeria Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas, USA
Mary Chikombero
Marine and Coastal Management John B. Githiori
Department of Environment and International Livestock Research
Tourism Institute (ILRI)
Cape Town, Republic of South Africa Nairobi, Kenya
xiii
xiv Contributors