Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine - Herbal Medicines For Animal Health (PDFDrive)

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1 Methods for

Evaluating Efficacy
of Ethnoveterinary
Medicinal Plants
Lyndy J. McGaw and Jacobus N. Eloff

Contents
1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................1
1.1.1 The Need for Evaluating Traditional Animal Treatments.....................2
1.2 Biological Activity Screening............................................................................4
1.2.1 Limitations of Laboratory Testing of EVM Remedies..........................6
1.2.2 Extract Preparation................................................................................7
1.2.3 Antibacterial and Antifungal.................................................................9
1.2.4 Antiviral............................................................................................... 12
1.2.5 Antiprotozoal and Antirickettsial........................................................ 13
1.2.6 Anthelmintic........................................................................................ 14
1.2.7 Antitick................................................................................................ 15
1.2.8 Antioxidant.......................................................................................... 16
1.2.9 Anti-inflammatory and Wound Healing.............................................. 17
1.3 Toxicity Studies............................................................................................... 18
1.4 Conclusion....................................................................................................... 19
Acknowledgments.....................................................................................................20
References.................................................................................................................20

1.1 Introduction
In many developing countries with limited access to orthodox health care services,
the majority of rural people rely on traditional medicines to alleviate a variety of
ailments. Likewise, many pastoralists use customary remedies to treat their sick ani-
mals. Commercial pharmaceutical drugs are sometimes available in remote rural
areas, but they are often dispensed by untrained vendors or repackaged without
printed instructions, which may not be able to be read by illiterate users in any case,
leading to drug misuse (Mathias, 2007). In an effort to improve animal health care
services in rural areas, it is vital to utilize all available resources, including ethno­
veterinary medicine (EVM).

1
2 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

The growing interest in and increasing recognition of the role of EVM has been
limited in terms of further development by unavailability of information on the effi-
cacy and safety of these practices. Several research papers in international publica-
tions have confirmed a heightened recognition of the need for rigorous scientific
investigation of EVM remedies. Studies of biological activity of plants used against
veterinary diseases can provide indications of promising leads for extracts that can
be developed and used on a commercial basis. Plants with activity may also provide
leads for isolation and identification of useful compounds that may be chemically
modified to optimize medicinal value and reduce possible toxic effects, in other
words, developed into pharmaceuticals.
For common conditions such as coughs, wounds, skin diseases, mild diarrhea,
and reproductive disorders, EVM can be a cheap and easily obtainable alternative
to expensive orthodox drugs. For epidemic infectious diseases, including anthrax,
rinderpest, rabies, and foot-and-mouth disease, modern drugs (mostly vaccines) are
preferred. Many drugs in conventional therapy are based on chemical compounds of
plant origin or on synthetic derivatives of these chemicals. The search for alternative
antibacterials and anthelmintics in particular is intensifying following problems
associated with drug resistance and chemical residues in production animals. EVM
practices, if proven to be effective and not harmful, may provide answers (not only
regarding plant-based remedies but also concerning management customs) to some
of these problems currently encountered in conventional veterinary practice.
Much research has been undertaken, especially as reflected by the expanding
scientific literature, concerning the ethnopharmacological investigation of plants
used to treat humans for various illnesses. This has been followed by an interest
in plants used in animal health. It is logical that in evaluating these plants for bio-
logical efficacy and safety that similar bioassays are used in a laboratory situation
where plants are being investigated for similar types of activity. It is essential to
build and maintain standards for assessing the therapeutic potential of plants to
facilitate comparison of results between different research groups (Cowan, 1999).
In this chapter, methods for evaluating traditional ethnoveterinary plant-based rem-
edies used for treating common diseases are discussed. Some results obtained in
these assays with particular reference to the South African context are supplied.
Considerations to be taken into account when embarking on research in this field
are also presented and discussed.

1.1.1 The Need for Evaluating Traditional Animal Treatments


There is a pressing case for investigating EVM remedies for two major reasons:
investigation of their use as effective agents for treatment of particular ailments
and to appraise their safety. Undoubtedly, there are dubious, questionable, or even
harmful practices forming part of alternative treatment of livestock, and these
need to be distinguished from those of value. The profile of EVM would benefit
from validation of certain practices in the view of potentially skeptical, conven-
tionally trained veterinarians who may have only been exposed to the results of
injurious handling by rural farmers attempting to rid their animals of disease or
parasite infestations.
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 3

Other advantages to be gleaned from ethnoveterinary research entail prospects


for commercial development, whether as refined extracts or lead compounds for the
pharmaceutical industry. An important aspect, which falls outside the scope of this
chapter, is the necessity for benefit-sharing agreements with owners of the intellectual
property concerning EVM (see Chapter 2). This may involve returning value-added
knowledge to the community where the information originated if such a community
can be identified. Alternatively, they could be included in a profit-sharing arrange-
ment from the outset, without raising initial false hopes of massive profits to be
obtained from a product that may display exciting bioactivity in the laboratory, while
many obstacles lie in the path to commercial success.
Various approaches have been proposed to validate animal herbal remedies, such
as literature reviews, laboratory and clinical studies developed in medicine, social
science methods (i.e., ranking of treatments in terms of efficacy by livestock owners),
and investigation of the influence of a remedy on animal production and economic
considerations (Mathias, 2004). Much work remains to be done in this area. In a
review of the current status of published information on the ethnoveterinary use of
plants in South Africa and biological activity and toxicity investigations on these
plants (McGaw and Eloff, 2008), more than 200 plant species were documented
as used in EVM, and of these, a mere 27 species have been tested for bioactivity in
targeted ethnoveterinary assays. It was concluded that more plants need to be evalu-
ated, and expanded investigation of those plants already tested in one or two screen-
ing systems needs to be carried out (McGaw and Eloff, 2008).
The targeted investigation of plants for commercial application in human med-
icine has resulted in natural products and their derivatives representing about
50% of all drugs in clinical use, of which higher plants contribute 25% to this
figure (Farnsworth, 1984; O’Neill and Lewis, 1993). Plants have a seemingly lim-
itless ability to manufacture unusual and original chemical structures. Also, a
major mechanism plants possess to fight infection is the production of chemicals
with anti-infective activity (phytoalexins); thus, it is logical and reasonable to
explore the potential presence and ability of such compounds to be useful in both
human and animal health care, for example, in terms of antibacterial or antifun-
gal activity.
Ethnoveterinary remedies need to be validated before they can be widely pro-
moted. Information on the botany and phytochemistry of particular plants may already
be available in the literature, relating to bioactivity and toxicity. There is frequently
an overlap between medicinal plants used to treat animals and those used to treat
humans. It could be speculated that livestock keepers have over the centuries modi-
fied human remedies for use in animals or vice versa. It would make sense that similar
treatments are used to treat comparable ailments in humans and their livestock.
Ethnoveterinary medicines can function as leads for drug development, but per-
haps a more useful and cost-effective exercise would be to improve a selected prepa-
ration by pharmacological research and development, and the resulting remedy can
be returned to the community with addition of value. Local farmers can grow the
plants and make money from this venture, and such commercialization can also aid
in the conservation of useful species. Other issues falling outside the ambit of this
chapter include the necessity to conduct research into optimal dosing regimens and
4 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

effective concentrations of herbal remedies. Potential side effects as well as toxins


that may be ingested by the animals and then transferred to humans through milk or
meat are further issues to be addressed.

1.2 Biological Activity Screening


It has been estimated that at least 250,000 species of plants inhabit our world (Borris,
1996). A mere 5–15% of higher plants have been systematically investigated for
the presence of bioactive compounds, so plant biodiversity is virtually unexplored
(Pieters and Vlietinck, 2005). Plants contain an enormous diversity of chemical
structures, which are secondary metabolites modulating the relationship of organ-
isms with the environment, for example, as pollinator attractants, signal products,
and defensive substances against parasites, predators, and other pathogens (Pieters
and Vlietinck, 2005). Such compounds in plants therefore hold much potential for
medicinal applications. Following up ethnomedical leads, whether plants are used
in human or in animal medicine, is one approach to selecting plants for bioactivity
screening. Other methods of bioprospecting for screening studies include random
selection and chemotaxonomic selection approaches.
Bioassays used to evaluate plant extracts should meet many criteria, including
validity, lack of ambiguity, accuracy, reproducibility, simplicity, and reasonable cost
(Pieters and Vlietinck, 2005). More particular considerations are a high selectivity
(to limit the number of leads for subsequent evaluation), a high sensitivity (to detect
low concentrations of active compounds), and a high specificity (to be insensitive to
a variety of inactive compounds and eliminate false positives) (Pieters and Vlietinck,
2005). In vitro tests in ethnopharmacological studies are prevalent in the scientific
literature even though in vivo models supply more accurate evidence for the activity
of plant preparations in traditional medicine. This is largely as a result of the fact that
the use of in vivo models is severely restricted in many countries owing to economic
and ethical concerns (Houghton et al., 2007). The smaller amount of plant material
needed for an in vitro test is often an important consideration.
Methods of extraction and in vitro testing need to be standardized so that the eval-
uation of medicinal plants can be systematic, and comparisons of results obtained
by different laboratories may be more useful. In an important review article on the
subject of anti-infective potential of natural products, Cos et al. (2006) emphasized
that certain pivotal quality standards must be set at the stage of extract process-
ing and primary evaluation in pharmacological screening models. The authors pro-
vided extremely useful recommendations to help define a more acceptable “proof of
concept” for antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic activity in natural products.
They outlined the following requirements for anti-infective screening:

1. Use of reference strains or fully characterized clinical isolates (in the case
of microorganisms, the American Type Culture Collection [ATCC] strains
are widely used as standards).
2. In vitro models on the whole organism, if possible cell based.
3. Selectivity evaluation by parallel cytotoxicity testing or integrated profiling
against unrelated microorganisms.
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 5

4. Adequate dose range, enabling dose-response curves.


5. Stringent end-point criteria with IC50 values generally below 100 µg/mL for
extracts and below 25 µM for pure compounds.
6. Proper preparation, storage, and in-test processing of extracts.
7. Inclusion of appropriate controls in each in vitro test replicate (negative,
positive, and growth controls).
8. Follow-up of in vitro activity (“hit” status) in corresponding animal models
(“lead” status).

A variety of test systems should be employed in the in vitro screens because the
use of only one bioassay yields an incomplete picture of the effect of the extract on
the whole system involved (Houghton et al., 2007). Many diseases involve more than
one factor, and Houghton et al. (2007) cautioned that the use of a single in vitro test is
generally too simplistic and reductionist to achieve an idea of biological activity. An
assortment of chemicals is present in an extract, and these may each have a different
biological or pharmacological activity, together contributing to the overall clinical
effect (Houghton et al., 2007). It is therefore preferable to use a range of tests for dif-
ferent activities, all related to the particular disease state under investigation.
Pharmacological evaluation of medicinal plants followed by bioassay-guided
fractionation can lead to the isolation of pure active compounds with potential for
commercialization. An alternative to this route, particularly pertinent to developing
countries, is the preparation of standardized, formulated extracts that could con-
tribute to an innovative and successful local pharmaceutical industry (Pieters and
Vlietinck, 2005).
A growing number of publications document the use of herbal remedies by small-
scale farmers to treat an assortment of livestock diseases, from skin conditions to
babesiosis and anaplasmosis (Masika, Sonandi, and Van Averbeke, 1997; Masika,
Van Averbeke, and Sonandi, 2000; Dold and Cocks, 2001; Van der Merwe, Swan,
and Botha, 2001; Njoroge and Bussmann, 2006; Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006).
Methods of obtaining information range from participatory methods to semistruc-
tured interviews, field observations, and questionnaire surveys. This expanding doc-
umentation of plants used in EVM is anticipated to precede increased investigation
of these plants for bioactivity, reflecting the situation in human ethnomedicine. It is
generally accepted that a great deal of work remains to be done on recording the uses
of plants in EVM.
Factors to be taken into consideration by researchers aiming to evaluate the bio-
logical activity of herbal EVM remedies include whether the plants are used singly
or in combination with other plants, the plant part used, method of preparation, dos-
age, and the way in which the remedy is applied. For example, herbal remedies can
be prepared from fresh or dry material in the form of infusions, decoctions, pastes,
or expressed juices from fresh plants. Masika, Van Averbeke, and Sonandi (2000)
stated that the route and method of application of a remedy depends on the perceived
cause of the disease condition. Topical applications are commonly used for skin con-
ditions, powders are rubbed into incisions, drops are placed in the ears and eyes, and
drenches are popular in treating systemic conditions. In other studies in South Africa,
it was noted that plants are generally not processed or mixed with other materials and
6 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

are used as single-plant decoctions or infusions for dosing animals or crushed and
used topically for wound treatment (Van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001; Luseba
and Van der Merwe, 2006). This is in contrast with traditional medicine intended
for human use, for which processing (milling, extracting, etc.) and mixing of two or
more plant species (and even animal parts) appears to be common practice.

1.2.1 Limitations of Laboratory Testing of EVM Remedies


As EVM is a complex system of practices involving more than just the application
of plant-based remedies to sick animals, it may give rise to misleading expectations
about the degree of efficacy of a single plant used as part of a cure. Diagnosis of a
disease made by a rural farmer may be inadequate as it is easier to identify symp-
toms than the actual cause of the disease. Dosages are not precise, contributing to the
perception that the remedies are not standardized. The methodology for validating
EVM should be scientifically acceptable but also must take into account the prob-
ability that EVM remedies might not work as powerfully as orthodox medicines.
They may not completely eliminate all microorganisms causing a particular disease,
but this could allow the body’s immune system to build up immunity against the
remaining organisms. It must be kept in mind that ethnoveterinary practices com-
prise a complex system and isolating one aspect for efficacy studies may not yield the
anticipated results, although the system might be adequate for the conditions in the
field. Fundamentally, if a plant-based ethnoveterinary remedy is to be deemed suit-
able for further development, efficacy and toxicity tests must meet certain standards.
Legal constraints must be kept in mind if commercial development is anticipated.
However, this standard is not so rigorous if the validation and understanding of EVM
is the aim of the study. Research can be used to select a particular remedy, improve
it through pharmacological and toxicological research, and then return it as a value-
added product to the community.
In EVM studies, traditional methods of dosage and preparation of remedies are
vital components often neglected for the sake of ease of preparation and standard-
ization of laboratory extracts for testing. For a more true reflection of efficacy of
the treatment, it would be advisable to closely follow if possible the preparation and
application technique employed by the indigenous user. On the other hand, there
is a case to be made for using standard scientific methods to prepare aqueous and
organic solvent extracts if extraction of a wide range of chemicals present in the plant
is desired for in vitro studies.
Traditional remedies may be composed of single plants or mixtures of plants,
and if mixtures are employed it is recommended to test not only the individual
component plants, but also the mixture in the correct proportions used tradition-
ally. Repeatability of activity is important, and together with well-designed screen-
ing programs to elucidate activity using complementary techniques, plant material
sourced from different areas could be included in a screening program. The accurate
identification of plant material is naturally essential, and numbered voucher speci-
mens should be deposited at a reputable herbarium to allow other researchers to
verify the identity of the plants as well as to make allowances for possible future
taxonomic revisions.
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 7

A further limitation in the laboratory testing of EVM remedies is the difficulty


in culturing parasitic nematodes and protozoa, for example. Parasitic infestations of
intestinal worms are commonly diagnosed and treated by livestock keepers. Some
model systems are available, such as the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis ele-
gans, for detecting anthelmintic activity, but sometimes the only true indication of
efficacy is activity in an animal model.
It is often not possible to assume efficacy in vivo after achieving good results with
in vitro tests. First, it may not be practical to extrapolate the dose from that which
is active in vitro to that which would be required to reach adequate plasma concen-
trations in the target species (Houghton et al., 2007). Bioavailability is an essential
consideration if the remedy is orally administered. Second, factors such as absorp-
tion and metabolism may be responsible for discrepancies between in vitro and in
vivo tests (Houghton et al., 2007). Even if rat models, for example, are used, differ-
ences have been noted between intraperitoneal and oral administration. This can be
explained inter alia by metabolic breakdown of compounds in the gastrointestinal
tract or by lack of absorption from the gut into the bloodstream (Laupattarakasem
et al., 2003). Absorption and metabolism can be affected by other compounds in the
extract that may enhance or inhibit absorption, and other compounds may upregu-
late metabolic enzymes in the liver. Houghton et al. (2007) noted that traditional
methods of preparation of plant-based medicines might remove or concentrate such
compounds, and if the correct method is not followed in making extracts for phar-
macological testing, then the extract may display different activities compared to the
extract prepared according to traditional methods.
Most activity investigations in the published scientific literature concentrate on in
vitro studies for practical, economic, and ethical reasons. Therefore, there exists an
unavoidable bias toward in vitro tests for evaluation of EVM remedies as this is what
is reflected in the available literature. Even in the case of in vivo studies, tests of
ethnoveterinary remedies in a laboratory where the animals are given fixed diets and
kept under controlled conditions, accurate indications of efficacy of the treatment
may not be discovered, while in the real-life situation, conditions under which the
animals are kept are more varied.

1.2.2 Extract Preparation
The variety of methods by which EVMs are prepared and administered to animals
complicates the task of evaluating activity of a particular remedy. The reason for
which the screening is being undertaken must be kept in mind when designing
the study, including preparation of the extract for pharmacological testing. If the
purpose is solely to validate the use of a certain remedy, then it is advisable to
closely follow the traditional method of preparation as many factors may influence
the activity of the resultant mixture. In addition, the route of administration must
somehow be taken into account. In some cases, it is thus possible that in vivo tests
are the only mechanism by which the efficacy of an EVM medicine can be verified.
Alternatively, careful design of in vitro screening systems may yield a reasonable
idea of the efficacy and nontoxicity of remedies. The selection of a screening sys-
tem will for the most part depend on the nature of the disease being investigated
8 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

and the availability of validated laboratory models to identify the relevant biologi-
cal activity.
For broader screening programs aimed at discovering biological activity in par-
ticular plants used in EVM, standardized methods are widely used. Care must be
taken to ensure that potentially active compounds are not lost during processing; for
example, some constituents may be thermolabile or photosensitive. Plant extracts
may be prepared using fresh material or, more commonly, dried powdered mate-
rial. The plant material can be extracted using water or organic solvents that vary in
polarity. For extraction of hydrophilic compounds, polar solvents such as methanol,
ethanol, and ethyl acetate can be used, while if lipophilic compounds are being tar-
geted, more nonpolar solvents such as dichloromethane and hexane may be used.
Eloff (1998b) examined a spectrum of solvents for their ability to extract antimi-
crobial compounds from plant material and other factors, including their hazardous
nature and ease of removal from the extract. The aim of the study was to identify
a more standardized extraction method, and acetone was highlighted as the solvent
with the best rating, followed in order by dichloromethane, methanol, ethanol, and
water. However, this may vary with the plant species or plant part under investigation
(see also Chapter 4).
Following extraction, appropriate handling of the extracts is important to avoid
decomposition of active compounds or other changes that may affect biological
activity. It is common practice to resuspend dried extract residues in the extracting
solvent to a known concentration prior to screening, provided the extract redissolves
adequately in the solvent and the solvent is not toxic in the testing system. In quan-
tifying the extract, some researchers dry down only a small aliquot of the extract to
determine the original concentration and then use the remaining intact extract for
testing. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is a popular solvent in which to prepare test
compound solutions at a stock concentration (Cos et al., 2006). Test stock solutions
in 100% DMSO have the advantages of elimination of microbial contamination, thus
obviating the need for filter sterilization, which may lead to loss of compounds, and
good compatibility with many test systems as a result of good solubility when diluted
to a working concentration in aqueous medium. As DMSO is potentially toxic for
cells in tissue culture or microorganisms, the final testing concentration of the sol-
vent should not exceed 1% (Cos et al., 2006). Acetone was put forward as the solvent
of choice for use in antibacterial testing systems as, at the concentrations used in a
serial broth microdilution assay, it was found to be nontoxic to various species of
bacteria tested (Eloff, 1998a). This was also held to be the case for antifungal assays
based on a similar method (Masoko, Picard, and Eloff, 2005). Regarding storage
issues, Cos et al. (2006) recommended that compounds and extracts should gener-
ally be stored without solvent for long-term storage or in 100% DMSO at −20°C
with minimal exposure to freeze-thaw cycles or humidity. This is meant to reduce
degradation of components. Storage in methylated solvents is not advised because of
the possible formation of artifacts.
In the following sections of this chapter, examples of EVM plants that have been
screened for biological activity, the methods used to screen them, and indications of
activity discovered in the plants are given. Particular emphasis is placed on treatments
for those diseases of importance in livestock. Techniques available for bioassaying
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 9

the plant preparations are described briefly and references given for more detailed
information. It is commonly found that there is an overlap between veterinary and
human medicine in many communities, but the emphasis here is on the former.

1.2.3 Antibacterial and Antifungal


Different classes of antibacterial assays have been described, and many of these
are applicable to antifungal detection as well. Antibacterial assays may be broadly
divided into agar diffusion, dilution, and bioautography methods. In agar diffusion,
a reservoir containing a known concentration of the test substance is brought into
contact with an inoculated medium, and the diameter of the inhibition zone (clear
zone) around the reservoir is measured after incubation. Before incubating, the com-
pounds from the reservoir are commonly allowed to diffuse into the agar medium
at a lower temperature for a few hours before inoculation with the test bacteria (Cos
et al., 2006). The types of reservoirs used can be filter paper disks placed on top of
the agar surface or wells punched into the agar, for example. Advantages of the sys-
tem include small sample requirements and the ability to test up to six extracts per
plate against one microorganism (Hadacek and Greger, 2000). However, a major dis-
advantage is that this method is not suitable for testing nonpolar samples or samples
that are unable to diffuse readily through the agar matrix (Cos et al., 2006).
With dilution methods, the test sample is mixed with a medium (liquid broth or
solid agar) inoculated with the test microorganism. Growth of the microorganism after
incubation can then be monitored in various ways. In agar dilution methods, the min-
imum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is the lowest concentration of test compound
able to inhibit visible microbial growth. In broth dilution methods, turbidity (measured
visually or spectrophotometrically) and redox indicators (commonly a tetrazolium salt,
e.g., p-iodonitrotetrazolium violet [INT], 3-4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl-2,5-diphenyl tet-
razolium bromide [MTT], or resazurin) are usually used to detect microbial growth.
The presence of “cidal” or “static” effects of a certain concentration of compound or
extract can be determined using broth dilution methods (Cos et al., 2006). Minimal
bactericidal or fungicidal concentrations (MBC or MFC, respectively) can be detected
by plating out samples at inhibitory concentrations onto agar and assessing growth
(static) or no growth (cidal) after incubation. Dilution methods are useful in testing
both polar and nonpolar extracts or compounds. The microdilution assay, using various
growth indicators, including tetrazolium salts, has been successfully used with fast-
growing species of mycobacteria, including Mycobacterium smegmatis, M. aurum,
and M. fortuitum, and with slow-growing species such as M. bovis and M. avium
(Chung et al., 1995; Franzblau et al., 1998; McGaw et al., 2008).
For quantifying antibacterial activity, Eloff (2000) proposed that the quantity of
material extracted from 1 g of dried plant material be divided by the MIC value to
give the total activity of the plant. This measure, in milliliters per gram, indicates
the largest volume to which 1 g of the extract (containing active compounds) can be
diluted and still inhibit growth of the bacterial (or fungal) species under investigation
and thus the potency of the extract.
Bioautography is a valuable technique that localizes antibacterial or antifungal
activity on a thin-layer chromatographic (TLC) plate. Components of an extract are
10 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

developed on a TLC plate using an appropriate mobile phase (i.e., one that separates
the compounds adequately but is also relatively volatile so it evaporates rapidly from
the plate). A balance needs to be struck between allowing sufficient time prior to
bioautography to pass for the eluting solvent to evaporate completely from the TLC
plate, but not too much time for the exposed compounds separated on the TLC plate
to decompose as a result of exposure to light and oxygen. In agar overlay bioautogra-
phy (Hamburger and Cordell, 1987; Rahalison et al., 1991), agar medium mixed with
bacterial or fungal culture before it solidifies is poured onto the TLC plate and incu-
bated. In a popular method that avoids the difficulties associated with compounds
not being able to diffuse into the agar medium from the TLC plate, a suspension of
bacteria or fungi in liquid medium is sprayed onto the developed TLC plate. This
is termed direct bioautography (Begue and Kline, 1972). After the plate is sprayed
with a suspension of a tetrazolium salt such as INT the presence of clear zones of
inhibition are visualized against a purple background to indicate microbial growth.
Bioautography facilitates bioassay-guided fractionation for the isolation of antibacte-
rial or antifungal compounds, but its use is restricted to those microorganisms that
are able to grow rapidly on a TLC plate with the limited amount of nutrients avail-
able for growth in the medium that adheres to the surface of the TLC plate. In this
regard, using the technique for filamentous fungi is inappropriate.
Selection of test bacterial species to use in a screening procedure is dependent on
the purpose of the study. For routine antibacterial screening, the National Committee
for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS, 1990) (Villanova, Pennsylvania,
USA) recommended the Gram-positive Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212) and
Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 29213) and the Gram-negative Escherichia coli (ATCC
25922) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853). For antifungal screening proj-
ects, representatives from the yeasts (e.g., Candida albicans), dermatophytic fungi
(e.g., Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Epidermophyton floccosum), and opportu-
nistic filamentous fungi (Aspergillus niger and Fusarium solani) could be included
(Cos et al., 2006). The NCCLS (1990) recommended an inoculum of approximately
105 cfu/mL for bacteria, while for yeasts and fungi an inoculum of between 103 to
104 colony-forming units (CFU)/mL is sufficient for dilution methods (Hadacek and
Greger, 2000). An inoculum size that is too low may give false positive results, while
a too large inoculum could increase false negatives (Cos et al., 2006).
It has been estimated that about 75% of rural livestock owners in the Eastern
Cape province of South Africa use plant-based treatments to treat their livestock
(Masika and Afolayan, 2002). When screened against a panel of 10 bacteria and 5
fungi, extracts of Combretum caffrum, Salix capensis, and Schotia latifolia showed
good activity against all the Gram-positive bacteria and some antifungal activity
(Masika and Afolayan, 2002). Most of the extracts were not active against the Gram-
negative bacterial species; interestingly, some water extracts actually promoted
fungal growth (Masika and Afolayan, 2002). This may have been due to nutritive
sugars, which partition into the aqueous fraction. The organisms used in this study
were selected from those generally associated with infections or disease in humans
and animals. Different concentrations of each plant extract were mixed with liq-
uid agar at approximately 60°C before being poured into Petri dishes. Solvent was
allowed to evaporate overnight from the plates, and bacteria or fungi were inoculated
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 11

onto the plates and inhibition of growth observed. It was concluded that the inhibi-
tion of growth of Gram-positive bacteria, the Gram-negative Enterobacter cloacae,
and several fungal species by water extracts of the plants indicated possible broad-
spectrum antimicrobial effects of the plants, validating to a degree the traditional use
of these plants (Masika and Afolayan, 2002).
Ethnoveterinary plants used to treat infectious diseases in cattle were screened in a
broth microdilution assay for antibacterial activity (McGaw, Van der Merwe, and Eloff,
2007) against the organisms recommended for antibacterial testing by the NCCLS
(1990). Hexane, methanol, and water extracts were found to be most active against the
Gram-positive E. faecalis and S. aureus. Gram-positive species are known to be more
susceptible to antimicrobials than are Gram-negative bacteria owing to differences in
the bacterial cell wall composition (Vlietinck et al., 1995). It was reported by McGaw,
Van der Merwe, and Eloff (2007) that a third of plant extracts tested had MIC values
less than 1 mg/mL, and it was largely methanol extracts that displayed activity.
Ziziphus mucronata (Rhamnaceae) demonstrated excellent antibacterial activity
in the preliminary assay (McGaw, Van der Merwe, and Eloff, 2007), and the antibac-
terial compounds 2,3-dihydroxyl-up-20-en-28-oic acid and zizyberanalic acid were
subsequently isolated from the leaves (Moloto, 2004). The first compound was very
active against Staphylococcus aureus, supporting claims of the efficacy of leaf pastes
of Z. mucronata for the treatment of bacterial infections in animals and humans.
Bizimenyera et al. (2005) identified substantial antibacterial activity against S.
aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Peltophorum africanum (Fabaceae), also
using the broth microdilution method. The root and bark extracts are used by farm-
ers to treat stomach ailments such as diarrhea and dysentery in cattle (Bizimenyera
et al., 2005), and the antibacterial activity discovered in extracts of the plant may
warrant its use against bacterial infections.
Rhizomes and roots of the popular ethnoveterinary plant Gunnera perpensa
(Gunneraceae) are used to treat endometritis and retained placenta in cattle and
women (Hutchings et al., 1996; Van Wyk, Van Oudtshoorn, and Gericke, 1997), and
the possibility that antibacterial effects could be responsible for its activity has been
investigated (McGaw et al., 2005; Drewes et al., 2005). Gunnera perpensa rhizome
extracts showed only slight activity against several Gram-negative and Gram-positive
bacterial species (McGaw, Jäger, and van Staden, 2000; McGaw et al., 2005), indi-
cating that antibacterial efficacy probably played a mere supporting role to the known
uterotonic activity (Kaido et al., 1997) in the reputed medicinal value of the rhizome.
Drewes et al. (2005) isolated 1,4-benzoquinones from the stem and leaves of G. per-
pensa. One of the benzoquinones had significant antimicrobial activity, with MIC =
9.8 µg/mL against Staphylococcus epidermidis (Drewes et al., 2005).
Noteworthy antifungal activity in several Terminalia species (Combretaceae) was
reported by Masoko, Picard, and Eloff (2005) against various morphological forms
of fungi, including yeasts (Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans), molds
(Aspergillus fumigatus), and thermally dimorphic fungi (Sporothrix schenckii).
These fungal species were carefully selected to represent a spectrum of clinical iso-
lates of the most common and important disease-causing fungi in animals. From
extracts of Terminalia leaves prepared using several organic solvents, the acetone
extracts were most active.
12 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

1.2.4 Antiviral
In vitro antiviral assay methods are often based on the abilities of viruses to rep-
licate in cell cultures. Certain viruses cause cytopathic effects (CPEs) or form
plaques in lawns of cells, facilitating detection of antiviral effects of a substance.
Inhibition of viral replication can also be discovered by monitoring the presence
of viral products, such as viral RNA, DNA, or polypeptides. Virucidal substances
inactivate the ability of a virus to be infective extracellularly and find application
as broad-spectrum biocides. Antiviral agents are more interesting as candidates
for clinical use because they may interfere with some aspect of viral biosynthesis
(Cos et al., 2006). Vlietinck and Vanden Berghe (1991) supplied a useful outline
of cell-based assays that can be used for antiviral or virucidal evaluation of pure
compounds or plant extracts.
Toxicity to the host cell system must be assessed as part of the antiviral investi-
gation. The Selectivity Index (SI) is the ratio of the maximum drug concentration
causing 50% (or 90%) growth inhibition of normal cells (CC50 or CC90, respectively)
and the minimum drug concentration at which 50% (or 90%) of the virus is inhibited
(IC50 or IC90, respectively). It is essential to gain an indication of cytotoxicity of the
test substance as, without this, results do not distinguish between antiviral effect and
effect against the host cell system.
The choice of viruses to use in a screening panel should include representatives
of DNA viruses and RNA viruses and could include criteria such as their ability to
replicate in the same cell culture. In the Phytomedicine Program at the University
of Pretoria, we have begun investigating antiviral activity of ethnoveterinary plants
against feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1) as an enveloped virus relatively sensitive
to environmental influences. Plants with good activity in this preliminary screen
are then assayed for activity against more resistant viruses, such as the lumpy skin
disease virus.
No reports could be found of EVM plants being tested for antiviral activity,
although many publications reported on efficacy of ethnobotanically chosen plants
against a number of different viruses (e.g., Kudi and Myint, 1999; Asres et al., 2001;
Lamien et al., 2005). To screen for antiviral activity, variations on virucidal assays
are available in the ethnopharmacological literature, and these mainly focus on inhi-
bition of viral CPE or plaque inhibition. In the virucidal assays, monolayers of the
appropriate host cell type are cultured in 96-well microtiter plates. In the cytotoxic-
ity aspect of the assay, serial dilutions of plant extract are exposed to the cells and
incubated for a defined period at 37°C in a 5% CO2 incubator. Following this, the
cells are examined using an inverted microscope for signs of damage. Alternatively,
a tetrazolium salt or other color indicator of cell viability may be used to detect
cytotoxicity compared to untreated cells. In the antiviral test, serial plant extract
dilutions are prepared as for the cytotoxicity assay, but virus is added to the cells.
In their study, Kudi and Myint (1999) applied tissue culture medium infective dose
(TCID50) of 105 viral particles (100 µL) to each well. The cultures were incubated for
an hour to allow adsorption of viral particles, after which 100 µL per well of plant
extract dilutions were added to the wells. The plates were incubated for a certain
period to allow development of CPEs, if any, and results compared to the controls
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 13

consisting of only cells and cells with virus only. A range of different viruses was
used in this method.
In an example of a plaque inhibition assay, Zhang et al. (2007) infected
monolayers of host (Vero) cells grown in six-well culture plates with 100–200
plaque-forming units (PFU) of herpes simplex virus (HSV). After incubating the
plates for 1 h to allow adsorption of the virus, the inoculum was aspirated from
the cells, and the cultures were overlaid with 0.8% methylcellulose in culture
medium containing dilutions of the test plant extract. After 3 days of incubation
at 37°C, the plates were fixed with formalin, stained with crystal violet, air dried,
and the number of plaques counted. Control plates consisted of those without
plant extract, and the percentage of plaque formation inhibition was calculated
as follows:

[(Mean number of plaques in control − Mean number of plaques in test)/(Mean


   number of plaques in control)] × 100

1.2.5 Antiprotozoal and Antirickettsial


Babesiosis is a protozoan, tick-borne disease affecting many vertebrate hosts.
The rhizome extract, prepared using acetone, of the popular ethnoveterinary
medicinal plant Elephantorrhiza elephantina was shown to have in vitro anti­
babesial activity (Naidoo et al., 2005). In this test system, Babesia caballi cul-
tures (isolated from a horse) were incubated in 24-well culture plates with plant
extracts at varying concentrations, together with uninfected blood. Parasite
growth inhibition was monitored initially by a change in the color of the culture
medium, where inhibited cultures remained bright red while unaffected protozoal
cultures turned a dark coffee color. Culture smears were then evaluated using
light microscopy to determine the percentage of infected cells. The registered
antibabesial drugs diminazene aceturate (Berenil) and imidocarb diproprionate
(Forray-65) were included as positive controls. Acetone extracts of Urginea san-
guinea, Rhoicissus tridentata, and Aloe marlothii were not active in this assay
(Naidoo et al., 2005).
Another important protozoal disease occurring in domestic livestock and
chickens is coccidiosis, which results from infection with Eimeria or Isospora
species. Coccidiosis causes losses worth millions of U.S. dollars annually in the
poultry industry, resulting from animal mortality or poor productivity as well as
costs of treatment (Williams, 1999). The use of plants to combat coccidiosis is an
emerging field of investigation as these remedies may function by mechanisms
different from those of conventional therapeutic agents. In one such study, four
plant extracts with reported antioxidant activity were screened for their anticoc-
cidial activity against an artificially induced mixed Eimeria infection in poultry
(Naidoo et al., 2008). Orally administered Combretum woodii was toxic to the
birds at a concentration of 160 mg/kg, while Tulbaghia violacea (35 mg/kg), Vitis
vinifera (75 mg/kg), and Artemisia afra (150 mg/kg) produced feed conversion
ratios similar to toltrazuril, the positive control, and higher than the untreated
14 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

control. Tulbaghia violacea significantly decreased the oocyst production in the


birds, and it was concluded that antioxidant-rich plant extracts have potential ben-
efits in treating and possibly preventing coccidial infections (Naidoo et al., 2008).
The results for extracts of T. violacea in particular provide momentum for more
detailed investigation of the plant as a potential therapeutic or prophylactic anti-
coccidial agent.
The antirickettsial activity of Elephantorrhiza elephantina and Aloe marlothii was
evaluated using an in vitro Ehrlichia ruminantium culture system (Naidoo, Chikoto,
et al., 2006). Acetone extracts of the leaves were incubated with E. ruminantium
cultures, and their activity was compared to that of oxytetracycline and untreated
controls. Elephantorrhiza elephantina and A. marlothii demonstrated EC50 values of
111.4 and 64.5 µg/mL and EC90 values of 228.9 and 129.9 µg/mL, respectively, indi-
cating good anti-ehrlichial activity. The EC50 and EC90 values for oxytetracycline
were 0.29 and 0.08 µg/mL, respectively. Naidoo, Chikoto, et al. (2006) surmised
that the plant extracts produced their inhibitory activity by a similar mechanism,
unrelated to that of the tetracyclines.

1.2.6 Anthelmintic
Helminth parasites of livestock are common in rural areas, and anthelmintic rem-
edies form a major component of EVM, as is the case with human traditional medi-
cine. Laboratory research on anthelmintic activity of plant extracts is constrained by
the expense, ethical issues and time associated with performing in vivo trials, and
the difficulties experienced in maintaining parasitic nematodes in culture systems
in vitro. A free-living nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, has been used as a model
organism in broad screening studies as it is easier and cheaper than using parasitic
nematodes (Simpkin and Coles, 1981; Rasoanaivo and Ratsimamanga-Urverg, 1993).
Notwithstanding the limitations encountered in extrapolating activity against a free-
living nematode to activity against a parasitic species (Geary and Thompson, 2001),
most commercially available broad-spectrum anthelmintics demonstrate activity
against C. elegans (Simpkin and Coles, 1981).
In vitro screening investigations have revealed that many plant extracts show
activity against the free-living C. elegans nematodes (McGaw, Jäger AK, and van
Staden, 2000; McGaw and Eloff, 2005; McGaw, Van der Merwe, and Eloff, 2007).
A rapid inhibition assay is easy and simple to perform and entails incubating varying
concentrations of plant extracts with nematodes for a defined period of 2 h and scor-
ing the percentage of paralyzed or dead nematodes in comparison to the untreated
control (Rasoanaivo and Ratsimamanga-Urverg, 1993). Using this assay, several
plant species belonging to the family Combretaceae exhibited interesting anthelm-
intic activity against C. elegans (McGaw et al., 2001). These studies may constitute a
first step in validating the use of these plants in treating worm infestations in animals
and in humans. In a more complicated screening system that evaluates the ability
of the nematodes to grow and reproduce, plant extracts are incubated with nema-
todes in appropriate culture medium with bacterial and fungal growth inhibitors in
24-well assay plates for 7 days, after which the percentage of surviving nematodes is
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 15

compared to that of the control wells (Simpkin and Coles, 1981; McGaw, Jäger AK,
and van Staden, 2000).
Plant extracts have also been tested using in vitro assays with parasitic nematode
eggs and larvae. Egg hatch and larval development inhibition against the two most
important livestock nematode parasites Haemonchus contortus and Trichostronglyus
colubriformis by various plant extracts have been reported. In these assays, the
nematodes are maintained in monospecifically infected lambs, and eggs are col-
lected from the feces. Test substances incubated with the freshly collected eggs may
inhibit hatching in the aptly termed egg hatch assay (Coles et al., 1992). The larval
development assay (Coles et al., 1988) detects the ability of plant extracts, or other
compounds, to retard development of the eggs into infective larvae. The combination
of the two assays can provide a practical indication of anthelmintic activity of plant
extracts or pure compounds isolated from the extracts.
Peltophorum africanum is a popular plant for use in treating helminthosis, and
the acetone extracts of the leaf, bark, and root have been screened for activity against
H. contortus and T. colubriformis in the egg hatch and larval development assays
(Bizimenyera, Githiori, Eloff, et al., 2006; Bizimenyera, Swan, et al., 2006). The
extracts all showed activity in the assays at a concentration of 0.2 mg/mL, providing
some support for the use of this plant in traditional medicine. Further confirmation
of nontoxicity and efficacy is required, particularly in vivo. Various animal models
have been used to detect anthelmintic effects of plant extracts (Kahiya, Mukaratirwa,
and Thamsborg, 2003; Iqbal et al., 2006; Jabbar et al., 2007).

1.2.7 Antitick
Tick-borne diseases are a major source of concern for livestock farmers. Research
has been undertaken on the repellent and toxic effects of plant extracts against ticks,
with promising results thus far. Nchu (2004) analyzed the repellent effects of extracts
of Allium species, as well as the direct toxicity, against adults of Hyalomma mar-
ginatum rufipes. Acetone extracts of A. porrum revealed a high repellency index
(65–79.48%), and the dichloromethane extract of A. sativum was toxic to 100%
of ticks within an hour of exposure. Lippia javanica and Tagetes minuta essential
oils had a concentration-dependent effect on the ticks (Nchu, 2004), and T. minuta
delayed molting to adult stage of 60% of engorged nymphs of H. m. rufipes in a
growth inhibition bioassay. Thembo (2006) showed that Senna italica ssp. ara-
choides ethyl acetate extracts had a concentration-dependent acaricidal effect on
H. m. rufipes. When S. italica ssp. arachoides aqueous extracts were fed to guinea
pigs and rabbits, the feeding performance of adult H. m. rufipes ticks appeared to be
impaired (Thembo, 2006).
Plants are used in many African countries as antitick agents on livestock, and 28
of these plants from Ethiopia showed promising repellency activities against adult
Rhipicephalus pulchellus ticks, with Calpurnia aurea displaying the highest toxic-
ity toward the ticks (Zorloni, 2007). Some plants used in South Africa as traditional
arthropocides were screened for antitick effects, with Eucalyptus globoidea and
Lavendula angustifolia emerging as effective tick repellents (Mkolo, 2008).
16 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

1.2.8 Antioxidant
The current literature reveals a proliferation of recent articles describing antioxidant
activity of plant extracts. It should be kept in mind from the outset that most flower-
ing plants contain some antioxidants, and the activity of a plant against a certain
disease generally cannot be explained exclusively in terms of its antioxidant activ-
ity (Houghton et al., 2007). Oxidative damage caused by free radicals, or reactive
oxygen species, has been implicated in contributing to the progression of a number
of diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, many cancers, and diabetes. Various in
vitro screening systems for antioxidant activity have been described, including those
based on chemical reactions, for example, the diphenyl–picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free-
radical scavenging test (Mensah et al., 2004), those involving biological models such
as liposomes to mimic cell wall lipids (Dickson et al., 2006), and those involving
cells challenged with prooxidants (Mensah et al., 2001).
The TEAC (trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity) assay described by Re et al.
(1999) has a major advantage in that it is applicable to both aqueous and lipophilic
systems. It is a decolorization assay that measures antioxidant activity in compari-
son to trolox, a water-soluble vitamin E analogue. This assay begins with generation
of the radical monocation 2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), or
ABTS+, a blue-green compound produced by reacting ABTS with potassium sulfate.
When the free radical is incubated with antioxidants, these compounds reduce the
radical to colorless ABTS, and this reaction depends on the concentration of the
antioxidant and the time during which the reaction is allowed to occur. The level of
decolorization as percentage inhibition of the free radical is calculated relative to the
reactivity of trolox under identical conditions (Re et al., 1999).
The widely used ethnoveterinary plant Peltophorum africanum is used to pro-
mote well-being and resistance to diseases in cattle, in addition to the previously
mentioned use in treating stomach upsets (Bizimenyera et al., 2005). On screen-
ing the plant for antioxidant activity using the TEAC assay, it was found that root
extracts possessed good antioxidant activity, particularly the ethanol extract of the
root. The level of polyphenols in the roots was also high, probably contributing in
large part to the overall antioxidant activity (Bizimenyera et al., 2005). In the study
of Naidoo et al. (2008), plant extracts with high antioxidant activity were shown to
be effective in treating coccidiosis infections in chickens.
After Naidoo et al. (2005) reported that extracts of Rhoicissus tridentata, a plant
used for the treatment of babesiosis in cattle, were not effective in an in vitro antib-
abesial assay, it was proposed that the reputed efficacy of this plant may result from
a reduction in antioxidant cellular injury (Naidoo, Zweygarth, and Swan, 2006).
Antioxidant evaluation of acetone extracts of different plant parts revealed good
activity in the DPPH assay and in the TEAC assay (value of 2.5). The activity was
held to owe in part to the presence of catechin, epicatechin, gallic acid, and epigallo-
catechin-gallate in the tuber acetone extracts as demonstrated by high-performance
liquid chromatographic (HPLC) analysis (Naidoo, Zweygarth, and Swan, 2006). It
was concluded that R. tridentata might be effective in animals infected with babe-
siosis by limiting the degree of oxidative cellular injury (Naidoo, Zweygarth, and
Swan, 2006).
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 17

1.2.9 Anti-inflammatory and Wound Healing


Many disease conditions are associated with excessive inflammation (e.g., arthritis,
eczema, and asthma), so assays detecting inhibition of one of the many biochemi-
cal processes related to inflammation are commonly used as in vitro screens for
anti-inflammatory activity (Houghton et al., 2007). These include tests for cycloox-
ygenase inhibition, lipoxygenase inhibition, inhibition of eicosanoid synthesis, or
nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) production.
Traditional EVM makes use of many preparations to treat wounds in livestock
animals as such wounds may lead to more serious problems. Wound healing is a
complex combination of processes, including inflammation, cell proliferation, col-
lagen formation, and contraction of the collagen lattice (Houghton et al., 2007).
Healing of the wound may be complicated by the presence of microbial infection
and destruction of cells and tissues by reactive oxygen species. If a livestock owner
uses a particular plant medicine to treat wounds, this preparation may affect one
or more of the processes described. Therefore, a battery of in vitro tests should be
conducted to verify the wound-healing activity of the extract, such as stimulation
of fibroblast proliferation, antibacterial activity, and free-radical scavenging effects.
Anti-inflammatory activity may provide short-term relief. The development of tests
for wound healing, from in vivo tests to cell-based systems and chemical reactions
and further to investigations into effects on secondary messengers and protein
expression, has been described by Houghton et al. (2005).
In an efficacy study of South African plants used for wound healing and against
retained placenta, Luseba et al. (2007) discovered that several dichloromethane
extracts displayed antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activity. Extracts of Cissus
quadrangularis stem and Jatropha zeyheri root showed selective inhibition against
cyclooxygenase-2 in the anti-inflammatory experiments. Even though water is tradi-
tionally the most commonly used solvent to prepare medicinal extracts, the activity
of organic extracts need not be disregarded. According to Luseba et al. (2007), in the
treatment of livestock wounds the whole plant material is often locally applied, and
in the case of complaints such as retained placenta, for which the treatment mixtures
are given orally (and are unlikely to be filtered), active ingredients may be released.
EVM remedies may in some cases be applied topically to wounds or skin infec-
tions, and rodent models to evaluate in vivo effects of plant extracts and compounds
isolated from them with promising in vitro activity have been reported (Kruger,
2004; Masoko, 2006). In these methods, a number of small topical wounds are cre-
ated on the back of a shaved rat, and if investigating antibacterial or antifungal activ-
ity as well as wound-healing effects, a bacterial or fungal culture may be used to
infect some of the lesions. Following this, preparations of extract or compound in
aqueous cream are applied to the wound, and various parameters such as erythema,
exudate, and wound diameter are monitored throughout the duration of the study.
Signs of toxicity are noted, and gross pathology is performed on necropsy. Owing
to the fact that approximately six wounds can be made on each rat, the rats serve as
their own controls to reduce the number of rats used in the study. One wound acts as
an untreated control, another is treated with a standard antibiotic, and the remaining
wounds are treated with test preparations. To allow this reduction in the number of
18 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

animals used, the assumption is made that systemic effects of the topically applied
medication are nonexistent.

1.3 Toxicity Studies
Toxicity investigations on EVM plant extracts are necessary, both to evaluate
the potential toxic effects toward the animal being treated and to exclude false-
positive activity results in antimicrobial assays arising from nonspecific toxic
properties. In southern Africa, there is a rich floral diversity, and approximately
600 toxic species are known to occur in this region (Kellerman, Coetzer, and
Naudé, 1992). Van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha (2001) commented that side
effects and toxicity associated with the medicinal use of plants in EVM were
rarely reported, although several plants used have potentially dangerous toxic
effects (e.g., Boophane disticha, Ricinus communis, and Solanum species). The
lack of toxic reports was ascribed to the relatively small quantities used in tradi-
tional medicines (van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001). Toxicity is affected in
ruminants by the degradation or binding of toxins by the ruminal microflora or
the digestive tract, as harmless precursors can be converted to toxic substances
or less toxic substances can be changed to more toxic ones (Naudé, Coetzer, and
Kellerman, 1992). It is therefore important to evaluate potential toxic effects of
EVM remedies, particularly those preferred for oral dosing. A screening regi-
men that includes assays to test for genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and in vivo toxicity
(acute and chronic) is advised. This section is only touched on as other chapters
in this volume deal with this aspect in more detail.
Several approaches have been followed to assess toxicity of natural remedies,
including testing for genotoxic effects using in vitro bacterial and mammalian cell
assays such as the Ames test, micronucleus test, and comet assay (Fennell et al.,
2004). Luseba et al. (2007) tested dichloromethane and 90% methanol extracts of
12 South African plants used to treat retained placenta and wounds in livestock for
mutagenicity and found that none of the extracts was mutagenic in the Ames test
using Salmonella typhimurium strain TA98 without metabolic activation.
A quick and easy way to gain a preliminary indication of cytotoxicity is to submit
extracts to the brine shrimp assay. This assay has been used to detect in vitro cyto-
toxic or pharmacological effects (Solís et al., 1993) as activity in this assay has been
correlated with cytotoxicity in a number of cell lines, including 9KB, P388, L5178Y,
and L1210 (Meyer et al., 1982; McLaughlin, 1991; De Rosa, De Giulio, and Iodice,
1994; McLaughlin, Rogers, and Anderson, 1998). The brine shrimp assay involves
incubating test substances with freshly hatched brine shrimp larvae and detecting
percentage mortality of the larvae. A shortcoming of this technique is that it does not
account for metabolic activation of the test extracts or compounds, and it is difficult
to extrapolate toxicity against a crustacean to mammalian cytotoxicity even though
correlations have been noted with cytotoxicity in some cell lines. As an example,
McGaw and Eloff (2005) reported that few extracts of plants known to be toxic to
livestock were active in the brine shrimp assay. In a later study of plants used to treat
cattle for various ailments (McGaw, Van der Merwe, and Eloff, 2007), the lowest
IC50 value recorded was 0.6 mg mL−1.
Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants 19

Cytotoxicity assays using cell lines are generally relatively easy to perform,
although specialized cell culture facilities are required. A range of cells may be
used, including continuous commercially available cell lines as well as primary cells
derived from animals. Various indicators of cell viability following incubation with
plant extracts may be used, including those to detect mitochondrial activity or cel-
lular integrity.

1.4 Conclusion
Research on natural products from plants traditionally used to treat animals as well
as humans is a key mechanism for identifying new chemical entities that may have
interesting biological activity. Isolation of active compounds is not the only use-
ful pathway in medicinal studies. Optimization of extract preparations by removing
bulky inactive constituents while leaving behind compounds that may have a syn-
ergistic or additive beneficial effect may also lead to useful medications. This could
be of particular value when considering primary health care systems in rural areas
as well as assisting rural livestock owners in managing disease in their animals.
Standardized and formulated plant extracts may be an initiative for developing coun-
tries to follow up in originating successful pharmaceutical industries that can com-
pete with Western pharmaceutical companies for the treatment of various diseases,
in both humans and animals (Pieters and Vlietinck, 2005). With the current con-
troversy over antibiotic use as growth promoters in production animals, plants with
positive effects on the growth and well-being of animals may provide alternatives to
be investigated in this lucrative market.
It should be kept in mind that EVM involves a complex system that merges
treatment of diseases with herbal and other remedies with management practices
such as disease prevention. To meet the aims of validating the uses of plants in
EVM and developing and providing more cost-effective veterinary remedies, other
factors such as socioeconomic assessments must take place in conjunction with
pharmacological evaluations of efficacy and toxicity. Economic considerations
must be taken into account; for example, a particular natural remedy may be less
effective than a commercial treatment, but a cost-benefit analysis may reveal that
using EVM is economically more beneficial. Management and prevention issues
are integral to successful animal health care management, and promotion of the
use of pharmacologically proven and nontoxic plant medicines is part of this man-
agement system.
In this chapter, the emphasis has of necessity been placed on in vitro evaluation of
biological activity as a result of the shortage of in vivo studies concerning EVM rem-
edies. Ethnopharmacological researchers must assimilate the strengths and weak-
nesses of in vitro tests and take into account pharmacokinetic factors, traditional
methods of preparation of medicines, the effect of other added substances or adulter-
ants, and the dose showing activity. The use of accepted laboratory testing equiva-
lents to animal studies is ethically and economically desirable. More than one test
system related to the disease under investigation should be employed to evaluate bio-
logical activity, appropriate test organisms must be used, and activity should ideally
be confirmed by in vivo tests if sufficiently justified. Standardization of techniques to
20 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

improve interlaboratory comparisons of results with different plants analyzed for the
same activity is a priority. These methods for evaluating efficacy need to be specific
and rapid and not require a large quantity of material. While activity in vitro does not
necessarily confirm the efficacy and safety of a plant extract, it may provide prelimi-
nary indications of the usefulness and potential toxicity of the plant.
Validation is essential to avoid perpetuation of the preconceived notion that tra-
ditional medicine is primitive and inherently inferior. Strides have been taken in
evaluating the usefulness of human ethnomedicine, and similar action needs to be
taken to objectively evaluate EVM to avoid negative stereotypes that obscure the
potential benefits to be obtained from traditional ethnoveterinary practices as well as
plant-based natural remedies. Investigating the biological activity of ethnoveterinary
plants may provide valuable leads for further targeted research that could generate
marketable products, whether potentized extracts, isolated compounds, or modified
compounds of natural origin. Overall, ethnoveterinary knowledge is an important
resource that stands to benefit not only those pastoralists currently making use of
traditional remedies to treat their animals, but also researchers seeking innovative
and effective treatments for animal and human disease worldwide.

Acknowledgments
The National Research Foundation (South Africa), University of Pretoria, and the
Claude Leon Foundation are gratefully acknowledged for financial support.

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2 Logistical and Legal
Considerations in
Ethnoveterinary Research
Mary Chikombero and Dibungi Luseba

Contents
2.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................25
2.2 Medicinal Plant Gathering and Storage..........................................................26
2.3 Data Analysis................................................................................................... 27
2.4 The Convention on Biological Diversity..........................................................28
2.4.1 Access and Benefit Sharing................................................................. 29
2.4.1.1 The Principles of ABS.......................................................... 29
2.4.1.2 Problems with ABS Legislation........................................... 31
2.4.2 Intellectual Property and the World Trade Organization.................... 33
2.5 Case Studies of National Laws........................................................................ 35
2.5.1 An Asian Example: India.................................................................... 35
2.5.2 Model Law from Latin America: Costa Rica...................................... 36
2.5.3 Out of Africa: South Africa................................................................. 38
2.6 Conclusion and Recommendations..................................................................40
References.................................................................................................................40

2.1 Introduction
Globalization has brought new challenges to the protection of biodiversity. The
unprecedented loss of biodiversity in the past few decades due to industrial exploita-
tion and overharvesting has raised global concerns. The manner in which bioprospect-
ing, particularly among indigenous people and the use of traditional knowledge, has
been carried out in the past has also been heavily criticized, and such criticisms
have centered around allegations of biopiracy, unfair distribution of benefits, ille-
gal appropriation of traditional knowledge, and unethical conduct when it comes to
filing and claiming patents on indigenous biological resources.
To tackle these problems, various legal regimes have been instituted at interna-
tional, regional, and national levels in a bid to promote the sustainable utilization
of biodiversity, including medicinal indigenous plants. This chapter discusses plant
and information gathering and then outlines the concept of access and benefit shar-
ing (ABS) as one of the approaches adopted at the international level, through the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), to protect biodiversity. Some of the

25
26 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

challenges of implementing ABS regulations on the local level are also identified.
Intellectual property (IP) rights issues and the World Trade Organization (WTO)
agreement are also discussed since the proper implementation of the CBD also has
an impact on IP rights. Relevant legislation from South Africa, India, and Costa Rica
regulating ABS is given as case studies of national laws that have included the CBD
provisions/principles.

2.2 Medicinal Plant Gathering and Storage


People have used ethnoveterinary medicines (EVMs) for generations, and many rea-
sons have been advanced regarding why the practice continues. Farmers claim that
medicinal plants are more efficacious than pharmaceuticals for chronic pathologies.
They are reputed to have no side effects, and no withdrawal periods for consumption
of meat from treated animals are needed since the plants are thought to be nontoxic. In
general, ethnoveterinary products are used after conventional pharmaceutical medi-
cines, for chronic cases, have proved ineffective (Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006).
Traditional knowledge is passed orally from one generation of knowledge holders
to the next both formally and informally. In this form of knowledge transmission,
plant names that are different from the common names may be used to protect privi-
leged knowledge. Uninformed persons may not be familiar with the nomenclature
that traditional healers and knowledge holders use and will therefore not be able
to collect medicinal plants by themselves (Reyneke, 1971). Social conventions also
control the collection of indigenous plant material to some extent. For example, the
felling of fruit trees such as Sclerocarya birrea (Marula tree) is often prohibited;
the gathering of medicinal plants may be seasonally restricted; and the vegetation
around cemeteries may be protected by various taboos (Cunningham, 1988).
In general, traditional healers are not consulted for animal health care. They may
be consulted to find lost animals or for advice and medicines to protect animals
against witchcraft and ill winds. Most of the farmers learn about traditional treat-
ments from older family members and other farmers. There is little reference to
ancestral guidance as seen in human traditional medicine. Farmers are interested in
knowing the medicines used by others, and they are willing to share the information.
This is contrary to traditional healers, who tend to keep their knowledge to them-
selves as it may be their only source of livelihood.
Plant parts that are harvested include roots, tubers, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits,
seeds, gums, and nectar (Van Wyk, Van Oudtshoorn, and Gericke, 1997). The phar-
maceutical and toxicological effects of different parts of a plant may differ substan-
tially (Iwu, 1993; Van Wyk, Van Oudtshoorn, and Gericke, 1997). Plant parts that
tend to be constantly available such as roots and bark are used more often than plant
parts such as seed or leaves, which may be seasonal (Iwu, 1993). However, the har-
vesting of roots frequently destroys plants (Van Wyk, Van Oudtshoorn, and Gericke,
1997). The same applies to overharvesting of bark, while collection of leaves, fruits,
seeds, and gum is usually less destructive (Cunningham, 1990).
Medicinal plants are used either fresh or after a period of storage. Plant material
is usually stored in a dried form. It may be cut into slices to facilitate drying. Dried
material is sometimes powdered before storage. Plant material is stored in bags,
Logistical and Legal Considerations in Ethnoveterinary Research 27

newspaper, glass jars, and cans. Stored plants should be protected from exposure to
sun, water, dust, wind, and contact with strangers. Plant material intended for sale in
markets is often tied into bundles (Van Wyk, Van Oudtshoorn, and Gericke, 1997).
However, ethnoveterinary herbal materials are often used fresh because they are col-
lected when necessary (Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006).
Rapid rural appraisal (RRA) methods are preferably used when gathering infor-
mation from communities (Beebe, 1995). It is important to organize meetings with
traditional leaders and the state veterinary service officers at the onset to explain the
purpose of the research. Oral interviews can thereafter be conducted with farmers
at dipping tanks in groups or individually. It is important to interview traditional
healers and herbalists since their knowledge is rarely shared with farmers. In most
cases, the interviews are conducted through a translator, who may be one of the local
animal health officers. A general feedback session should be organized to correct,
harmonize, and share the information among farmers. Key areas of investigation
and discussions are the farmer’s socioeconomic profile, animal husbandry, and local
knowledge of animal health care (ethnoetiology, ethnodiagnostics, treatments, and
disease control). Detailed information on plants used is recorded, including local
names of the remedies, indications, preparations, routes of administration, and dos-
age if applicable.
Plants should be collected under the guidance of the respondents. Botanical data
should be collected using a collection form. Notes are also taken from discussions
with respondents. Pictures of the plants are recorded with a digital camera, and pre-
cise coordinates of the locations taken with a global positioning system instrument,
if possible. Two to three specimens of each plant species are collected, labeled, and
pressed for voucher specimen. If a qualified plant taxonomist is not involved in the
collection, a specimen needs to be sent to a specialized botanical institution for iden-
tification. This is important because a single plant species may have different com-
mon or local names, or the same name is given sometimes to plants of different
genera or species. Approximately 2 kg fresh plant materials are usually collected;
dried under the shade, ground, and stored in darkened glass jars to prevent oxida-
tion; and kept for subsequent laboratory investigations (Luseba and Van der Merwe,
2006). Special attention should be given to succulent plants because they are prone
to contamination by fungi. Freeze-drying or drying in autoclave at 40% has been
suggested in the case of succulents (e.g., Aloe species).

2.3 Data Analysis
Data can be analyzed by pairwise and matrix ranking. Statistical measures of cen-
tral tendency, dispersion, and percentages are computed using appropriate statistical
packages, such as the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS Inc.). Statistical
methods can also be used to identify plants used most frequently in veterinary medi-
cine, based on the frequency of association of a particular or perceived medicinal
value (botanical consistency) and the frequency of a particular plant species associ-
ated with or used to treat a particular disease (Matekaire and Bwakara, 2004). This
is referred to as consistency of veterinary usage. There is consistency when the same
plant genus or family is mentioned at least twice for treating the same illness.
28 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

2.4 The Convention on Biological Diversity


At the international regulatory level, countries have negotiated the CBD, which was
concluded at Rio de Janeiro on June 5, 1992. The CBD is a remarkable framework
instrument that lays down broad goals, key objectives, and general principles to be
implemented by contracting parties through measures at the national level. The three
objectives of the CBD are stated in Article 1 as the conservation of biological diver-
sity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the
benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources. The CBD has been ratified
by 191 countries; notably, the United States has signed but has not ratified the treaty
(Cordell, 2000).
The CBD sought to reconcile the diverging interests between states with rich bio-
logical diversity (mainly the developing countries of the global south) and states with
advanced technology (industrialized nations) by introducing the concept of ABS.
Through the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, contracting
parties (signatories to the convention) agreed to come together to conserve biological
diversity and to negotiate its access. In the context of the CBD, access and benefit
sharing is a phrase used to describe access granted by a contracting party of the CBD
to its genetic resources to another contracting party to the CBD, with such access on
mutually agreed terms (MAT) and subject to fair and equitable sharing of the results
and benefits of any research carried out on the resources. The ABS provisions of the
CBD have caused controversial debates between developing and developed countries
and among advocacy groups, including indigenous and local communities, business,
and industry (Siebenhuner and Suplie, 2005). Further, the progress toward achieving
the objectives of the CBD has been painfully slow as many countries still have to
pass national legislation to give effect to the spirit of the convention.
Regulating ABS issues is rather complex and challenging, and in most cases it is
an area that is not easily understandable as it involves a milieu of socioeconomic,
legal, scientific, and environmental issues. Three regional groups—the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Andean Pact (comprising Bolivia, Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela), and the Organization of African Unity (OAU)—have
taken the approach of preparing guidelines for member states to encourage regional
consistency in approaching ABS regulation and to help their member states in pre-
paring the complex legislation required (International Development Research Center
[IDRC], 2004).
The ASEAN has the ASEAN Framework Agreement on Access to Biological and
Genetic Resources (draft text; ASEAN, 2000) while the Andean Pact has Decision
391 on Common Regime on Access to Genetic Resources (Andean Community
Commission, 1996). For its part, the OAU (now the African Union) has the African
Model Legislation for the Protection of the Rights of Local Communities, Farmers
and Breeders and for the Regulation of Access to Biological Resources (OAU, 2000).
The regional guidelines set minimum standards for member state domestic laws and
have taken different approaches to regulating the ABS area.
In addition to the regional efforts, there is another international initiative that is
aimed at assisting with the implementation of the ABS provisions of the CBD. This
is the Bonn Guidelines on Access to Genetic Resources and Fair and Equitable
Logistical and Legal Considerations in Ethnoveterinary Research 29

Sharing of Benefits Arising Out of Their Utilization adopted in May 2002 (CBD
Secretariat, 2000). These are, however, not binding as they are merely guidelines;
they are voluntary and flexible and were designed mainly to facilitate the develop-
ment process of national ABS laws and policies. The guidelines outline the roles and
responsibilities of users and providers of genetic resources and encourage stakehold-
ers to use a bilateral approach to facilitate ABS goals (Carrizosa et al., 2004). The
key issues that are contained in the Bonn guidelines include advice on:

1. Involvement of relevant stakeholders and capacity building


2. Steps to be taken in the ABS negotiating process
3. Elements of prior informed consent (PIC)
4. Monetary and nonmonetary benefits and incentives
5. National monitoring and reporting and accountability

2.4.1 Access and Benefit Sharing


Historically, genetic resources were regarded as a “common heritage” of human-
kind that belonged to the public domain and could not be owned by a single group
(Soejator et al., 2005). The advances in biotechnological research and the rise of the
concomitant IP over discoveries from living material have contributed to a change
in the customary treatment of genetic resources as a common good (Van Overwalle,
2005). Article 15(1) of the CBD recognized the sovereign rights of member states over
their natural resources and gives authority to determine access to genetic resources
to national governments subject to national legislation (CBD, 1992). Member states
are therefore supposed to protect their genetic resources and accompanying tradi-
tional or indigenous knowledge by enacting appropriate national ABS legislation.
Access to genetic resources is, however, subject to PIC, a fair and equitable sharing
of benefits arising from commercial or other utilization of said resources. Access
and transfer of relevant technology, which is subject to patents and IP rights, should
be provided on terms that recognize and offer adequate and effective protection of
such rights.

2.4.1.1 The Principles of ABS


The principles of ABS center around negotiations and agreement on PIC, MAT
and benefit sharing (BS). The CBD stipulated that the granting of access to genetic
resources shall be on MAT and subject to PIC of the country of origin. The CBD also
recognized the important role of indigenous and local communities in conserving
and sustainably using biological diversity and stated that the benefits arising from
their knowledge and innovation should be equitably shared.
The regional and national procedures are naturally different, but they all aim to
achieve the same goals of conservation, sustainable use of resources, and fair com-
pensation to access. For example, the African Model Legislation for the Protection
of the Rights of Local Communities, Farmers and Breeders and for the Regulation
and Access to Biological Resources of the OAU provides that any access to bio-
logical resources and knowledge or technologies of local communities in any part
of the country shall be subject to an application for the necessary PIC and written
30 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

permit. The access permit shall be granted by national governments in terms of their
national legislation and through a signed written agreement between the government
concerned, the local community or communities, and the applicant or collector.

2.4.1.1.1 Prior Informed Consent


The CBD formalized the need to get PIC to access biological material and for utiliz-
ing traditional knowledge. It recognized the value of ethnobotany and the wealth
of information that traditional or indigenous communities possess. In doing so, the
CBD further required member states to respect, preserve, and maintain knowledge,
innovations, and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying tradi-
tional lifestyles relevant for conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity
and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders
of such knowledge, innovations, and practices, as discussed in Articles 8(j), 10(c),
17(2), and 18(4) (CBD, 1992).
PIC was not defined in the CBD, but several authors have identified essential
elements as follows:

• Prior: Before access is granted.


• Informed: Access should be based on truthful information about how
resources or knowledge will be used. Such information should be adequate
for national authorities to understand any implications associated with
granting access to the resources or knowledge.
• Consent: There is need for explicit consent of the government and other
stakeholders of the country providing the genetic resources (Ten Kate and
Laird, 1999, page 27).

The need to get PIC has brought with it a number of challenges for companies or
individuals involved in bioprospecting. Bioprospectors are now required to get consent
not only from the state but also from other interested stakeholders (e.g., communities,
land owners, collaborating institutions, and others; Wynberg and Laird, 2007). This is
obviously time consuming and expensive and may be impossible in some cases.

2.4.1.1.2 Mutually Agreed Terms


In terms of the CBD, access to genetic resources, traditional knowledge, and the
sharing of benefits derived from using such resources and knowledge shall be based
on MAT (CBD, 1992). In most cases, national laws of countries that provide biodi-
versity and traditional knowledge prescribe that contractual arrangements are the
legal instrument to regulate access to genetic resources, such as through material
transfer agreements (MTAs). The question remains, however, whether these are
well-balanced contracts considering that the provider countries or communities are
poor and typically lack the necessary negotiation skills (van Overwalle, 2005).
The CBD encourages member states to enter into bilateral agreements, but diffi-
culties may be encountered when using the indigenous knowledge of a community
that is considered an enemy by the member state. It is also difficult to determine
Logistical and Legal Considerations in Ethnoveterinary Research 31

with whom agreements should be made as it is difficult to identify the official


guardians of the knowledge and the exact boundaries of an indigenous culture
(Fenwick, 1998).

2.4.1.1.3 Benefit Sharing
As pointed out, one of the objectives of the CBD was the fair and equitable sharing
of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. CBD stated that BS
shall be on MAT. Contracting parties to the CBD have an obligation to take legisla-
tive, administrative, or policy measures to ensure the fair and equitable sharing of
the results of research and development and the benefits arising from the commercial
and other utilization of genetic resources (CBD, 1992). The sharing of benefits is
important because community groups must feel that their resources are not being
stolen from them, and those making substantial investments in the development of
products must feel that they can protect their added value (Cordell, 2000).
National legislation of CBD member states and regional guidelines address the
issue of sharing benefits derived from genetic resources. However, it has been argued
that the fair and equitable sharing of benefits is a global transnational problem that
requires an international response since it involves actors and stakeholders from vari-
ous countries with highly divergent interests, ranging from development aid agencies
and commercial interests in the pharmaceutical and agroindustry to pure academic
research (Siebenhuner and Suplie, 2005).
In sharing benefits, the state and the community or communities are recognized
to be entitled to a share of the earnings derived from using any biological resources
or knowledge collected directly or indirectly. The benefits may be monetary or non-
monetary (e.g., technology transfer, training and research capacity building, and IP).
Examples of cases in which indigenous people or local communities have benefited
from bioprospecting activities include the Kani in India, who receive a proportion
of the license fee and royalty from commercialization of Jeevani, a herbal drug that
“rejuvenates and builds strength,” and the San in southern Africa, who receive a
proportion of royalties from the sales of hoodia (a succulent plant used by the San
to stave off hunger and thirst) (Wynberg and Laird, 2007). However, it is believed
that the main reasons hindering the realization of the CBD objective of “fair and
equitable benefit sharing” is the time lag between the collection of samples and the
development of a marketable product and the low probability that a sample will suc-
ceed in a product. For example, in the pharmaceutical sector it takes 10 to 15 years of
research to develop a marketable product from botanical or marine natural products
(Richerzhagen and Holm-Mueller, 2005).

2.4.1.2 Problems with ABS Legislation


Many countries find the establishment of ABS regulations containing the ABS prin-
ciples as enshrined in the CBD challenging as it involves high costs for consulta-
tions, employment of more staff, and technical and legal personnel for negotiating
contracts and policing. The complexity of the ABS concept and the fear of biopiracy
has resulted in some countries overregulating access to biological resources. Many
bioprospectors (companies, institutions, and researchers) regard ABS laws in some
32 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

countries as unclear, bureaucratic, and time consuming and compliance as expensive


(Richerzhagen, 2007).
The major problems identified with ABS legislation are bureaucracy, overregu-
lation, negative impact on research, tension and suspicions, biopiracy, community
conflict, and commodifying of culture or traditions.

1. Bureaucracy. In many developing countries, the process of obtaining


access to genetic resources is often met with administrative complexities,
such as bureaucratic procedures and a lack of institutional capacity to pro-
cess applications on time (Richerzhagen, 2007). For example, the process
of getting PIC from all interested stakeholders and formalizing this into an
agreement may take up to 2 years. In India, it takes about 1–3 years to get a
permit (Wynberg and Laird, 2007).
2. Overregulation. Some countries have implemented strict and onerous legal
regimes to regulate access. This position negatively affects the research
conducted by universities and research institutions as researchers are wor-
ried about being accused of biopiracy, which has a negative impact on their
academic standing and reputation (Richerzhagen, 2007). Overly restrictive
rules may also have a negative impact on the pharmaceutical research of
that country as its development will lag behind those countries with less-
strict rules (Cordell, 2000).
3. Negative impact on research. The scientific research community has voiced
concerns about national laws, arguing that license fees add to costs of research,
and some laws are so onerous that they restrict researchers’ academic rights
(Cordell, 2000). Furthermore, in negotiating for access there is also a creation
of unrealistic expectations that are not likely to be met in most bioprospecting
work (which is usually purely for academic and training purposes).
4. Tension and suspicions. It is believed that the CBD has done little to ease
tensions that exist between scientists searching for potentially valuable
therapies and officials in developing countries where most bioprospecting
takes place. This tension is growing as the latter have now become more
aware of their rights under the CBD. In most instances, bioprospecting is
still taking place in an environment of suspicion and mistrust, and accusa-
tions of unethical conduct still surface regularly (Dalton, 2004).
5. Biopiracy. Other countries have been hesitant about enacting rigorous ABS
laws because they fear losing business and potential revenue. This has cre-
ated a loophole as collectors will simply collect biodiversity in more friendly
jurisdictions if the desired species is found there (IDRC, 2004). Because
indigenous knowledge or innovations and target flora frequently cross coun-
try boundaries, it is particularly difficult to avoid biopiracy (Shiva, 2005).
Unscrupulous collectors may also find other ways of smuggling biological
resources out of stricter countries because of inadequate policing.
6. Community conflict. Although bioprospecting contracts are based on PIC
and BS, unlike biopiracy, for which no consent is sought or no benefits are
shared, not all owners of traditional knowledge are consulted or compen-
sated pursuant to bioprospecting contracts. It has been argued that such
Logistical and Legal Considerations in Ethnoveterinary Research 33

exclusion not only leads to inequity and injustice but also has the potential
to cause conflicts among community members and between communities
(Shiva, 2005). An example of a BS arrangement that has caused community
conflict is that in India, where many Kani elders believed that the people
who revealed the “arogyapacha” plant (Trichopus zeylanicus ssp. travan-
coricus), which has antifatigue properties and was used in developing the
Jeevani drug, had no right to divulge that information for monetary benefits
as their traditional knowledge is sacred (Bijoy, 2007).
7. Commodifying of culture or traditions. The concept of bioprospecting has
also been criticized as it involves patenting of traditional knowledge that
is a product of thousand of years of collective innovation by indigenous
cultures; hence, some scholars and activists believe it cannot be called an
invention (Shiva, 2005). It is generally believed that many traditional heal-
ers and leaders are opposed to the commodifying of their traditions and
knowledge as they argue that they are gifts from their forebearers or ances-
tors that should be used for the greater good of the community rather than
for individual commercial gain.

2.4.2 Intellectual Property and the World Trade Organization


Viewed from the point of developing countries that are biologically resource-rich, it
is believed that the World Trade Organization’s Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights Agreement (TRIPS) of 1994 is almost a counterattack to the spirit of
CBD (Cordell, 2000). However, most WTO developed country members such as the
United States, Canada, and Japan are of the view that there is no conflict between the
CBD and the TRIPS agreement (Lybbert, 2007).
The TRIPS agreement places the protection of IP rights at the heart of interna-
tional trade (Armour and Harrison, 2007). IP rights generally refer to a bundle of
rights aimed at protecting a product of human intellectual innovation. Protection
of IP can be done by various legal means (e.g., patents, trade secrets, trademarks,
designs, and copyrights). Biotechnological innovations need adequate protection
to encourage investors to finance research to create new products or technology.
Patents, which cover inventors for a period of 20 years, are the preferred option for
most such inventions. Within such a period, creators are given a right to prevent oth-
ers from using their inventions or creation unless they receive payment.
Under international law, the TRIPS agreement establishes minimum levels of pro-
tection that each government has to give to the IP or invention of fellow WTO members
(WTO, 1994). The inventor can receive protection by IP rights that are internationally
harmonized by the TRIPS agreement in all WTO member countries (Richerzhagen
and Holm-Mueller, 2005). Under TRIPS, patents are used to protect any inventions,
whether products or processes, in all fields of technology, provided that they are new
(i.e., not in the public domain), involve an inventive step, and are capable of industrial
application (WTO, 1994; Article 27(1)).
It is important to note that Article 27.3(b) of the TRIPS agreement states that
members may exclude from patentability “plants and animals other than microorgan-
isms and essentially biological processes for the production of plants or animals other
34 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

than non-biological and microbiological processes” (WTO, 1994). The flexibility of


Article 27.3(b) has led to a variety of approaches in the protection of biological mate-
rial among provider countries. Van Overwalle (2005) has noted that certain provider
countries find patents on biological resources useful and do not opt for the implementa-
tion of the exclusionary TRIPS provision in their patent laws. Most developing country
WTO members, which are generally biodiversity rich, are concerned about possible
conflicts between their national sovereignty over genetic resources mandated by the
CBD and the granting of private rights over inventions based on the resources offered
under the TRIPS agreement (through national patent legislation) (Lybbert, 2007).
The patenting of biological resources or biotechnology products based on tradi-
tional knowledge has raised critical issues. Informal innovations achieved by local
communities over generations of years, however, are not covered by the property
rights provisions of the TRIPS agreement, particularly with regard to patent pro-
tection (Seiler and Dutfield, 2001). There have been suggestions that indigenous
communities that are involved in the identification of the therapeutic properties of
indigenous plants should be compensated for the exploitation of their medical knowl-
edge by way of patents. However, since the requirements of patent laws have been
largely dictated by technologically advanced nations, it is questionable whether the
contribution of traditional knowledge from which a pharmaceutical product has been
developed can be the sort of contribution that will meet patentability standards (van
Overwalle, 2005). For instance, such knowledge cannot be individually owned, and
there are various cultural and religious aspects that may be involved. Purists and
many indigenous peoples’ rights campaigners suggest that historically, traditional
knowledge was collectively owned by the community, is intangible, has spiritual
dimensions and although worthy of protection, is inalienable and therefore cannot
belong to any human being (Posey and Dutfield, 1996).
Furthermore, the main aim of patent law is to provide an incentive for inven-
tiveness and creativity, commercialization, and distribution by offering the pat-
ent holder a period of time during which the holder’s rights are protected from
competition. Traditional knowledge does not fit into this conventional, technically
oriented notion of invention and innovation under patent law. Moreover, although
there might be diverging views on the value of knowledge in indigenous com-
munities, in general indigenous people have been reported not to be primarily
concerned with commercial exploitation of their knowledge and market economic
values. The novelty requirement under patent law is also problematic when deal-
ing with traditional knowledge as most of it is transgenerational, communally
shared, and considered to be in the public domain and therefore unprotected (van
Overwalle, 2005).
Whereas the CBD requires collectors of biological diversity to get PIC and to
share benefits derived from the use of such biological resources or traditional knowl-
edge, critics have argued that the TRIPS agreement allows for the granting of patents
over genetic materials without addressing the requirements of the CBD (Armour
and Harrison, 2007). The Bonn guidelines encourage countries to require patent
applicants to disclose the country of origin of any genetic resources or traditional
knowledge used in the invention (Lybbert, 2007). In light of this position, some
providers of genetic resources, such as South Africa, have amended their patent laws
Logistical and Legal Considerations in Ethnoveterinary Research 35

to strengthen the protection of indigenous knowledge. The South African Patent


Amendment 2005 (Act No. 20 of 2005) is linked to the South African CBD national
laws in that it now requires every applicant who lodges an application for a patent to
disclose the role played by an indigenous biological resource, a genetic resource, or
traditional knowledge or use and whether the invention is coowned by holders of the
relevant traditional knowledge (Department of Trade and Industry, 2005).

2.5 Case Studies of National Laws


The following are case studies of national laws governing bioprospecting and access
to genetic resources in India, Costa Rica, and South Africa. The three countries
were selected because they are important sources of genetic resources, they are on
three different continents that constitute the global south, and there are interesting
elements in the national legislation that point to the difficulties involved in its imple-
mentation and enforcements.

2.5.1 An Asian Example: India


In India, the Biodiversity Act of 2002 and the Biological Diversity Rules of 2004 regulate
ABS issues. The enactment of the act with rules to regulate ABS in India was a very
progressive step as this area was previously unregulated (Kohli, 2007). The Biodiversity
Act created the National Biodiversity Fund (NBF), the National Biodiversity Authority
(NBA), the state biodiversity boards (SBBs), and the biodiversity management commit-
tees (BMC) for the effective implementation of the act. Any monetary benefits, fees, and
royalties received as a result of approvals by the NBA will be deposited into the NBF
(Biodiversity Act, 2002).
The NBA is mandated to deal with matters relating to requests of access to bio-
logical diversity by foreigners (including companies and institutions). The SBBs are
in every state in India and are mandated to deal with matters relating to access by
Indian nationals for commercial purposes. The BMC is at the municipal level and
is consulted by the NBA and SBB on matters related to use of biological resources
and associated knowledge within their jurisdiction. Implementing these provisions
has also been a challenge because the NBA has granted approvals for accessing bio-
logical resources in certain areas where the BMCs have not been in existence. This
position is undesirable as it removes the opportunity for public consultation that is
needed before approvals are granted. In general, local communities play a limited
role in decision making under the act, and there are no clearly defined links provided
between the state and the holders of knowledge or biological resources, and the deci-
sion lies ultimately in the hands of the state. Article 8(j) of the CBD, which recog-
nizes the claims of indigenous people and communities, is not clearly entrenched in
the Biodiversity Act (Bijoy, 2007).
Chapter II of the act deals with the regulation of access to biological diversity. In
terms of the act, any foreign companies or foreigners requiring access to any biological
resources occurring in India or associated knowledge for research or commercialization
should get prior approval through an application to the NBA (Biodiversity Act, 2002).
PIC is therefore not required under Indian legislation as it is not explicitly mentioned
36 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

under the law (Bijoy, 2007). It is important to note that Indian legislation does not specify
the time frames within which the NBA should decide on an application to access biodi-
versity. In general, it can take up to 3 years to get a permit (Wynberg and Laird, 2007).
The NBA ensures that ABS aspects are met in accordance with MAT and condi-
tions between the applicant, local bodies, and the benefit claimants. Benefits may be
monetary or material (e.g., royalty, joint ventures, technology transfer, product devel-
opment, education and awareness-raising activities, institutional capacity building,
and venture capital fund).
The NBA, while granting approval to any person for access or application for
patent and IP rights of accessed biological resource and associated knowledge may
impose terms and conditions to ensure BS. Bijoy (2007) argued that the inconsistency
between the CBD provisions and the TRIPS agreement has affected the legislative
framework of India as it clearly has been influenced by the monopolistic IP protec-
tion of the TRIPS agreement and not by the CBD principles outlined in this chapter.
In terms of the Biodiversity Act, prior approval of the NBA is not required for col-
laborative research projects involving transfer or exchange of biological resources or
related information between institutions of India and institutions of other countries
if such projects have been approved by central government and conform to the policy
guidelines issued by the central government of India.
Section 4 of the Biodiversity Act prohibits any person from transferring results of
any research relating to any biological resources in or obtained from India for financial
gain to foreigners or foreign-registered companies without the prior approval of the
NBA. This, however, exempts scientific publications and conference presentations.
Whereas other countries such as South Africa require all bioprospecting activities
to be approved, Indian citizens or companies registered in India obtain biological
resources for commercial utilization only after giving prior intimation to the SBB
concerned. However, this requirement does not apply to local people or communities
of the area who use indigenous medicine.

2.5.2 Model Law from Latin America: Costa Rica


Costa Rica’s ABS system has been regarded as one of the most advanced, transpar-
ent, and successful ones. Such success preceded the enactment of the ABS legislation
and is attributed to the National Biodiversity Institute (INBio), which entered into
bioprospecting contracts with companies. INBio was created as a private, nonprofit
organization to coordinate biodiversity activities (Richerzhagen and Holm-Mueller,
2005). However, it should be noted that most bioprospecting in Costa Rica entered
into by INBio was conducted in protected areas on state land; property rights were
clearly defined, and bioprospectors did not have to waste time trying to identify the
interested communities (Richerzhagen and Holm-Mueller, 2005).
The success of bioprospecting activities through INBio seems to portray that
the implementation of ABS policies is best achieved in a decentralized system and
where the number of parties in the negotiation and permitting process is minimized.
However, as discussed in this section, the ABS legislation in Costa Rica seems to
have changed this rule as the act introduced an unclear and complex application
procedure (Carrizosa et al., 2004). The new application procedure is therefore likely
Logistical and Legal Considerations in Ethnoveterinary Research 37

to increase transaction costs and be more time consuming because of the increased
participation of other stakeholders (Richerzhagen, 2007).
The CBD provisions were only implemented into law in Costa Rica through
the Biodiversity Law of 1998, Law No. 7788 of 1998, and the Rules on Access to
Biodiversity, 2003 Presidential Decree No. 31-514, which regulates ABS of natural
resources. The Biodiversity Law is regarded as the most detailed national law enacted
to implement the CBD provisions and is more restrictive (Carrizosa et al., 2004).
The sovereignty principle of the CBD is enshrined in the Biodiversity Law as it
provides that the state exercises total and exclusive sovereignty over the components
of biodiversity. The act creates the National Commission for the Management of
Biodiversity with defined functions that include formulating and coordinating the
policies for access to biodiversity and associated knowledge to ensure adequate sci-
entific and technical transfer and the proper distribution of the benefits.
Stakeholder participation in implementing the act is ensured as the commission is
constituted by a wide range of stakeholders, including government departments, the
private sector, the indigenous peoples’ associations, and the peasants’ associations.
Whereas PIC is not expressly mentioned under the Indian legislation, Costa Rica’s
ABS legislation guarantees the participation of local communities in decision-
making processes as one of the basic requirements for access is the need to get the
PIC of community representatives or land owners. The act adequately addresses the
rights of local communities in that it provides that the state recognizes and protects
the knowledge, practices, and innovations of indigenous peoples and local commu-
nities related to the use of components of biodiversity and associated knowledge.
Furthermore, local communities have a right to oppose any access to their resources
and associated knowledge for cultural, spiritual, social economic, or other reasons.
No form of intellectual or industrial property rights protection regulated in terms
of Chapter 5 of the Biodiversity Law, in special laws, and in international law shall
affect such historic practices (Biodiversity Law, 1998; Article 82).
All research programs or bioprospecting related to genetic resources meant to be
carried out in Costa Rican territory require an access permit. A person who is inter-
ested in accessing biodiversity should register at the Technical Office of the commis-
sion before applying for any type of access permit and should indicate whether the
permit is for basic research, bioprospecting, or economic exploitation. The Technical
Office will issue a preliminary identity card to the interested party; it should be
used when applying for PIC. To obtain an access permit, there is a need to get PIC
and negotiate mutually agreed conditions according to the model contract prepared
by the Technical Office. The contract regulates BS (e.g., transfer of technology and
equitable distribution of environmental, economic, social, scientific, or spiritual ben-
efits). This should include possible commercial profits of short, medium, or long term
of any product or derivative. The interested party should meet with the representa-
tives of the study site to discuss the scope of the access, the terms of protection of the
related knowledge, and the practical, economic, and logistical aspects of the granted
access. The Technical Office should endorse the PIC and if necessary will make field
consultations to verify the agreed-on terms.
An access permit is granted to a researcher or a research center, is valid for
3 years, and is renewable at the discretion of the Technical Office. MTAs, which
38 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

are authorized by the Technical Office, should be entered between the parties for
exchange and transfer resources to be enabled.
The act ensures that immediate benefits flow back to providers of biodiversity
resources by requiring the interested party to deposit up to 10% of the research or bio-
prospection’s budget into the bank account indicated by the direct provider of the
resources. Such a position is different from South African and Indian legislation, which
requires monetary benefits to be deposited into a national fund. For basic research, an
interested party should submit three copies of the final results or the scientific papers and
publications derived from them, in which the country’s contribution and the knowledge
holders are acknowledged. For occasional or regular economic exploitation, interested
parties may pay up to 50% of the royalties obtained by the interested party on behalf of
the conservation areas, local communities or indigenous people, or the landowners.
Registrars of intellectual and industrial property (i.e., patents, trademarks etc) are
obliged to consult with the Technical Office before granting protection of intellectual
or industrial property to innovations involving components of biodiversity. The indi-
vidual beneficiaries of intellectual or industrial property protection related to biodiver-
sity will cede, in favor of the state, a compulsory legal license, which will allow it, in
cases of declared national emergency, to use such rights for the collective good, with
the sole purpose of resolving the emergency, without the need to pay compensation.
Once all the required documents have been submitted, the Technical Office has
30 days to resolve the application. This provision is important as it will ensure that
applications are processed in a timely manner, and it is absent from Indian and South
African ABS legislation.
To certify the legality of access, the Technical Office will issue to the applicant a
certificate of origin, which includes place and date of access, owner, type of material
obtained, quantity, and the person or community that have contributed or will con-
tribute with their related knowledge, innovations, and traditional practices.
The act states that the arrangements of the law do not affect university autonomy
in the matter of teaching or research in the field of biodiversity, except if the research
has commercial purposes. Universities are required to establish internal rules appli-
cable exclusively to academic activity and research that is carried out when it implies
access to biodiversity for purposes that are not profit making.

2.5.3 Out of Africa: South Africa


In South Africa, the National Environmental: Biodiversity Act Number 10 of 2004
(the NEMBA) and the bioprospecting and ABS regulations of 2008 regulate bio-
prospecting and access to genetic resources. Chapter 6 of NEMBA regulates
bioprospecting and ABS. The objectives are to regulate bioprospecting of indig-
enous biological resources and the export from South Africa of such resources for
the purpose of bioprospecting or related research and to ensure that there is fair and
equitable sharing of benefits (NEMBA, 2004).
The act has a bureaucratic procedure in that applications for bioprospecting
permits are submitted to the minister responsible for national environmental man-
agement (i.e., the Minister of Environmental Affairs). The discovery phase and com-
mercialization phase of a bioprospecting project may only be carried out with a
Logistical and Legal Considerations in Ethnoveterinary Research 39

bioprospecting permit issued by the minister. If the applicant wants to export indige-
nous biological resources for a bioprospecting project, then the applicant must apply
to the minister to obtain an integrated export and bioprospecting permit. These per-
mits are issued when the applicant has obtained the PIC of relevant stakeholders and
once the minister has approved the MTA and Benefit Sharing Agreement (BSA).
The process of approval of PIC, MTAs, and BSA may take a long time because of
the bureaucratic nature of the process, and the act does not prescribe the time period
within which an issuing authority should decide on a permit application, although
the regulations state that applications must be processed “within a reasonable time.”
The process of getting a bioprospecting permit is therefore likely to be too costly and
onerous for the applicant. The requirement of a BSA in the discovery phase is also
problematic as it might be difficult to quantify the financial returns of a bioprospect-
ing project at this stage (Crouch et al., 2008).
The act forbids the issuing of permits to foreign persons or entities unless a South
African person or entity is also a coapplicant. It is anticipated that this requirement
will lead to technology transfer and information sharing between the foreign per-
sons and the South African citizens (Crouch et al., 2008). A BSA may also not be
approved unless it provides for enhancing scientific knowledge and technical capac-
ity to organs of state or national research institutes, universities, or communities to
conserve, use, and develop indigenous biological resources.
As with India, the collection and use of biological resources by local healers is
exempt from the legislation. However, the threat that the booming trade in medicinal
plants poses is real and cause for concern and yet not regulated by any current leg-
islation in South Africa.
Indigenous biological resources for research other than bioprospecting may only
be exported with an export permit. The issuing authority for export permits for
indigenous biological resources for research other than bioprospecting is the pro-
vincial minister of the province in which the biological resources to be exported
are collected, gathered, or curated. A permit may only be issued if the applicant has
obtained PIC of the stakeholder to access the resources.
The act establishes the Bioprospecting Trust Fund (BTF), to which all money
earned from BSAs and MTAs and due to stakeholders must be paid and used in
terms of the agreements. The success of this trust fund is still to be tested as the
regulations have been in place for a short period of time.
The existence of ABS legislation in South Africa is progressive. However, the cur-
rent legislation is restrictive and does not provide user certainty in that there is a risk
of wasting resources when an applicant goes through the process of obtaining PIC
and signing the MTA and BSA and then the collection permit application is refused
by a provincial conservation authority on ecological grounds. The need to have col-
lection permits is not specified in the act or regulations, but it is presumed in relation
to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES) and threatened or protected species (Crouch et al., 2008). Under the
current law, stakeholders are only involved in the granting of PIC and when conclud-
ing MTA and BSA but are excluded in decision-making processes, which rest with the
issuing authority (i.e., the minister or provincial minister). A lack of administrative
capacity might also hamper the implementation of the ABS legislation.
40 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

2.6 Conclusion and Recommendations


The current ABS provisions of the CBD have caused heated debates between countries
that provide biodiversity and countries that collect biodiversity and between social
activists and research scientists. Despite the existence of national and regional legisla-
tion governing ABS, most countries have failed to implement their obligations under
the CBD as some of the procedures in place are too restrictive, and there is also a belief
that the current measures are insufficient to curb the misappropriation and illegal traf-
ficking of resources and knowledge (Wynberg and Laird, 2007). This might emanate
from the fact that the ABS principles of PIC, MAT, and ABS are not regulated in
more detail under the CBD, and the responsibility for determining the rules was left
to member states (Richerzhagen and Holm-Mueller, 2005). The difficulties of imple-
menting the CBD principles may also arise because it is an international agreement
that addresses issues relevant to nongovernmental sectors such as business and indus-
try, science, and nongovernmental organizations as well as indigenous and local com-
munities, which are difficult to regulate and police (Siebenhuner and Suplie, 2005).
The current regional and national ABS regimes have taken varied approaches
in regulating ABS. Countries should try to enact clear and simple ABS legisla-
tion that promotes user certainty and encourages compliance. To prevent collec-
tors of biodiversity approaching certain countries and leaving those with strict
regulations requires the harmonization of ABS regimes among member states
and codes of ethics among researchers should be put in place. Ethical agreements
and codes of conduct offer alternatives to legal protection if legal protection is
impractical or incomplete. However, it should be noted that enforcement of ethi-
cal codes is limited because they are not legally binding unless they form part of
a contractual agreement.
It is recommended that international rules on how benefits should be shared fairly
and equitably should be developed as there is currently no international consensus.
However, it should be noted that precise quantification of the monetary values of
future earnings is extremely difficult because future product development and mar-
ket potentials remain uncertain (Siebenhuner and Suplie, 2005).
Although there are divergent views on whether there is conflict between the TRIPS
agreement and the CBD, it is recommended that the two agreements should be har-
monized. TRIPS should be amended to include the CBD provisions that require
disclosure of the source and country of origin of biological resources and traditional
knowledge used in an invention, evidence of PIC to be produced, and evidence that
benefits will be shared fairly and equitably in terms of the legislation of the country
where biodiversity or traditional knowledge was collected.

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3 Phytochemical Methods
Bukirwa Irene Kamara

Contents
3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................44
3.2 The Extraction Process.................................................................................... 45
3.2.1 Collection of Material.......................................................................... 45
3.2.2 Conventional Extraction Processes.....................................................46
3.2.3 Bioassay-Guided Isolation................................................................... 48
3.2.4 Nonconventional Extraction Processes................................................ 49
3.2.4.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction............................................... 49
3.2.4.2 Accelerated Solvent Extraction............................................. 50
3.3 Isolation Methods............................................................................................ 50
3.3.1 Polarity of Solvents.............................................................................. 51
3.3.2 TLC: Retention Factor......................................................................... 51
3.3.3 Types of Chromatography................................................................... 52
3.3.3.1 Adsorption Chromatography................................................ 52
3.3.3.2 Partition Chromatography.................................................... 53
3.3.3.3 Molecular Exclusion Chromatography................................. 54
3.3.4 Chromatography Techniques............................................................... 55
3.3.4.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography................................................ 55
3.3.4.2 Preparative Thin-Layer Chromatography............................. 56
3.3.4.3 Paper Chromatography......................................................... 57
3.3.4.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography......................... 57
3.3.4.5 Gas Chromatography............................................................ 57
3.4 Derivatization.................................................................................................. 58
3.4.1 Acetylation........................................................................................... 58
3.5 Analysis of Extracts and Isolated Compounds................................................ 58
3.5.1 Qualitative Chemical Analysis............................................................ 59
3.5.2 Detection Methods............................................................................... 59
3.6 Determining Organic Structures..................................................................... 59
3.6.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.............................................................. 61
3.6.2 Deuterated Solvents............................................................................. 61
3.6.3 Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.................................................. 63
3.7 Conclusion.......................................................................................................64
Acknowledgments.....................................................................................................64
References.................................................................................................................64
Suggested Further Reading....................................................................................... 65

43
44 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

3.1 Introduction
Natural products chemistry is becoming increasingly interdisciplinary in practice.
In the study of natural products chemistry, isolation and purification are mandatory
first steps; success and failure are often determined by these steps. Unlike specific
protocols followed in synthetic chemistry, which can be remembered and repeated,
details of specific isolation steps are usually forgotten, and in most cases isolation is
regarded as trial and error. This chapter covers conventional techniques in the sepa-
ration, purification, and structural elucidation of metabolites from medicinal plants.
The theory and practice of natural products isolation techniques that comprehen-
sively serve the natural product scientist in the investigations of plants are outlined.
The backdrop of this discussion is the use and knowledge of traditional medicines.
It is therefore important to discuss applications of natural products chemistry in the
field of herbal medicines and its impact on ethnoveterinary and ethnopharmacologi-
cal sciences.
Traditional (herbal) medicine is a term loosely used to describe ancient and
culture-bound health practices that existed before the application of conventional
science to health matters in official, modern, scientific medicine or allopathy.
Traditional medicine from natural products (terrestrial and marine environments)
still forms the basis for primary health care in 80% of the developing world
(Farnsworth and Soejarto, 1985).
In contrast to the primary metabolite compounds such as carbohydrates, the
essential amino acids and polymers derived from them that are ubiquitous in living
organisms and essential for life, natural products are the secondary constituents of
plants. Higher plants have been described as chemical factories that are capable of
synthesizing unlimited numbers of highly complex and unusual bioactive chemical
substances (Farnsworth, 1988). These bioactive substances are normally present in
the plants in quantities that cannot meet or sustain demand. Herbal products, nutra-
ceuticals, and other food supplements are therefore subject to increasingly rigorous
investigation and development. Industry standardization, as well as labeling require-
ments under U.S. federal regulations, have prompted tighter regulation and monitor-
ing of the active ingredients in these products. Extraction and identification of the
components in raw and processed plant materials are essential for the quality control
of existing products and the development of new ones. Because native plant habitats
are destroyed almost daily, sadly many medicinally valuable plants will be gone
before scientists can even investigate them. There is a possibility of documentation
of traditional knowledge and ethnoveterinary medicine through scientific research.
In the past, both conventional and participatory methods have been used to docu-
ment local knowledge in general. Both approaches have their place, and their results
can be complementary and possibly cross-validate each other.
Bioactive principles from medicinal plants are secondary metabolites and not a
nutritive element for the plant, so they are not concentrated in the plant. The separa-
tion process usually contributes to capturing of the secondary metabolites, which
through the efforts of the synthetic chemists may also be synthesized to ensure more
abundant supplies for formulation. Previous techniques in the isolation and identifi-
cation process have indeed had their fair share of flaws. Nevertheless, the practical
Phytochemical Methods 45

difficulties of natural products drug discovery are being overcome by advances in


separation technologies and in the speed and sensitivity of structure elucidation.

3.2 The Extraction Process


Although semi- or fully automated purification processes are routinely followed dur-
ing the final stages of isolation, the initial plant material preparation stages follow a
more manual, slow, and tedious protocol. Collection and preparation of plant mate-
rial (usually a manual process) is subsequently followed by extraction partitioning
and purification processes. Method choices for samples and the obtainable analytes
are described in Table 3.1. The techniques that utilize pressurized fluid or solvent
extraction reduce the amount of solvent needed for extraction and the extraction time
when compared to more traditional techniques such as Soxhlet extraction. Solvents,
reagents, glassware, and other sample-processing hardware may yield artifacts or
interferences in sample analysis. Therefore, factors such as temperature and pressure
are well observed.
Regardless of the extraction technique, extracts are concentrated under vacuum
using a rotatory evaporator for large volumes of solvents (>5 mL) or nitrogen blown
through for small volumes (<5 mL), ensuring that volatile components are not lost.
Removal of solvents should be carried out immediately after extraction as natural
products may be unstable in the solvent. Aqueous solvents are generally freeze-dried
using a freeze dryer. Dried extracts should be stored at −20°C prior to screening for
biological activities to decrease the possibility of chemical degradation.

3.2.1 Collection of Material
There are a number of approaches that can be used to collect material needed in
the exercise to discover new drugs. The ethnobotanical approach is based on

Table 3.1
Extraction Techniques for Different Analytes
Matrix Types Extraction Technique Analytes
Aqueous Liquid-liquid extraction Semivolatile and nonvolatile organics
Solid-phase extraction
Solids Soxhlet extraction Semivolatile and nonvolatile organics
Pressurized fluid extraction (PFE) Semivolatile and nonvolatile organics
Microwave extraction Semivolatile and nonvolatile organics
Ultrasonic extraction Semivolatile and nonvolatile organics
Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) Semivolatile petroleum hydrocarbons
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
Polychlorinated biphenyls
Organochlorine pesticides
46 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

observations by ethnobotanists. Valuable local medicinal knowledge is gathered


with regard to the use of particular plants for specific ailments by the indigenous
people. This knowledge is subsequently used in collection and testing of material for
biological activities. When following the chemotaxonomic approach, collection of
plant material is based on prediction that taxonomically related plants may contain
structurally similar compounds. For example, the plant family Solanaceae is a rich
source of alkaloids of the tropane type, while the Combretaceae family is a source
of stilbenoids. Last, biomass can be collected randomly, regardless of any previous
knowledge of the chemistry or biological activities. This approach relies on the abun-
dance of plants in a geographical area. In all cases, the biomass is collected, dried,
and extracted with suitable organic solvents.

3.2.2 Conventional Extraction Processes


The first step of the extraction process is to release and solubilize the smaller sec-
ondary metabolites in the matrix, resulting in the initial extract. To produce a good
extract, plant material or biomass is usually dried (to avoid water in the extracts),
ground, or pulverized prior to addition of the extracting solvent. Most bulk of the
biomass, irrespective of whether it is plants or microbes, exists as fairly inert, insolu-
ble, and often polymeric material, such as cellulose of plants or fungi and the micro-
bial cell wall (Cannell, 1998). The highly complex initial extracts can be fractionated
using solvents with different polarities. A sample of known volume or weight is
repeatedly extracted with different solvents in order of increasing polarities, and the
resultant extracts are processed according to the requirements. The value of these
polarity-based extractions is that the chemical complexity of the biomass is simpli-
fied according to the solubility of the components. Concentration of the compounds
in the extracts is also optimized. The initial extractions with low-polarity solvents
(e.g., chloroform, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, or ether) yield the more lipophilic
(fat-soluble) components, while the polar alcohols, acetone, and water isolate a
broader spectrum of hydrophilic (polar- or water-soluble) compounds from the bio-
mass. For example, when extracting flavonoids from the powdered leaves of herbal
teas such as honeybush tea (Cyclopia spp.), it is important to extract the chlorophyll
at the beginning because the green color may hamper the purification process. In
the case of the flavonoids, acetone will mainly extract the less-polar monomeric fla-
vonoids. Subsequent extraction of the same material with methanol will give extracts
rich in flavonoid glycosides and dimeric flavonoids. Further extraction with the more
polar acetone/water (70:30) will yield very polar extracts containing trimeric and
highly glycosylated flavonoids, tannins, and sugars.
The choice of solvent shown in Table 3.2 is dependent on the physicochemical
properties of the compounds of interest. These properties include partition coeffi-
cients in water or organic solvents, relative polarity of the molecule, and stability of
the molecule in light or dark, as well as the temperature employed during the extrac-
tion process. Water-soluble compounds and proteins are best extracted in water or
buffers, while the organic-soluble compounds are extracted with organic solvents.
If a plant is under investigation from an ethnobotanical perspective, the extraction
Phytochemical Methods 47

Table 3.2
Different Solvents Used to Extract Different Phytochemicals
Amino Phenolics
Fats/Oils Acids Chlorophyll Alkaloids Aglycones Sugars Glycosides
Solvent
Hexane √
Cylohexane √
Toluene √ √
Chloroform √ √
Dichloromethane √ √ √
Diethylether √ √ √
Ethylacetate √ √ √ √
Acetone √ √ √ √
Ethanol √ √
Methanol √ √ √ √
Water √ √ √ √
Aqueous acid √ √
Aqueous alkali √ √

should mimic the traditional use. This means that if the indigenous people use water
to extract, then an identical or very similar method should be used in the laboratory
to extract the same plant constituents. Poor extraction processes may result in loss of
active compounds or degradation of natural products and consequent loss of biologi-
cal activity.
Several extraction methods are available, the simplest being cold extraction (in a
large flask with agitation of biomass using a stirrer), in which the ground dry mate-
rial is extracted at room temperature with solvents of increasing polarity: first hexane
(or petroleum ether) then chloroform (or dichloromethane), ethyl acetate, acetone,
methanol, and finally water. The main advantage of this cold extraction is that there
is little potential degradation of the natural products. Extraction of chlorophyll with
chloroform has been successfully accomplished with minimum interference from
the aromatic compounds. Oils and terpenes can easily be extracted with hexane,
leaving behind other classes of compounds. Extraction using solvents with differ-
ent polarities can be used to roughly fractionate a complex mixture of compounds.
Reflux extraction (Vogel et al., 1996) is applied in extractions in which continuous
application of heat is required. A mantle or water bath is usually a safer source
of heat than a direct flame, especially in the case of flammable solvents such as
ether. The Soxhlet process (Houghton and Raman, 1998) is useful for the exhaustive
extraction of plant material with a single solvent at a time (e.g., when using hexane
for defatting, in subsequent extractions with increasing polarities, and when a high
yield of a particular component is required). It is, however, unsuitable for neutral,
acidified, and basified solvent mixtures.
48 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Other classes of compounds, such as acids or bases, present in the biomass can be
extracted using a tailored protocol. The most common group of natural products that
are extracted in this manner is the alkaloids, which are often present in plant materi-
als as salts. Extraction of the basic compounds is as follows:

1. Alkaloids can be recovered from their salts by making the dry powdered
plant material alkaline with aqueous ammonia. This leaves the alkaloids
as free bases that are no longer ionic salts and are more soluble in organic
solvents such as ethyl acetate and dichloromethane.
2. This increased solubility in organic solvents allows free partitioning of the
free bases into organic solvent, which can then be separated from the aque-
ous ammonia layer.
3. The organic layer will contain the free bases, which can be extracted
with aqueous acid; for example, by extracting three times with 2M
hydrochloric acid, the alkaloids will transfer from the organic phase to
the aqueous phase as hydrochloride salts. The organic layer can be tested
using Dragendorff’s reagent to ensure total extraction of the alkaloids into
the acid layer.
4. Basification of the acid layer results in precipitation of the alkaloids (which
are no longer salts and therefore no longer soluble in aqueous media), which
can be extracted by organic solvents.

3.2.3 Bioassay-Guided Isolation
In the past, natural products chemists have analyzed plants with the sole aim of estab-
lishing their chemical composition and in some cases isolating active compounds.
The modern isolation approach, focused on discovery of drugs, has changed the
isolation process into a bioassay-guided approach. In the bioassay-guided approach,
bioassays for antifungal, anticancer, antimicrobial, antimalarial, and antioxidant
activities are performed on the extracts, and the active extracts are investigated fur-
ther. Bioassay-guided isolation is essential for the drug discovery industry, in which
high-throughput work is vital for purposeful results. However, when it comes to
chemical analysis of a plant, little is analyzed because the fractions without activity
are discarded. In essence, the phytochemistry of the plant is vaguely addressed.
The activity of an extract may change over a period of time, during preparation
(e.g., due to fermentation, heat), or after fractionation. Thus, compounds can undergo
reactions activated by the surroundings, such as heat, solvents in which they are
stored, or light (photochemical reactions). This may cause changes in the activity of
the particular extract. Change caused by living organisms (e.g., microbial attacks) is
referred to as deterioration, while decomposition is caused by a chemical change. It
is therefore important to take precautions when handling extract to minimize dete-
rioration and decomposition.
The general bioassay-guided isolation procedure follows the protocol outlined in
Scheme 3.1.
Phytochemical Methods 49

General bioassay-guided isolation procedure

Sample preparation using appropriate solvent

Bioassay testing of initial extract

Fractionation by column chromatography

Bioassay testing of fractions from column

Fractionation by more sensitive HPLC


Repeat these steps to
Bioassay testing of each HPLC fractions yield pure compounds

Structural elucidation by spectroscopic and


spectrometric methods

Structure confirmation by
synthesis

Scheme 3.1 Systematic approach to bioassay-guided isolation.

3.2.4 Nonconventional Extraction Processes


The most widely used extraction processes have traditionally been based either
on different liquid extraction methods or on vapor-phase extraction methods
(Starmans and Nijhuis, 1996). However, there are also a number of nonconven-
tional extraction methods in use that are all, in principle, solid-liquid extractions
(SLEs) that introduce some form of additional energy to the process to facili-
tate the transfer of analytes from sample to solvent. These methods include ultra-
sonic extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, and pressurized liquid extraction
(Huie, 2002; Zygmunt and Namieśnik, 2003), as well as vortical (turbo) extrac-
tion. In addition, electrical energy extraction could also be explored (Vinatoru,
2001). Alternatively, forced-flow SLE techniques, such as medium-pressure SLE
and rotation planar extraction, which are methods by which the extraction sol-
vent is forced through the sample bed either by pressure or by centrifugal force,
respectively, increase the efficiency of the extraction process (Nyiredy, 2001). The
main advantage of these nonconventional methods compared to conventional SLE
methods is the increased extraction efficiency, which leads to increased yields or
shorter extraction times.

3.2.4.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction


One of the nonconventional methods whose application has steadily increased is
supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), which is based on the properties of gases
50 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

compressed and heated to a state above their critical pressure and temperature
(Tservistas, Scheper, and Freitag, 2000).
Essential oils are better extracted using the SFE processes. The characteristic
smell of plant materials is usually the result of the complex interactions occurring
among hundreds of compounds. Correct reproduction of the natural fragrance in a
concentrated extract is therefore a complex task. The presence of thermolabile com-
pounds, the possibility of hydrolysis, and hydrosolubilization are serious obstacles
in the reproduction of natural fragrances. Moreover, severe legislative restrictions
are currently being proposed to eliminate solvent residues in these products when
used in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. All these problems can be
solved easily by employing supercritical fluid in extracting essential oils.

3.2.4.2 Accelerated Solvent Extraction


To screen the vast array of potential product candidates, laboratories must rapidly
characterize raw materials for levels of active components. This is normally accom-
plished by extraction with liquid solvents followed by chromatographic analyses.
While chromatographic analysis can be automated, many common extraction tech-
niques are labor intensive and time consuming and require large amounts of costly
solvents. Accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) was developed as a solution for labora-
tories with increased sample throughput needs. By using common organic and aque-
ous solvents at elevated temperatures and pressures, ASE increases the speed and
efficiency of the extraction process compared to the traditional methods described.
By means of ASE, sample sizes of 1–10 g are typically extracted in 12–17 min with
only 10–15 mL of solvent. Solvents can be selected based on the polarity of the ana-
lyte and compatibility with any postextraction processing steps and quantification
equipment. Commercially available nutritional supplements, such as hypericin from
Hypericum perforatum (St. John’s wort) and berberine from Hydrastis canadenis
(goldenseal root) are extracted using ASE.

3.3 Isolation Methods
Often, elegant structure determination of natural products overshadows the most
important and often the most difficult part of the work, which is the isolation and
purification process. Advances in chromatographic techniques are allowing scientists
to venture ever further into hitherto inaccessible areas of natural product isolation.
This is particularly true of hydrophilic, nonvolatile, and often labile plant compo-
nents. But, because of the almost infinite variety of natural products and the diverse,
subtle interactions among solvent, solute, and chromatographic substrate, isolation
and purification often seem more of an art than a science.
Purification of pure substances from complex extracts and most of the time isola-
tion of the microscale components have spawned development of new separation tech-
nologies and upgrading of the conventional methods. Gas chromatography (GC), liquid
chromatography (LC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and thin-
layer chromatography (TLC) are well-known classical techniques, which for the ease
and availability of resources to most scientists are discussed in this chapter. Modern
Phytochemical Methods 51

countercurrent chromatography (CCC), including rotation locular CCC, droplet CCC,


and coil CCC, have been successful in isolation of the molecules that have proven dif-
ficult to isolate. Partitioning chromatography and derivatization are procedures that are
normally affordable and applicable in most laboratories, and they are still used to deliver
good results.

3.3.1 Polarity of Solvents
The polarity can be measured as the dielectric constant or the dipole moment of a
compound. The polarity reflects the balance between a polar component (e.g., OH)
and a nonpolar hydrocarbon component existing in the same molecule. On an opera-
tional basis, solvents that are miscible with water are polar. Making solvent choices
for the separation processes is directed by polarities of the components to be iso-
lated. For example, when purifying molecules that are highly hydroxylated, implying
that they are highly polar, the solvent used should include acetone and methanol. A
mixture of hexane/acetone/methanol in the ratio of 6:3:1 has been used to fractionate
underivatized polyphenols using TLC (Ferreira et al., 1998). It must be mentioned
that selecting the right solvent is more of a trial-and-error exercise. Most scientists
have developed solvent systems in their laboratories; see Table 3.A1 (Appendix) for
examples.

3.3.2 TLC: Retention Factor


The retention factor Rf is defined as the distance traveled by the compound divided
by the distance traveled by the solvent.

distance traveled by compound


Rf =
distance traveleed by solvent front

For example, if a compound travels 2.5 cm and the solvent front travels 3.5 cm, the
Rf is 0.71, as demonstrated in Figure 3.1.
Since Rf for a compound is dependent on the solvent system, type of adsorbent
(stationary phase), thickness of the adsorbent, amount of material loaded, and tem-
perature, and these factors are difficult to keep constant from experiment to experi-
ment, relative Rf values are generally considered. “Relative Rf ” means that the values
are reported relative to a standard, or it means that you compare the Rf values of
compounds run on the same plate at the same time.
If two substances have the same Rf value, they are likely (but not necessarily) the
same compound. If they have different Rf values, they are definitely different com-
pounds. Note that this identity check must be performed on a single plate because
it is difficult to duplicate all the factors that influence Rf exactly from experiment to
experiment. The larger an Rf of a compound, the greater the distance it travels on the
TLC plate. When comparing two different compounds run under identical chroma-
tography conditions, the compound with the larger Rf is less polar because it interacts
less strongly with the polar adsorbent on the TLC plate. Conversely, if you know the
52 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Solvent front

New position of
compound

3.8 cm

3.0 cm

Original
spotting

Rf = 3.1 / 4.2 = 0.74

Figure 3.1 Calculation of Rf value.

structures of the compounds in a mixture, you can predict that a compound of low
polarity will have a larger Rf value than a polar compound run on the same plate.

3.3.3 Types of Chromatography
The commonly used chromatographic methods include adsorption, normal phase,
reversed phase, chiral, ion exchange, molecular exclusion, and ion pair/affinity.

3.3.3.1 Adsorption Chromatography
Adsorption chromatography is probably one of the oldest types of chromatography
around that is unquestionably the major isolation technique applied in natural prod-
ucts chemistry. It utilizes a mobile liquid or gaseous phase that is adsorbed onto the
surface of a stationary solid phase. The equilibration between the mobile and station-
ary phase accounts for the separation of different solutes.

3.3.3.1.1 Normal-Phase Chromatography
Normal-phase chromatography is a chromatographic technique that uses organic
solvents for the mobile phase and a polar stationary phase. Here, the less-polar com-
ponents elute faster than the more polar components.

3.3.3.1.2 Reversed-Phase Chromatography
Reversed-phase chromatography, a bonded-phase chromatographic technique, uses
water as the base solvent. Separation based on solvent strength and selectivity also
may be affected by column temperature and pH. In general, the more polar compo-
nents elute faster than the less-polar components.
Phytochemical Methods 53

3.3.3.1.3 Chiral Chromatography
Separation of the enantiomers can be achieved on chiral stationary phases by forma-
tion of diastereomers via derivatizing agents or mobile-phase additives on achiral
stationary phases. When used as an impurity test method, the sensitivity is enhanced
if the enantiomeric impurity elutes before the enantiomeric drug.

3.3.3.1.4 Ion-Exchange Chromatography
In ion-exchange chromatography, a resin (the stationary solid phase) is used to cova-
lently attach anions or cations onto it. Solute ions of the opposite charge in the mobile
liquid phase are attracted to the resin by electrostatic forces. Separation is based
on the charge-bearing functional groups, anion exchange for sample negative ion
(X−) or cation exchange for sample positive ion (X+). The resins are divided into
two groups: the cation and anionic exchangers. The cationic exchangers have acidic
groups (CO2H, SO3H) and are able to exchange their protons with cations of natu-
ral products. The anionic exchangers, on the other hand, have basic groups (−N+R3)
that are incorporated into the resin and can exchange their anions with anions from
the natural products. Gradient elution by pH is common. The separation of small
polar compounds, in particular ionic natural products, is often problematic. This is
because polar compounds are generally strongly adsorbed with normal-phase resins
such as silica or alumina and even with the polar solvents and modifiers (e.g., acid
and base), so efficient separations may not be achievable. This technique is limited to
natural products that carry charge on their functional groups. Separation is achieved
by differences in affinity between ionic components (polar natural products) and the
stationary phase. The ion-exchange resins may be used in open column chromatog-
raphy or in closed columns in applications such as HPLC.

3.3.3.1.5 Ion Pair/Affinity Chromatography


Ion pair/affinity chromatography is the most selective type employed. It utilizes the
specific interaction between one kind of solute molecule and a second molecule that
is immobilized on a stationary phase. The more popular reversed-phase mode uses a
buffer and an added counterion of opposite charge to the sample, with separation being
influenced by pH, ionic strength, temperature, and concentration and type of organic
cosolvents. Affinity chromatography, common for macromolecules, employs a ligand
(biologically active molecule bonded covalently to the solid matrix) that interacts with
its homologous antigen (analyte) as a reversible complex that can be eluted by chang-
ing buffer conditions. For example, the immobilized molecule may be an antibody to
some specific protein. When solute containing a mixture of proteins is passed by this
molecule, only the specific protein is reacted to this antibody, binding it to the station-
ary phase. This protein is later extracted by changing the ionic strength or pH.

3.3.3.2 Partition Chromatography
Partition chromatography is based on a thin film formed on the surface of a solid
support by a liquid stationary phase. Solute equilibrates between the mobile phase
and the stationary liquid.
54 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

3.3.3.2.1 Countercurrent Chromatography
Countercurrent chromatography is a type of liquid-liquid chromatography in which
both the stationary and mobile phases are liquids. It involves mixing a solution of
liquids, allowing them to settle into layers, and then separating the layers. This is a
soft separation method and relies on solubility of natural products and not the physical
interaction with another medium. Partitioning uses two immiscible solvents to which
the extract is added: This can be sequential by using immiscible solvents of increas-
ing polarity, for example, water/hexane (for which a nonpolar fraction is generated in
the organic layer) and water/chloroform or water/ethyl acetate (for which a medium-
polar fraction is generated in the organic layer). Excellent separations can be obtained
from the partitioning process; for example, monoterpenes are easily separated from
phenolics such as tannins. Craig countercurrent distribution uses a similar concept to
a liquid-liquid extraction in a separatory funnel. A method of multiple liquid-liquid
extractions is countercurrent extraction, which permits the separation of substances
with different distribution coefficients (ratios) (Craig and Craig, 1950). The Craig
apparatus consists of a series of glass tubes (1, 2, 3, …, 20) arranged so that the lighter
liquid is transferred from one tube to the next. All extractions take place simultane-
ously in all tubes of the apparatus, which is usually driven electromechanically.
The lower phase of the heavier solvent (e.g., water) is the “stationary phase,”
whereas the upper phase of the lighter solvent (e.g., hexane) is the “mobile phase.”
In the beginning, tube 1 contains the mixture of substances to be separated in the
heavier solvent, and all the other tubes contain equal volumes of the same solvent.
The lighter solvent is added to tube 1, extraction (equilibration) takes place, and the
phases are allowed to separate. The upper phase of tube 1 is then transferred to tube 2;
fresh solvent (mobile phase) is added to tube 1, and equilibrium is reached again.
The upper layers of tubes 1 and 2 are simultaneously transferred to tubes 2 and 3,
respectively, and the cycle is repeated and so on. Obviously, substances with a higher
distribution ratio move faster than those with a lower distribution ratio. It is interest-
ing to examine the distribution of a substance A in each tube after a given number
of equilibration/transfer cycles. The greater the difference of the distribution ratio of
various substances, the better is the separation between each. A much larger number
of tubes (more than 20) is required to separate mixtures of substances with almost
similar distribution ratios. The Craig apparatus is now only rarely used because mod-
ern chromatographic techniques are by far more efficient and convenient.

3.3.3.3 Molecular Exclusion Chromatography


Also known as gel permeation or filtration, separation in molecular exclusion chroma-
tography is based on the molecular size or hydrodynamic volume and to some extent
adsorption of the components. This type of chromatography lacks an attractive inter-
action between the stationary phase and solute. This procedure is widely used as an
initial cleanup step. This technique employs a cross-linked dextran (sugar polymer
Sephadex) that, when added to a suitable solvent (e.g., chloroform or ethyl acetate,
ethanol), swells to form a gel matrix. Molecules that are too large for the pores of
the porous packing material on the column elute first, small molecules that enter the
pores elute last, and the elution rates of the rest depend on their relative sizes. This is
Phytochemical Methods 55

an excellent method for separating out chlorophylls, fatty acids, glycerides, and other
large molecules. With the same principle, Sephadex LH-20 is commonly used with
ethanol as the eluent to fractionate flavonoids. This is a nondestructive soft method
with high recovery, and a large quantity of extract (hundreds of milligrams to grams)
may be separated. A further benefit of this technique is that there is a variety of gels
available with a variety of pore sizes that can be used to separate compounds from
500 to 250,000 Da. This is the method of choice for large-scale extractions (e.g.,
when fractionating mixtures for bioassay-guided separations.

3.3.4 Chromatography Techniques
Chromatographic separations can be carried out using a variety of supports, including
immobilized silica on glass plates (TLC), volatile gases (GC), paper (paper chroma-
tography), and liquids that may incorporate hydrophilic, insoluble molecules (liquid
chromatography). The adaptation of bonded-phase packings to all pressure liquid
chromatography, complimented by the diverse chemically bonded phases, includ-
ing the chiral templates for chiral resolutions, uses separation techniques capable of
handling any isolation problem.

3.3.4.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography
Thin-layer chromatography is the simplest of the more common adsorption chromato-
graphic techniques (Vogel et al., 1996). TLC is the most universal chromatographic test
method when compared to gas and liquid chromatography as all components are present
on the separation plate. With appropriate detection techniques, all components can be
seen. However, it normally is not as accurate or sensitive as HPLC. TLC has a higher
analytical variation than HPLC. Separation is based on migration of the sample spotted
on a coated (stationary-phase) plate with one edge dipped in a mixture of solvents (mobile
phase). Adsorption on silica gel in TLC relies on physical attraction of the compounds
with another medium. The whole system is contained in an enclosed tank. Detection
techniques of the compounds include fluorescence, ultraviolet (UV), and chromogenic
sprays (universal and specific) for compounds that are not naturally colored. Location of
the analyte on the TLC plate is described by the Rf value, which is the ratio of the migra-
tion distance of the compound of interest to the mobile-phase front.
In TLC, there is no direct online coupling between chromatographic development
and detection. The chromatogram is freed from the mobile phase prior to the detec-
tion step. Thus, different chromatographic conditions, including changing the mobile
phase, can be varied during analysis of a TLC chromatogram. For a natural products
scientist, this is necessary because extracts and samples usually contain compounds
that may have the same Rf when using some mobile phases but may differ in another.
In micro-, nano-, and pictogram quantities and for routine use, the TLC technique
occupies a firm place. In microchemical detection methods, the TLC plate is sprayed
with or dipped into a suitable reagent (Table 3.3) to form absorbing or fluorescent
derivatives with the analytes, which can then be detected. Table 3.A1 gives informa-
tion on different TLC mobile phases and spray reagents that can be used.
Biological detection of separated substances on the TLC plate in situ has been applied
to the screening of various extracts, such as antimicrobial and antioxidant activity or
56 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 3.3
Chemical Tests for Different Classes of Compounds
Chemical Class Qualitative Test Observation
Carotenoids in chloroform Concentrated sulfhuric acid or Deep blue color
5% antimony chloride Deep blue color
Alkaloids Dragendorff’s reagent ora Orange precipitate
Mayer’s reagentb White or buff precipitates
Phenolic compounds Ferric ions Dark green, blue, or purple-black
Terpenoids Liebemann-Burchard Red-blue
reactionc
Sugars Fehling’s solution Red precipitate
Amino acids Ninhydrin Reddish or blue color

a Potassium iodobismuthate.
b Potassium iodomercurate.
c Acetic anhydride with a few drops of concentrated sulfuric acid.

Source: From Houghton and Raman, 1998. Laboratory handbook for the fractionalization of natu-
ral extracts, London, Chapman & Hall.

general toxicity (Eberz et al., 1996; Weins and Jork, 1996; Hostettmann et al., 1997). The
most common sorbent of choice in TLC by far is still silica, whereas in HPLC analyses
nonpolar reversed-phase sorbents have almost entirely replaced silica and other normal-
phase sorbents. The mean particle size and particle size distribution of the silica gel used
as adsorbent depends on the nature of the separation task: For high-performance thin-
layer chromatography (HPTLC) plates, the mean particle size is approximately 5 µm
with a narrow particle size distribution; for TLC, it is approximately 12 µm, and the par-
ticle size distribution is wider. The pore diameter for both is approximately 60 Å, and the
surface area is approximately 500 m2/g (Gocan, 2002). Other relatively frequently used
polar TLC sorbents include alumina, cellulose, chitin and chitosan, and polar chemically
silica-bonded phases such as aminopropyl, cyanopropyl, and diol phases (Geiss, 1987).

3.3.4.2 Preparative Thin-Layer Chromatography


The most conventional and common method of isolation of pure substances at the final
stages is to use preparative TLC (PTLC). It is amenable to low-budget conditions and
easy to execute. It is labor intensive, and compounds that are in very low concentra-
tions may be missed. The method works on the same principles as TLC (Hostettmann
et al., 1997). It involves applying the plant extract (10–15 mg/plate) in the form of a
thin line (band) on a TLC plate. The PTLC plates are normally 0.5–1 mm thick. The
plate is developed in a solvent system known to separate the components. Although
gram quantities of material can be separated by PTLC, most applications involve
milligram quantities. Silica gel is the most common adsorbent and is employed for
the separation of both lipophilic and hydrophobic substance mixtures. The maximum
sample load for a silica layer 1.0 mm thick is about 5 mg/cm2. PTLC plates can be
either self-made or purchased. As the particle sizes of the TLC and PTLC adsorbents
are the same, choice of eluent is determined from a preliminary TLC investigation.
Phytochemical Methods 57

Addition of acetic acid or diethylamine in small amounts is useful for the preparation
of acidic and basic compounds, respectively. Elution of PTLC usually takes place in
glass tanks, which may hold several plates at a time.

3.3.4.3 Paper Chromatography
Paper chromatography is similar to TLC in practice but quite different in principle.
Although paper consists mainly of cellulose, the stationary phase is not cellulose but
the water that is adsorbed or chemically bound to it. Development is carried out by
passing comparatively nonpolar mobile phase through the cellulose fibers, partition-
ing the solutes between the bound water and the mobile phase. Paper chromatog-
raphy thus operates by a liquid-liquid partitioning process rather than adsorption
on the surface of a solid. Paper chromatography is usually used to separate polar
substances such as amino acids and sugars. Paper chromatography has been used
extensively in flavonoid chemistry. For preliminary assessment of the extract, it is
general practice to run a spotted paper first in an alcoholic solvent, such as satu-
rates secondary butanol, butanol/acetone/water (BAW) or saturated toluene/butanol/
acetone (TBA) in the longer dimension (12–30 h) until the solvent line approaches
the end of the sheet. The chromatogram is then removed from the tank, air-dried in
a fume cupboard, and the paper is run in the second dimension using a more polar
solvent, usually an aqueous solvent (2–15% acetic acid in case of flavonoid, 4–6 h).

3.3.4.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography


HPLC is a modern development in column chromatography in which a powerful
pump is used to force eluents through the column filled with extremely fine par-
ticles (3–10 µm) of packing material. HPLC chromatographic separation is based
on interaction and differential partition of the sample (partition chromatography)
between the mobile liquid phase and the stationary phase. The liquid stationary
phase is adsorbed on or chemically bonded to the solid particles of the column pack-
ing. Partition chromatography is based on the same principle as extraction, in which
a solute is distributed (partitioned) between two liquids. As the molecules of the
components elute down the column, they partition between the eluent and the liquid
stationery phase according to the partition coefficient ratio.

3.3.4.5 Gas Chromatography
GC is based on the volatilized sample transported by the carrier gas as the mov-
ing phase through the stationary phase of the column, where separation takes place
by the sorption/desorption process. Samples for gas chromatographic analysis are
normally low molecular weight compounds that are volatile and stable at high tem-
perature. In this respect, residual solvents in drug substances and drug products are
suitable for gas chromatographic analysis. Chemical derivatives can also be formed
to achieve volatility and thermal stability.
Common detectors are flame ionization detectors (FIDs) for carbon-containing
compounds, electron capture detectors (ECDs) for halogenated compounds, flame
photometric detectors (FPDs) for compounds containing sulfur or phosphorous,
and nitrogen-phosphorous detectors (NPDs) for compounds containing nitrogen
58 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

or phosphorous. Chiral separation also can be achieved by GC. Separation by the


packed column is rapidly being replaced by the capillary column, which provides
improved resolution and analysis speed. The location of the analyte on the gas chro-
matogram is described by retention time (Rt ), which is similar to HPLC.

3.4 Derivatization
Although structural elucidation is well mastered and has become quite routine, isola-
tion and purification of specifically natural products that exist only in minute quanti-
ties have to be isolated after some derivatization or be monitored by a bioassay. For
example, in flavonoid chemistry, in which the occurrence of the compounds is in
microgram quantities and the structures are characterized mostly by hydroxylated
aromatic rings, derivatization using reactions such as acetylation, benzylation, and
methylation (Vogel et al., 1996) is necessary for good separations. Amines are also
easily acetylated. Normally, a known amount of extract is derivatized and purified by
repeated chromatographic methods, such as preparative chromatography and HPLC.
Besides enhancing the purification processes, derivatization also facilitates struc-
tural elucidation. It is easy, for example, to quantify the hydroxyl groups present in
a compound by counting the number of methyl groups resulting from the methyla-
tion experiment. Similarly, acetylation would facilitate good isolation and structural
elucidation, except for tertiary alcohols, which are normally resistant to acetylation.
Dimethylsulfoxide is usually a good methylating reagent. Benzylation is a valuable
protection method for compounds without chromophores (e.g., sugars). However, it
should be avoided when derivatizing aromatic compounds (e.g., flavonoids) because
the aromatic proton resonances will be buried under the benzyl protons in the nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra. It is noteworthy to remember that some protec-
tive groups are not labile, and it is practically impossible to effect deprotection. The
methyl group is usually very stable, and the demethylation process normally requires
very harsh conditions, which may consequently destroy the structure.

3.4.1 Acetylation
Dry material is dissolved in a minimum volume of pyridine (dried over potassium
hydroxide pellets) and twice the amount of dry (distilled) acetic anhydride. After
8–12 h at ambient temperatures (~60°C, normally on top of a hot oven), crushed ice
is added to precipitate the acetylated material. The precipitate is filtered under pres-
sure and the excess pyridine washed out with cold water.

3.5 Analysis of Extracts and Isolated Compounds


In some cases, it is possible to determine the nature of compounds one is dealing with
by following simple qualitative analyses of the extracts. Also, appearances of the extract
can provide clues on what the compounds may be. The anthocyanidins, due to the posi-
tive charge they carry on the oxygen, are known to have deep red-blue colors, while chal-
cones and quinones are normally deep yellow. The deep yellow color originates from
the conjugate system that exists between the carbonyl and the double bond. Qualitative
chemical analyses are normally used as guidelines to assist in determining the solvents,
Phytochemical Methods 59

detection method, and route most appropriate for isolation of the components. During
the isolation process, it is important to acquire sufficient quantities of the extract or com-
pound because it may not always be easy to reproduce the same compound.

3.5.1 Qualitative Chemical Analysis


Chemical analysis can be used to determine the nature of the chemical group pres-
ent in the compound (Houghton and Raman, 1998). A color reaction or precipitate in
response to specific reagents usually shows the presence of a class of compounds. It
should be noted that these tests are seldom specific enough to be unequivocal con-
clusions, and negative results do not mean that the particular group is not present.
Sometimes, concentrations of the particular group are very low, and concentration or
purification of the extract is required.

3.5.2 Detection Methods
Detection methods (Table 3.4) are designed to increase sensitivity and selectivity and
to provide evidence concerning the quality of the separation. Classes of compounds
absorb at different UV wavelengths, and different complementary colors are observed.

3.6 Determining Organic Structures


Up to the early 1940s, elucidation of complex structures such as terpenoids, alka-
loids, and flavonoids was by chemical reactions coupled with skeletal rearrange-
ments and biogenic concepts. Spectroscopy, introduced as early as 1949, has become
indispensable for routine research. Organic structures can be determined accu-
rately and quickly by spectroscopy, and molecular formulas, identities of functional
groups, carbon connectivities, position of substituents and functional groups on the
carbon framework, and stereochemical properties, including dynamic and static
aspects, can be derived. The four primary spectroscopic techniques that have been
in use since the 1960s are NMR, infrared (IR), ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis), and mass
spectrometry (MS) (Furniss et al., 1989; McMurry, 1996; Fox and Whitesell, 1997).
X-ray crystallography is the ultimate tool in structure elucidation, but only for the
analysis of well-formed crystals. While X-rays give bond length and angles, NMR
tells about the carbon skeleton of the molecule, IR tells us about the types of bond in
a molecule (to determine the functional groups in a molecule), and MS determines
mass of the molecule and atomic composition. Of these, NMR is more important
than all the rest put together, and therefore focus is directed to NMR. Advances
in NMR and MS instrumentation along with experimental strategies have made it
possible to tackle structural elucidation of very complex compounds made up of
nonrepeating subunits.
It is a must to have a fundamental understanding of the principles of organic
structures before attempting to analyze organic structures, especially when deal-
ing with exotic compounds. Besides having general knowledge about principles of
organic chemistry, there should be clear understanding of the common functional
groups, types of structures that are stable (e.g., aromatics), strained systems (e.g.,
cyclobutane), and moities prone to convert into something else (e.g., tautomerization
60 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 3.4
Detection Techniques Used in TLC
Detection Technique Principal Features of the Technique
UV-Vis/densitometry Free choice of excitation and detection wavelength;
possibility to capture UV-Vis spectra of the analytes
directly on the plate; fluorescence detection possible;
sequential detection of the analytes

UV-Vis/video Limited number of detection wavelengths; simultaneous


densitometry detection of all the analytes on the plate;
enables a more convenient analysis of two-dimensional
chromatograms

MS Several ionization methods available; provides structural


information about the analytes

FTIR (Fourier transform infrared) Can be performed directly on the plate or after elution of the
analyte from the sorbent; provides structural information
about the analytes

Raman spectroscopy Sensitivity can be considerably increased by treating the


plates with silver solution (surface-enhanced resonance
Raman spectroscopy); provides structural information about
the analytes

Radioactivity-based methods Applied both for online and offline detection; several
methods available; mostly used for metabolic studies

NMR Cannot be performed directly on the TLC plate; provides


structural information about the analytes

FID (flame ionization detection) Separation and detection performed on a specific sorbent-coated
quartz rod; suitable for compounds lacking chromophores

SWASV (square-wave anodic Electrochemical detection technique; detection directly on


stripping voltammetry) the plate; sensitive

Photothermal methods Several methods available; also provides information about the
analytes distributed vertically inside the depth of the layer

AAS (atomic absorption Analytes are eluted from the layer before detection; used for
spectroscopy) the determination of metals

Source: From Crews, Rodríguez, and Jaspars, 1998. Organic structure analysis. New York, Oxford
University Press. With permission.

of enols into carbonyls). The tentative approach should be organized and system-
atic, entail understanding of interpretation of a spectral trace, appreciation of the
dangers of using negative or unreliable data, and simultaneous use of data from
NMR, MS, IR, and UV-Vis methods to support individual conclusions. In contrast
to solving a synthetic structure for which only a few pieces of spectroscopic data
Phytochemical Methods 61

might be sought, extensive data must be obtained for a newly isolated compound
when its structure is presumed to be unknown. The amount of sample at hand,
instrument time available, personal experience, and the ability to find appropriate
empirical reference data to back up a conclusion are all important factors. Both
liquid and solid compounds can easily be examined by NMR, IR, and UV-Vis
methods. Alternatively, gases or solids can be analyzed by IR and MS means. In
addition, no more than a few milligrams of a compound are needed for any of these
techniques. Total syntheses of natural products are the absolute because they can
be checked by comparison; structures determined by X-rays are likewise usually
final. In contrast, spectroscopic data can be consistent with a structure, but they
can never prove it. A single misinterpretation or oversight of an NMR signal can
lead to a grossly incorrect structure.

3.6.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance


NMR is considered to be the most powerful tool in organic structure analysis
because it provides direct insight into the backbone of an organic molecule. It
allows detection of atomic nuclei and establishes their environment type within
their molecule (Crews, Rodríguez, and Jaspars, 1998). An NMR spectrum arises
from transitions between nuclear spin states, and the 1H and 13C isotopes are the
most common targets. If 5–50 mg of pure sample are available, then the 13C NMR
spectrum can easily provide an analysis of carbon and hydrogen content (two-
dimensional [2D] spectra). Only submilligram samples are needed to acquire
one-dimensional 1H NMR data to assess the hydrogen content. The identity of
various functional groups can often be established entirely by NMR. For exam-
ple, carbonyl groups (acid, ester, amide, ketone, aldehyde) (Table 3.5) can quickly
be identified by analysis of 13C NMR chemical shifts, while benzenoid aromatic
rings are revealed by their characteristic 1H NMR resonances (Figure 3.1). The
2D spectroscopic data, including homonuclear 1H-1H COSY (correlation spec-
troscopy), and heteronuclear 1H-13C COSY or HETCOR NMR experiments,
nuclear Overhauser enhancement (nOe, NOESY), together with chemical shifts
or coupling constant data from 1H and 13C NMR data, can provide steriochemical
insight (Crews, Rodríguez, and Jaspars, 1998). A summary of the most useful 2D
methods is shown in Table 3.6.

3.6.2 Deuterated Solvents
A large range of deuterated solvents, such as deuterated chloroform CDCl3 and deu-
terated dimethyl sulfoxide (CD3)2SO, exist (Table 3.7), especially for NMR spectra
solving. These solvents contain small quantities of undeuterated solvent, which may
give rise to a signal; CHCl3 is seen as a single peak at 7.27 ppm. Water may be pres-
ent as a contaminant; this gives a broad peak whose chemical shift varies greatly
with solvent and occurs around 1.6 ppm in CDCl3. Spectra are usually recorded
against tertramethyl silane as the internal standard, set as zero. Proton NMR spectra
are characterized by chemical shift in the range +12 to −4 ppm using spin-spin cou-
pling between protons.
62 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 3.5
Typical Chemical Shift Ranges of
Carbon Nuclei
Class Resonances (ppm)
C (alkane) ~0–30
C (alkene) ~110–150
C–N ~50
C–O ~60
C–F ~70
Aromatic ~110–160
Ester, amide, acid ~160–175
Ketone, aldehyde ~200–220

Table 3.6
Two-Dimensional NMR Experiments
Normally Detected Inverse Detected
Information Desired Experiment Experiment Nucleus
Proton-proton couplings 1 H- H COSY
1 Proton

Long-range proton- LRCOSY Proton


proton couplings
Long-range proton- 1 H-1H TOCSY Proton
proton couplings via 1 H-1H relay
an H–H–H path

Unknown proton 1 H-13C COSY Heteronuclear Carbon and proton


assignments from that multiple
of known carbons or quantum
vice versa coherence
(HMQC)
HMBC
Long-range proton- Long-range 1H-13C COSY
carbon couplings an COLOC
H–C–C path or
H–C–C–C path
Long-range proton- Relay coherence transfer HMQC-TOCSY Carbon and proton
carbon couplings via (H–C relay)
an H–H–C path
(proton to vicinal
proton to carbon)

Spatial relationships 1H-1H NOESY Proton


between protons 1H-1H ROESY
Carbon-carbon Inadequate Carbon
connectivities
Phytochemical Methods 63

Table 3.7
Solvents and Quantities for Analytical Physicochemical
Measurements
Analytical Common Solvents in Order of Amount of Sample
Chromatography Preference Needed (mg)
TLC 2
GC 1
HPLC 2
Physicochemical Measurements
1 H NMR (>400 MHz) Chloroform,a DMSO,a pyridine,a 5
acetone,a methanola
13C NMR (>400 MHz) Same as 1H NMR 20
IR Chloroform 2
UV/visible Ethanol methanol (water for UV) 2
Mass spectrometry Chloroform/methanol 1

a Deuterated solvents.

3.6.3 Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance


A one-dimensional proton NMR (1H NMR) will display peaks corresponding to
different hydrogen atoms, which are characterized by different environments.
Chemical shift, usually abbreviated by the symbol δ (in units ppm), is a way of
describing a resonance in the NMR spectrum relative to tetramethylsilane (TMS)
as an internal standard. Differential decoupling is a valuable technique for uncov-
ering buried multiplets and assigning coupling partners (Crews, Rodríguez, and
Jaspars, 1998) as well as revealing information on the axial and equatorial posi-
tioning of the protons. It must be noted that the positions of the chemical shifts
can to a large degree be influenced by the nature of the solvent (ranging between 0
and 5 ppm). Therefore, one must never compare results of spectra taken with dif-
ferent solvents. The general distribution of proton chemical shifts associated with
different functional groups is summarized in Figure 3.2. Bear in mind that these
ranges are approximate and may not encompass all compounds of a given class.
Note also that the ranges specified for OH and NH protons are wider than those for
most CH protons. This is due to hydrogen bonding variations at different sample
concentrations. The typical chemical shift ranges of carbon nuclei are available in
the literature.
Coupling is when neighboring nuclei might interact through the electrons in the
bonds. Coupling is as helpful as chemical shifts in assigning spectra peaks and
elucidating structures. The coupling constant J is dependent on three factors: the
through bond distance between the protons (H), the angle between the two C–H
bonds, and the electronegative substituents. Typical coupling constants are shown
in Table 3.A2.
64 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Ethers
RO-CH

Sulhides
RS-CH Saturated Alkanes
RCHO Aromatics
R2C=CH 2 R-H
Aldehyde
Alcohols
HO-CH
RCH=CHR RC_CH

Ph-CH Ar-CH
R2C=CR-CH
F-CH Cl-CH
I-CH

Br-CH
RCOCH
RCO2CH
NC-CH
Amide RCON H O2N-CH
R2N-CH
RCO 2H ROH

PhOH
R 2NH

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 ppm

Low field region High field region

Figure 3.2 Proton chemical shift ranges.

3.7 Conclusion
Natural products chemistry as an interdisciplinary area can be used to collaborate dif-
ferent fields linked to herbal medicines. It is an important application in ethnoveteri-
nary and ethnopharmacological sciences. If properly utilized, the isolation techniques
described in this chapter can provide relief from the laborious protocols that natural
products scientists follow when isolating active metabolites from herbal medicines.
Application of new experimental procedures in isolation and purification of bioactive
products, even those that occur in minute quantities, is feasible. The efficiency and
effectiveness of isolation processes can be greatly improved with modern technology.

Acknowledgments
I would like to extend special thanks to Molahlehi Sonopo, who was my loyal master
of science student and friend during my lecturing days, for gathering part of the data
presented in this chapter. Many thanks to my children, Joyce, Sam, Edward, and
Edmond, all of whom give meaning to my life.

References
Cannell, R. J. P. How to approach the isolation of a natural product. In Cannell, R. J. P. (Ed.),
Methods in biotechnology 4. Natural products isolation. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ,
1998, pp. 1–51.
Craig, L. C., and Craig, D. In Weissberger, A. D., Technique of organic chemistry. Vol. 3. New
York, 1950, p. 171.
Phytochemical Methods 65

Crews, P., Rodríguez, J., and Jaspars, M. Using spectroscopic data in organic structure analysis,
Organic structure analysis. Oxford University Press, New York, Chapter 1, 1–14, 1998.
Eberz, G., Rast, H.-G., Burger, K., Kreiss, W., and Weisemann, C. Bioactivity screening by
chromatography-bioluminescence coupling. Chromatographia 43, 5–9, 1996.
Farnsworth, N. R. Screening plants for new medicines. In Wilson, E. O. (Ed.), Biodiversity.
National Academy, Washington, DC, 1988, Chap. 9.
Farnsworth, N. R., and D. D. Soejarto. 1985. Potential consequences of plant extinction in the United
States on the current and future availability of prescription drugs. Econ. Bot. 39(3):231–240.
Ferreira, D., Kamara, B. I., Brandt, E. V., and Joubert, E. Phenolic compounds from Cyclopia inter-
media (honeybush tea). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 46, 3406–3410, 1998.
Fox, M. A., and Whitesell, J. K. Organic chemistry, 2nd ed. Jones and Barlett, Boston, 1997.
Geiss, F. Fundamentals of thin layer chromatography (planar chromatography). Dr. Alfred
Hüthig Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany, 1987.
Gocan, S. Stationary phases for thin-layer chromatography. Journal of Chromatographic
Science 40, 538–549, 2002.
Hostettmann, K., Terreaux, C., Marston A., and Potterat, O. The role of planar chromatog-
raphy in the rapid screening and isolation of bioactive compounds from medicinal
plants. Journal of Planar Chromatography 10, 251–257, 1997.
Houghton, P. J., and Raman, A. Laboratory handbook for the fractionation of natural extracts.
Chapman & Hall, London, 1998.
Huie, C. W. A review of modern sample preparation techniques for the extraction and analysis
of medicinal plants. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 373, 23–30, 2002.
Jork, H., Funk, W., Fischer, W., and Wimmer, H. Thin layer chromatography: reagents and
detection methods: physical and chemical methods: fundamental reagents 1. Vol. 1a,
VCH, Weinheim, Germany, 1990.
McMurry, J. Organic chemistry, 4th ed. Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA, 1996.
Nyiredy, Sz. Rotation planar extraction (RPE)—a new exhaustive, preparative forced-flow
technique. Part 1: description of the method and practical aspects. Journal of Planar
Chromatography 14, 393–395, 2001.
Starmans, D. A. J., and Nijhuis, H. H. Extraction of secondary metabolites from plant material:
a review. Trends Food Science and Technology 7, 191–197, 1996.
Tservistas, M., Scheper, T., and Freitag, R. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)—novel strate-
gies in the processing of biomaterials. In Grabley, S., and Thiericke R. (Eds.), Drug
discovery from nature. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2000, pp. 106–113.
Vinatoru, M. An overview of the ultrasonically assisted extraction of bioactive principles from
herbs. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 8, 303–313, 2001.
Vogel, A. I., Tatchell A. R., Furnis, B. S., Hannaford, A. J., and Smith, P. W. G. Vogel’s textbook
of practical organic chemistry, 5th ed. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1996.
Weins, C., and Jork, H. Toxicological evaluation of harmful substances by in situ enzymatic
and biological detection in high-performance thin-layer chromatography. Journal of
Chromatography A 750, 403–407, 1996.
Zygmunt, B., and Namieśnik, J. Preparation of samples of plant material for chromatographic
analysis. Journal of Chromatographic Science 41, 109–116, 2003.

Suggested Further Reading


Crews, P., Rodríguez, J., and Jaspars, M. Using spectroscopic data in organic structure analysis,
Organic structure analysis. Oxford University Press, New York, Chapters 2–5, 15–221, 1998.
Sarker, S. D., Latif, Z., and Gray A. I. Natural products isolation, 2nd ed. Humana Press,
Totowa, NJ, 2006.
Williams, D. H., and Fleming, I. Spectroscopic methods in organic chemistry, 5th ed. McGraw-
Hill, London, 1991.
66
Table 3.A1
Reagents and Methods of Thin-Layer Chromatography

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Wavelength Reagent Time Color
Type of Compound Methoda Layer (Merk) Mobile Phase (nm) (Jork et al., 1990)b Heat (°C)c (min) Developed
Sugars, HPTLC Plates, silica gel 2-Propanol/0.75% 365 4-Aminohippuric acid 115–140 8 Orange
monosaccharides 60 boric acid/glacial
acetic acid 40:5:1

Sugars, HPTLC Plates, silica gel Toluene/ 365 2-Aminodiphynyl-sulfuric 105–110 5–10 Green,
Carbonyl compounds 60 F254 ethylacetate/ acid blue, or
acetone 90:5:5 purple

Carbohydrates TLC Plates, silica gel Dichloromethane/ 365 4-Aminobenzoic acid 100 10–15 Reddish-
(sugars), 60 methanol/acetone/ brown
mono- and water 50:50:25:10
disaccharides,
uronic acids

Alkaloids [1,2]d HPTLC Plates, silica gel Methanol/ 365 Ammonia vapor 110–120 25 Yellow,
Mycotoxins [3–5]d 60 F254 chloroform/water green, or
Flavonoids, flavonoid 12:8:2 blue
glycosides [6–9]d

Antioxidants (e.g., HPTLC Plates, silica gel Toluene/chloroform 365 Anisaldehyde 90–125 1–15
flavonoids) 60 F254 10:10 (4-methoxybenzaldehyde-
Steroids Toluene/acetone/ sulfuric acid)
Prostaglandins methanol 6:3:1
Carbohydrates (flavonoids)
Phenols
Phytochemical Methods
Glycosides
Sapogenins
Terpenes or essential
oil components
Mycotoxins
Antibiotics

Aromatic HPTLC Plates, silica gel Methano/ 365 Formaldehyde-sulfuric acid 110 20 Variety
hydrocarbons 60 chloroform/water (Marquis reagent) 140-methyl esters 10
Alkaloids 12:8:2 (alkaloids)
Methyl ethers of fatty Toluene/acetone/
acids methanol 6:3:1
Tannins (flavonoids)

Fatty acids, HPTLC Plates, silica gel Methanol/ tert-Butyl hypochlorite Room temperature
triglycerides, amino 60 NH3(0.25%)/
acids, sugars, acetone 8:1:1
steroids
Peptides, nucleosides
Alkaloids

a Ascending, one-dimensional development in a trough chamber with saturation.


b Heating is done after spraying of the reagent.
c Reagents preparation.
d Chromatogram is heated in the drying cupboard to 110–120oC for 25 min and placed, while still hot, in a trough containing 10 mL ammonia solution for 15 min.

67
68 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 3.A2
Typical Coupling Constants
Number of Bonds
between the
Geminal 2JHH (on the same Coupling Constant Neighboring
carbon) Compound between HA and HB Hydrogen Atoms
Saturated R 10–16 Hz Two bonds (HA–C–HB)
R HA

HB
Unsaturated 0–3 Hz Two bonds (HA–C–HB)
HA
R
HB
Vicinal 3JHH (on the
adjacent carbon)
Saturated 6–8 Hz Three bonds
HA
(HA–C–C–HB)
R
R
HB
Unsaturated (trans-Hs on 14–16 Hz Three bonds
HA
opposite sides of double (HA–C–C–HB)
R
bond) R
HB
Unsaturated (cis-Hs on same 8–11 Hz Three bonds
HA
sides of double bond) B
(HA–C–C–HB)
H
R
R
Unsaturated aromatic 6–9 Hz Three bonds
HA
compound (HA–C–C–HB)
HB

Long-range 4JHH
Meta 1–3 Hz Four bonds
HA HB
(HA–C–C–C–HB)

Allylic 1–2 Hz Four bonds


HA HB
(HA–C–C–C–HB)

R R

JHH = 2 bond lengths between the two protons (HH); 3JHH = 3 bond lengths between the two protons (HH);
2

JHH = 4 band lengths between the two protons (HH).


4
4 Preclinical Safety Testing
of Herbal Remedies
Vinny Naidoo and Jurgen Seier

Contents
4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 70
4.2 Dose-Response Curves and Safety.................................................................. 71
4.3 Toxicity Test..................................................................................................... 72
4.3.1 Single-Dose Acute Toxicity Testing.................................................... 73
4.3.2 Repeat-Dose Toxicity Testing.............................................................. 74
4.3.3 Reproduction Toxicity Study............................................................... 75
4.3.3.1 One-Generational Toxicity Study......................................... 75
4.3.3.2 Two-Generational Toxicity Study......................................... 75
4.3.4 Mutagenicity Testing........................................................................... 75
4.3.4.1 Gene Mutation in Bacteria.................................................... 76
4.3.4.2 Chromosomal Aberrations in Mammalian Cells
In Vitro.................................................................................. 76
4.3.4.3 Gene Mutations in Eukaryotic Systems................................ 77
4.3.4.4 In Vivo Testing for Genetic Damage..................................... 77
4.3.5 Carcinogenicity Testing....................................................................... 77
4.3.6 Local Tolerance Testing....................................................................... 77
4.3.6.1 Ocular Tolerance Testing...................................................... 77
4.3.6.2 Dermal Tolerance Testing..................................................... 78
4.3.6.3 Skin Sensitization................................................................. 78
4.3.6.4 Phototoxicity or Photosensitivity.......................................... 78
4.3.7 Cardiotoxicity Testing......................................................................... 78
4.3.8 Target Species Testing......................................................................... 79
4.3.9 Other Tests........................................................................................... 79
4.3.10 Pharmacovigilance.............................................................................. 79
4.4 Limitations in Complying with Conventional Strategy...................................80
4.5 Specific Considerations in Ethnobotanical Safety Testing.............................. 81
4.6 Special Consideration for Production Animals............................................... 81
4.6.1 Determination of Withdrawal Periods................................................. 82
4.6.2 Dangers of Residues............................................................................84
4.7 Suggestions for Toxicity Testing......................................................................84
4.7.1 Literature Review................................................................................ 85
4.7.2 Pharmacovigilance.............................................................................. 85

69
70 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

4.7.3 Species................................................................................................. 85
4.7.3.1 Testing in Companion Animals............................................ 86
4.7.3.2 Production Animals.............................................................. 87
4.7.4 Formulation......................................................................................... 87
4.8 Conclusion....................................................................................................... 88
Appendix A1. Care and Use of Laboratory Animals................................................ 88
Introduction...................................................................................................... 88
Choice ............................................................................................................. 88
Care.................................................................................................................. 89
Environmental Enrichment.............................................................................. 89
Administration of Substances and Collection of Body Fluid.......................... 89
Ethics ............................................................................................................. 89
References.................................................................................................................90
Further Reading........................................................................................................ 93

4.1 Introduction
Is natural safe? This is probably the most important question when considering herbal
remedies. Many people are of the mistaken notion that plant or herbal remedies are
safe as they are natural, and natural is good for you, that is, “nature knows best.” Yet,
most toxic substances known to humans are of natural origin, such as tetrodotoxin
from the puffer fish (Fugu rubripes), black mamba venom (Dendroaspis polylepis),
aflatoxins (Aspergillus spp.), botulinum toxin (Clostridium botulinum), and ricins
(Ricinus communis). From these examples, it is clear that herbal remedies are not
inherently safe (Ueno, 1985; Schweitz and Moinier, 1999; Noguchi and Ebesu, 2001;
Kellerman et al., 2005; Sobel, 2007). This, of course, does not mean that synthetic
pharmaceuticals, on the other hand, are safe, but the more rigorous current legisla-
tive framework governing the latter ameliorates the risk associated with their use.
An important factor is that commercial herbal remedies are sometimes processed
and concentrated by extraction to maximize the therapeutic effect (percolation or
maceration in various solvents). This increases not only the concentration of the ben-
eficial compounds in the extract but also the possible toxins (Foukaridis et al., 1995).
If one is to consider the words of Paracelsus, the father of modern toxicology, who
essentially stated that all substances are toxic with the dose making the difference,
the process of concentration could also increase the concentration of the beneficial
agents to a toxic level (Borzelleca, 2000).
Contamination of the formulation due to poor quality control or tampering is pos-
sible. In a study in the United Kingdom, many of the topical creams examined were
found to be adulterated with steroids (ICH, 2000; Ko, 2006). In another survey on
Chinese herbal remedies, formulations were found to be contaminated not only with
the steroids, but also nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as well as diazepenes and
other conventional pharmaceutics, such as antibiotics and antidiuretics (Deng, 2002;
Ernst, 2002). Therefore, good production quality control systems, as set out in good
manufacturing practice (GMP) guidelines, are important.
Another concern is the use of herbal products in animals that are farmed as a
source of protein for human nutrition (meat, milk, or eggs). Any substance that gets
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 71

absorbed into the body also has the potential of becoming incorporated into animal
products and can therefore adversely affect human health. At present, residues in
animal products are highly controlled around the world by the various regulators
(Van Dresser and Wilcke, 1989).
It is clear that every herbal remedy needs to undergo preclinical safety testing to
ascertain its potential to cause harm. Preclinical safety testing should not be seen
as an obstacle to the development or sale of an herbal remedy but rather as a means
to ensure that the end user of the product comes to no harm. However, it should be
remembered that most pharmaceutical drugs are researched and developed by com-
mercial companies, many of which are located in highly industrialized nations. Such
companies commit considerable financial resources to drug development and in return
realize significant profits from their investment (DiMasi, Hansen, and Grawbowski,
2003; Rawlins, 2004). Traditional medicine research, on the other hand, is most often
conducted by academic institutions, frequently in less-developed countries. In these
cases, it is clear that financial resources and return on investment will be limited, even
nonexistent at times. This has implications for toxicity testing since few academic
institutions are able to fund the entire range that is conventionally required.

4.2 Dose-Response Curves and Safety


Modern pharmacology has been able to explain the principle of a drug’s response
or toxicity by means of dose-response curves (Hoel and Portier, 1994; Verlato et al.,
1996; Lees, Cunningham, and Elliot, 2004). These curves clearly indicate that the
effect achieved is related to the dose administered to a maximum effect (effec-
tive dose-response curve). After the point of maximum effect Emax, any increase
in dose will not result in an increase in the desired effect. Since every product
has the potential to induce side effects or to be toxic, this can also be plotted on
its own curve (toxic and lethal dose-response curves). In most cases, this curve is
slightly to the right of the desired dose-response curve (Timbrell, 1995). The further
this curve is to the right of the effective dose-response curve, the safer the product
becomes and vice versa (Figure 4.1. The safety of the product (safety indices) is
calculated mathematically by comparing the effective dose-response curve to the
lethal dose-response curve (a more detailed description of an LD50 (median lethal
dose) is provided in Section 4.3.1), for example, the therapeutic index (LD50/ED50),
the therapeutic ratio (LD25:ED75), and the safety factor (LD1/ED99). The last factor
considered is the margin of safety, which looks at the steepness of the slope of
the dose-response curve. Steeper curves have a lower margin of safety as a small
increase in dose will result in a much larger increase in effect than a product with
a more gradual slope (Figure 4.2) (Timbrell, 1995). From an ethical standpoint, the
assay determination of an LD50 is seen as unacceptable due to the large number
of animals used, and the reproducibility of this method has also been questioned
(Mutai, 2000; Gad and Chengelis, 2007). As an alternative, we use tolerance test-
ing, in which increasing doses are utilized. This determines the toxicity of a product
on a scale system; for example, if a drug is safe at 10 times the recommended dose,
then there is little chance of toxicity and no need to expose more animals to the drug
(see Section 4.3.8) (Walum, 1998).
72 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

ED LD
100
Emax

75
Response

50 ED50 LD50

25

Log Dose

Figure 4.1 Illustration of the dose-response relationship for a medicinal product. ED rep-
resents the effective dose-response curve; LD represents the lethal dose-response curve. The
x-axis is plotted on the log scale to linearize the data; the y-axis represents the percentage
effect. Emax represents the maximum therapeutic effect of the product. The ED50 and LD50
values can be read directly off the x-axis. (From Seier et al. 2004. A toxicity study of IKS/
PYAI Consumption, MRC Press, Cape Town.)

4.3 Toxicity Test
Numerous different tests have to be conducted when ascertaining the safety of ethical
medical products for registration. These tests have been designed to elucidate all toxic
effects at low, medium, and high doses following single or multiple exposures (WHO,
2004). Such tests detect insidious genotoxic as well as carcinogenic effects, while car-
diotoxicity is determined in vitro by human ether-a-go-go-related gene (hERG) screen-
ing (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development). With the exception of
some of the genotoxicity testing and hERG screening, all other safety investigations
need to be undertaken in animal models. At present the zebra fish, Chinese hamster
ovary (CHO) cells, and human lymphocyte and human lymphoma assays are the more
commonly acceptable in vitro assays for assessing genotoxicity (OECD, 1997; European

A B
100

75
Response

50

25

Log Dose

Figure 4.2 The importance of the slope of a dose-response curve for drug safety (margin
of safety). Product A has a steeper slope than product B. A smaller change in dose for product
A will result in a much larger change in response than for product B.
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 73

Medicines Agency [EMEA], 1987b). All other in vitro tests, such as the brine shrimp
and various cell culture assays, are not at present allowed for registration purposes and
are not validated due to poor correlation with in vivo toxicity in most cases (Toussaint
et al., 1995). However, these tests still continue to be widely used in the herbal industry
as initial screening for toxicity (Meyer et al., 1982; Solis et al., 1993).
When comparing herbal remedies to ethical medicinal products (pharmaceu-
ticals), some major differences are evident, which may influence registration. The
active ingredients in the ethical products are known, while those in the herbal rem-
edies are largely unknown. In addition, the composition of the herbal remedy can
change with each batch grown and processed, and this difference can alter the toxic-
ity profile of the herbal product. Therefore, preclinical safety testing for any herbal
product is dependent on an adequate quality control strategy during the preparation
of said herbal remedy. The results from the preclinical tests can only be applied to
production batches that meet the same criteria. At present, this would mean finger-
printing of all batches produced. Any batch that fails to meet the fingerprint require-
ments should be rejected and destroyed as the toxicity resulting from this difference
can be substantial; for example, kava kava extracts appear to be more toxic with an
increase in the ethanol quantity in the extraction solvent (Clouatre, 2004).

4.3.1 Single-Dose Acute Toxicity Testing


For single-dose acute toxicity testing, most regulators internationally require use of
two mammalian species, with both sexes exposed (EMEA, 1987a; Food and Drug
Administration [FDA], 2000; OECD, 2007). The aim of this test is to determine acute
toxicity and the mode of death after a single dose as well as provide indications regard-
ing the possible effects of overdosing. The animals are treated with the product by two
routes, the first being the same as the recommended route and the second allowing for
maximal exposure. The animals are monitored from the time of dosing, and all clini-
cal signs, including food and water intake, are recorded. Animals are monitored until
death or to a maximum of 14 days posttreatment, followed by a full necropsy examina-
tion at the time of death or euthanasia. Histopathological examinations are only neces-
sary for organ systems showing macroscopic changes (OECD, 2001a, 2007).
The doses selected for this study and the number of animals used per group are
defined in the guidelines of the OECD, the FDA, and others for toxicity testing
(FDA, 2000; OECD, 2001a). The highest dose should ensure all signs of toxicity
become evident, but in some instances a smaller study may need to be undertaken
to find the correct dose. When four groups of animals are used, an LD50 can be
determined by either a probit analysis or a dose-response analysis (Williams, 1986).
The LD50 is defined as the dose that kills 50% of a uniform population. Although
the LD50 is still regarded as the best means to compare the toxicity of different com-
pounds, this method is flawed as it differs between laboratories and the strain of ani-
mal used (Mutai, 2000). The determination of the LD50 also requires a large number
of animals, which, in addition to being unacceptable ethically, is expensive.
To overcome this problem, other systems of acute testing have been suggested.
One of these systems is the guidelines published by the British Toxicology Society
and the OECD (British Toxicology Society, 1984; Bruce, 1985; van den Heuvel et al.,
74 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

1990; OECD, 2006). These methods were designed to limit the total number of ani-
mals exposed to the potentially toxic compound and the highest dose. The system also
avoided death as the end point and relied more on the clinical signs. From these data,
compounds can be classified according to their toxicity even though an LD50 is not deter-
mined. Animals are exposed to 5, 50, and 500 mg/kg of the tested compound, which
enables classification as very toxic (LD50 < 25 mg/kg), toxic (LD50 25–200 mg/kg),
harmful (LD50 200–2,000 mg/kg), and unclassified (>2,000 mg/kg) depending on the
number of deaths. The last dose of 2,000 mg/kg also forms part of the tolerance dose
set by the OECD (2006). According to this system, a product that fails to show effects
at this dose is unlikely to be toxic.

4.3.2 Repeat-Dose Toxicity Testing


The purpose of repeat-dose toxicity testing is to obtain information on the cumula-
tive toxicity of a product during repeat exposure, which might also be representative
of the period of exposure in the target animal. The duration of a subchronic study is
typically 1–3 months, while a chronic study lasts for about 12 months (OECD, 1981,
1995, 1998, 2001b; EMEA, 1984).
The aim is to reveal physiological or pathological changes by allowing for accumu-
lation of the product so that a steady state can be achieved. From this constant expo-
sure, the effect on the elimination pathways can be determined (i.e., to ascertain if
toxic metabolism may result or if the biotransformation becomes saturated). Repeat-
dose testing also determines target organ systems when physiological pathways break
down or become saturated, establishes the effects of overdose and reversibility, and
enables the calculation of the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL).
The substance should be administered to two animal species (one rodent, one
nonrodent) by the same route as for the final product and at a dose selected to dem-
onstrate toxicity. Administration should be for a sufficiently long period, which is
determined by the intended duration of exposure during therapeutic use. Blood tests
must include the full blood count (FBC) as well as a variety of biochemical param-
eters in plasma as provided in Table 4.1. For rodents, these blood tests can be per-
formed on days 30 and 60 as well as at the end of a study and for large nonrodent

Table 4.1
Blood Tests Typically Required for Repeat Dose Studies
Hematology Biochemistry
Red blood cell count Alanine aminotransferase, aspartate
aminotransferase, gamma glutamyl transferase,
bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, albumin,
ornithine carbamyl transferase
Hemoglobin, hematocrit Urea, creatinine, Na, K, Cl, Ca, P
Total and differential white blood cell count Total protein, glucose, total cholesterol
Platelets Any other tests indicated by specific concerns
(e.g., hormones, lipids)
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 75

Table 4.2
Organ Samples Required for Histopathological Evaluation for a Subacute Test
Any Gross Lesions Tissue Masses Blood Smear Lymph Node Spinal Cord
Salivary glands Mammary glands Pituitary Thymus Trachea
Lungs Heart Thyroid Esophagus Stomach
Colon Liver Gall bladder Pancreas
Spleen Kidneys Adrenals Bladder Prostate
Testes Ovaries Uterus Brain Eye
Sternebrae, femur, or vertebrae (with bone marrow) Small intestine (Swiss roll method)

species also before treatment starts (at baseline). It is also acceptable to perform the
blood tests only at the end of a study. Microscopic examination of urine for sediment
is conducted according to the same schedule.
All animals have to be examined for ophthalmological effects before and at the
end of the study and are monitored for any other signs of toxicity. All changes are
recorded, and the animals are sacrificed after the last dose. Any death is investigated
by full postmortem examination. The organs of either all test animals or only those
in the high-dose group as well as the control group have to be evaluated histopatho-
logically (Table 4.2) (OECD, 1995, 2001b).

4.3.3 Reproduction Toxicity Study


4.3.3.1 One-Generational Toxicity Study
The one-generational toxicity studies are designed to determine detrimental effects
during the various stages in reproduction, which include reproductive cycles, con-
ception, conception to implantation, implantation to closure of the hard palate, clo-
sure of the hard palate to the end of pregnancy, birth to weaning, and weaning to
sexual maturity (Kimmel and Makris, 2001). Guidelines are available to define
each of these periods (OECD, 1983, 2000a, 2000b). The choice of test species is
important since this can have a direct influence on the outcome of the test.

4.3.3.2 Two-Generational Toxicity Study


The two-generational toxicity study is similar to the reproduction toxicity testing but
evaluates the effects of the substance on the reproductive potential of the F1 genera-
tion and ascertains if deformities are present in the F2 generation (OECD, 2000b).

4.3.4 Mutagenicity Testing
Mutagenesis refers to the changes in the genetic material of a cell, which can be
harmful to subsequent generations and may be associated with carcinogenicity.
These problems can be related to a single point change in the individual gene, affect
an entire chromosome, or even alter the number of chromosomes present. A number
of different in vitro and in vivo tests have been developed to determine the ability of
a chemical to induce this type of damage (Kirkland et al., 2005).
76 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

A B

Test 1

Negative

A B C

Test 2

Positive

Figure 4.3 The Ames test. A is the herbal remedy, B is the bacterial culture, and C is the
rat microsomal fraction. In both of the tests, the ingredients are mixed together and plated.
The test is positive for mutagenicity if bacterial colonies start to grow.

4.3.4.1 Gene Mutation in Bacteria


The Ames test is most commonly used and carried out with strains of bacteria that
have lost the potential to survive without external support (Figure 4.3). In this assay,
specific strains of Salmonella typhimurium are grown in the presence of the test
compound with or without rat microsomal enzymes. The principle of the test is
based on the ability of the bacteria to survive on media deprived of histidine, a nor-
mal growth nutrient. While the medium does contain the necessary nutrient for the
synthesis of histidine, the strains used in the Ames test are genetically deficient in
the enzymes necessary to make histidine from this specific media.
The basis of the test is the ability of these bacteria to grow beyond 48 h. Since
growth can only occur if the bacteria have been genetically altered, to produce the
enzyme necessary for histidine formation, the presence of viable colonies is a direct
indication of bacterial mutation and therefore a direct indicator of the potential of a
chemical to induce genetic changes in people or animals (i.e., mutagenic potential).
A major shortfall of this test is its use of a prokaryotic organism while the mamma-
lian cells are eukaryotic.

4.3.4.2 Chromosomal Aberrations in Mammalian Cells In Vitro


The test for chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells uses an in vitro cell cul-
ture system to ascertain the ability of the product to damage the chromatid material
(EMEA, 1987b; OECD, 1997). In this assay, cell cultures (e.g., lymphocyte cultures)
are grown in the presence of the chemical to be tested with and without metabolic
activation. The ability of the cell to induce damage to the nucleus is subsequently
evaluated microscopically by determining the degree of changes in the nucleus of the
exposed cells.
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 77

4.3.4.3 Gene Mutations in Eukaryotic Systems


Again, the aim of the test for gene mutations in eukaryotic systems is to determine
if a chemical has the ability to induce spontaneous mutation in the cell cultures.
While the Ames test used bacteria colonies for the presence of mutagenic potential,
this assay uses mammalian cells (EMEA, 1987b) and is usually carried out follow-
ing a positive result from the Ames test. Since this test uses eukaryotic cells, a more
complex system, it is considered to be more representative of mammalian cell physi-
ology. Different types of cultures are available to determine if a compound induces
mutations at various specific loci within the cell (e.g., sites coding for the enzymes
hypoxanthine-guanine-phosphoribosyl-transferase or thymidine kinase).

4.3.4.4 In Vivo Testing for Genetic Damage


The micronucleation test is the most commonly used assay for in vivo testing for
genetic damage. In this assay, the toxic effect of the compound on the bone mar-
row is determined as this tissue is highly mitotically active. For this, bone marrow
is harvested from the treated animals and evaluated for the degree of micronucleus
formation. The micronuclei, when formed, are bits of damaged chromatid material
within the cell.

4.3.5 Carcinogenicity Testing
Carcinogenicity testing aims to determine if the material has the ability to induce can-
cer. While most drugs that are genotoxic may cause cancer, this is only possible if the
changes induced do not kill the cell; that is, the changes induced in the nucleus must
not kill the cell, thereby allowing the cell to start growing uncontrollably so that it can
form a neoplastic condition in the animals. It is important for products in which long-
term exposure is possible or, more importantly, when a product shows the potential to
be genotoxic. Animals are exposed to the drug for a long period of time, usually 1 to 2
years, and the incidence of cancer is then compared with the control group. The inherent
problem of this test is that most of the rodent species only live about 2 years and have a
naturally high incidence of cancer when old. There has also been no proper correlation
between the occurrence of cancer in humans and in rodents (Lave et al., 1988).

4.3.6 Local Tolerance Testing


The aim of the local tolerance group of studies is to determine the effect a substance
has when coming into contact with various parts of the body. This is important for
substances destined for human use or that are administered by animal owners. The
route tested will be determined by the intended use or exposure in people.

4.3.6.1 Ocular Tolerance Testing


Ocular tolerance testing determines the ability of the product to cause ocular irrita-
tion or damage in people following accidental exposure (Environmental Protection
Agency [EPA], 1998a). To simulate human ocular exposure, rabbit eyes are exposed
to the test compound. In these tests, each animal serves as a self-control, with one
eye exposed to the test compound and the other eye used as the comparison. Both
78 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

single- and repeat-dose testing are conducted, and irritation to the eye and surround-
ing adnexa is determined. At the termination of dosing, the animals are euthanized
for full necropsy. The ethical justification of this test is being questioned despite the
use of local anesthetics. At present, this test is not carried out for known corrosive
chemical agents (Worth and Cronin, 2001).

4.3.6.2 Dermal Tolerance Testing


Just as for the ocular irritancy test, the aim of dermal tolerance testing is to evaluate
the possibility of skin being irritated or damaged following exposure to the chemi-
cal while handling a particular medicine (EPA, 1998b). Again, this is important as
the package insert may need a warning for the administrator of the risks of handling
the said remedy. As for the ocular testing, products are evaluated for irritancy as a
single and repeat dose, and rabbits are also used to determine the corrosive effect of
medication on both intact and abraded skin.

4.3.6.3 Skin Sensitization
In addition to a compound being directly irritant to skin, sensitization to the particu-
lar chemical may result from simple dermal exposure (sensitization refers specifi-
cally to the ability of the immune system to recognize the molecule) (Buehler, 1965;
Magnusson and Kligman, 1969; Magnusson, 1980; Ritz and Buehler, 1980; OECD,
2004). Once the immune system recognizes a molecule, subsequent exposure tends
to result in an allergic reaction. While these immune reactions may be mild, such as
simple urticaria, they can also be fatal. This test is undertaken in guinea pigs with
the animals first exposed to the substance to allow for sensitization, and after a suit-
able delay, the effect of reexposure is evaluated.

4.3.6.4 Phototoxicity or Photosensitivity
Phototoxicity refers to an increased sensitivity of the skin to ultraviolet (UV) radia-
tion following the exposure to a chemical (Putman, van der Laan, and van Loveren,
2003). This can occur after exposure to a photosensitizing agent that has the unique
ability to absorb UV radiation at one wavelength and subsequently emit that radiation
at a second wavelength. This change in wavelength makes exposure to UV radiation
dangerous, such that direct sunlight can cause severe sunburn and sometimes severe
dermal ulceration (doxycycline is the most well-recognized molecule sensitizer in
people). At present, this test is dependent on the molecule to be tested and the regula-
tor, with testing undertaken in guinea pigs.

4.3.7 Cardiotoxicity Testing
Drugs that are cardiotoxic may bring about their effect by influencing the opening of
potassium channels in the cardiac conduction network; these channels are responsible
for the repolarization of the ventricular cardiac action potential, thereby leading to car-
diac arrhythmias (Raschi et al., 2008; Fink et al., 2008; Roche et al., 2002). To ascertain
this effect, the hERG has been sequenced and cloned into cell lines for further studies.
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 79

This gene receives its names from its equivalent Drosophila ether-a-go-go gene. In the
latter, exposure of the firefly to ether results in the opening of potassium channels and
excitation.

4.3.8 Target Species Testing


One of the problems with toxicity testing has been the poor ability for interspecies com-
parison and extrapolations. This is especially important in people, as was seen with the
devastation caused by thalidomide and more recently with the coxib group of nonsteroi-
dal anti-inflammatory drugs. One of the ways in which these comparisons are under-
taken in humans is by means of phase testing. In this system, human subjects are slowly
exposed to a new chemical entity to first elucidate possible unknown side effects:

• Phase 1: Limited studies in people. A group of healthy adults is exposed to


the drug to determine the safety and pharmacokinetics of the drug.
• Phase 2: Limited study in sick people. A selected group of people will be
exposed to the drug to determine if the drug is effective in people.
• Phase 3: Wider clinical study. In this phase, a large number of people are
exposed to drugs. In this study, one is specifically interested in the effects
and side effects of the drug in a wider group of patients (e.g., Chinese,
African, Caucasian, etc.). No two persons are alike, and to prevent severe
adverse events from occurring, we try to determine the effects of a drug in
the widest possible population.
• Phase 4: Postmarketing surveillance (see Section 4.3.10).

In veterinary medicine, the need for phase testing as in humans is not necessary
as we have the advantage of being able to test the safety of the product directly in
the target species. In practice, this is known as tolerance testing. In this system, the
target animal is exposed to the product at the expected therapeutic dose, 5 and 10
times the therapeutic dose. This exposure allows the possible toxicity inherent in the
final formulation to be determined.

4.3.9 Other Tests
Other toxicity tests are available that may be applicable to the compound under
investigation. They include the neurotoxicity and immunotoxicity studies.
Safety pharmacology determines the possible effects on vital functions, including
the central nervous, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems. It may be conducted
during regular toxicity testing or as a separate study.

4.3.10 Pharmacovigilance
Pharmacovigilance is also referred to as postmarketing surveillance or phase 4 test-
ing. During this stage, the occurrence of adverse reactions following the registration
and marketing of a medicinal product are monitored. This is extremely important
since in toxicity testing relatively small numbers of animals are used, and results are
80 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

extrapolated to a large target population. Pharmacogenomics establishes the degree


of individual variation after exposure in a large population during therapeutic use.
Pharmacovigilance is based purely on documenting drug reactions and deter-
mines the frequency and causality. It allows regulators to react to those side effects
occurring frequently. Possible actions include the withdrawal of marketing status,
package insert amendments, or limitations on the marketing of a product.

4.4 Limitations in Complying with


Conventional Strategy
The limitations of the conventional testing strategies are listed in Table 4.3. These
may be compounded by a number of other factors:

• Therapeutic doses of herbal medicines: Animals are often treated with very
high doses. This may limit the volume that can be administered during tox-
icity testing, particularly considering that multiples of the therapeutic dose
have to be utilized. For example, a 200-g laboratory rat can only be gavaged
with a maximum volume of 4 mL (Nebendahl, 2000).
• Consistency: Due to the coarse, bulky consistency of even-milled whole-
plant materials, they are difficult to gavage to the test animals and can

Table 4.3
Summary of Limitations in Applying Conventional Strategies
Conventional Strategy In Whole-Plant Testing In Extract Testing
In vitro (hERG, Ames, etc.) Not possible as the toxic Can be established
compound is protected within
the whole-plant material
Pharmacokinetics, In the absence of lead Available if lead compound
pharmacodynamics compound never available has been identified
Acute toxicity Sometimes difficult to Can be established
establish due to lack of
toxicity at any dose
Subchronic-chronic toxicity Can be established Can be established
Carcinogenicity Cannot often be established, Can be established
and dose finding will be
difficult
Reproductive toxicity Can be established Can be established
Developmental toxicity Can be established Can be established
High dose should produce toxicity, Cannot usually be achieved Can be achieved
medium dose lower toxicity due to the volume limitation
or the acute toxicity test not
revealing a toxic dose
Establish NOAEL Cannot often be established due to May be possible
lack of toxicity at any dose
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 81

sometimes only be administered in the food. Although this does not apply
to extracts, alcohol extraction poses its own problem. Due to their low vis-
cosity, they may be dosed into the lungs if the animals struggle during the
gavage procedure and cause respiratory tract irritation
• The palatability of the test material: Animals may not like the taste of the test
material and refuse to consume it in food or reduce their food consumption.

4.5 Specific Considerations in
Ethnobotanical Safety Testing
The process of developing traditional medicines for allopathic use is often reversed
compared to that of conventional pharmaceutical development. In the conventional
approach, a compound is developed in the laboratory and, after extensive preclini-
cal testing, introduced into clinical practice. Conversely, traditional medicines are
usually first used in clinical practice and then brought into the laboratory for test-
ing. Because of this, sometimes extensive, established use in clinical practice, it is
occasionally argued that there is no need for further safety testing since this has been
established. However, the therapeutic use does not provide information on overdose
(acute toxicity), reversibility on drug withdrawal (long-term effects), target organs,
chronic and delayed toxicity, or whether there are subclinical side effects. These
might not be immediately apparent during clinical use.

4.6 Special Consideration for Production Animals


One important issue when considering animals that provide human nutrition is
human safety. According to the general principles of pharmacokinetics, substances
entering the animal’s body could be distributed to any part of that body and could
be present in the food for a period of time after treatment (Figure 4.4). As a general
rule, it takes approximately 10 half-lives for the product to be 99% eliminated from
the body. Therefore, animal products consumed while containing residue could pose
a serious human health risk. Apart from actual ingredients of the herbal remedy,
metabolites from processing of such remedy by the animal could be toxic. Since all
substances of the herbal remedy are xenobiotic, the animal’s body tries to eliminate
them as an active drug or as metabolites. Because of the common routes of excretion,
people usually get exposed to residues through milk or egg consumption.
To protect the public, withdrawal periods are set for all medicinal products used
in production animals and are strictly controlled by the various regulatory authorities
across the world. The withdrawal period is determined statistically from the maxi-
mum residue levels (MRLs) set by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives
(JECFA) of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health
Organization (WHO) and are published by Codex Alimentarius. The withdrawal
period may be defined as the time required from the last dose to the time at which
an animal product may be safely consumed or slaughtered for human consumption.
This is important as it prevents dangerous drugs from making their way into the
human food chain.
82 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

TISSUE
Receptor-bound drug

Free drug in tissues

Drug-Metabolism,
e.g., the liver

Distribution
Site of action
Drug in dosage form (Biophase) n
tio
rma
sfo
an
otr
Dissolution Bi
Free drug
Unchanged drug
Absorption Excretion and
Drug in solution
Bound drug metabolism,
at
absorption site PLASMA e.g., the kidneys

Figure 4.4 The normal pharmacokinetics processes every drug undergoes when entering
the body.

4.6.1 Determination of Withdrawal Periods


The withdrawal period is based on the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of the com-
pound. The ADI is defined as that amount of a product that can be consumed
by a person on a daily basis for their entire life without any appreciable risk
of harm (Skidmore, Kuiper, and Hamilton, 1997). The ADI is determined from
the data derived from the toxicity testing. In each of the toxicity tests, the dose
that caused no ill effects, known as the NOAEL, is calculated. Once all the tests
are completed, the lowest NOAEL will be selected to determine the ADI by the
following equation:

NOAEL
ADI =
Safety Factor

The safety factor is defined by the target population. Usually, this is set at 100
and represents a factor of 10 for extrapolation between species and an additional
10 for differences in sensitivity within animal populations (Skidmore, Kuiper, and
Hamilton, 1997). The safety can, at times, be increased depending on the target
population (e.g., if the chance of exposure in children is very high, a safety factor
may be increased for additional protection of this very susceptible population group).
The ADI is used by JECFA and other regulators to set the MRL for the various organ
systems and is based on a food basket (the average consumption by a 60-kg person).
Usually, only a portion of the ADI is allocated for residues in animal products as
exposure is possible via other sources (e.g., via residues on crops).
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 83

Once an MRL is set, the withdrawal time can be determined. The usual system
requires three groups of animals (n ≥ 3) to be slaughtered at three different time
points. The concentration of drug in each organ system is subsequently measured and
plotted, and the time to the MRL is statistically determined. The withdrawal time is
taken as the longest time to the MRL for all the tested organ samples (Figure 4.5).
The organs and products include muscle, kidneys, fat, injection site, liver, eggs, and

1000
500
200
100
Conc (µg/kg)

50
20
10
5
2
1
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.02

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (day)

1000
500
200
100
Conc (µg/kg)

50
20
10
5
2
1
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.02

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (day)

Figure 4.5 The statistical determination of the time to MRL for an ethical product in cattle
tissue for four groups (n = 4). (Top) The kidney drug concentrations of the 16 animals plotted
against an MRL of 1,000 μg/kg. From the x-axis, the MRL is reached after 12 days. (Bottom)
The liver drug concentrations from the same 16 animals plotted against an MRL of 1,000 μg/kg.
From the x-axis, the MRL is reached after 7 days. If the kidneys were the organ system that took
the longest to reach the MRL, a withdrawal period of at least 12 days would be required.
84 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

milk. (For a more detailed discussion of MRL and withdrawal times, please refer to
the guidelines published by your local regulatory authority.)

4.6.2 Dangers of Residues
The presence of residues in animal products may have a negative influence on human
health. These include

1. Allergies: Also known as a hypersensitivity reaction. Initial exposure is


necessary for the priming of the immune system. Priming is the process by
which the immune system recognizes that a foreign molecule (antigen) has
entered the system and forms a permanent record (antibody) to protect itself
thereafter. On further exposure, defenses are activated to fight the invader.
With this second or third exposure, one can develop a severe allergic reac-
tion, which may end in death. To prevent allergies, the drug concentrations
in the animal product need to be at a level that cannot be recognized by the
immune system, which may not be possible to achieve.
2. Enteritis: With their ability to kill pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria, anti-
bacterial agents may also kill beneficial or commensal bacteria found in the
gut. These essential organisms aid normal processes such as digestion. If killed,
they could impede these processes and, for example, promote severe diarrhea.
3. Selection and transference of antibiotic resistance: The constant exposure of
human gastrointestinal bacteria to low levels of antimicrobial substances in
an animal product could promote or select for the development of resistance.
Not only does this make the future treatment of infections more difficult and
expensive, but this resistance could also be transferred to other pathogens.
4. Other side effects: It is possible that drugs administered to animals may
cause other side effects in people by being directly toxic.
5. Other effects of residues may include:
a. The cheese and yogurt manufacturers make use of bacterial cultures
to produce their products. The presence of antimicrobials in the milk
could kill these bacteria and prevent efficient food production.
b. Young animals suckling from their dams may consume drug residues
in the milk. This may have an adverse effect on the growth of the young
animals by, for example, antimicrobial residues sterilizing the gastroin-
testinal tract and thereby promoting the development of severe diarrhea
and malabsorption.

4.7 Suggestions for Toxicity Testing


The degree of testing required for herbal remedies is dependent on the animal species
to be treated, on the amount of information already available, and the formulation.
The botanical and pharmacognosy or phytochemical literature may provide informa-
tion on the presence of dangerous compounds. Therefore, it is important to identify
knowledge gaps and design a testing strategy around this, considering the limitations
mentioned (Table 4.3). The following guide is our recommendation and does not
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 85

represent the views of any regulatory body. It is therefore incumbent on an applicant


to determine the minimum requirements from the local regulatory authorities.

4.7.1 Literature Review
Before any toxicity testing activity, there should be a comprehensive literature review.
This is to establish what is already known about possible harmful effects of the
material and to identify gaps in that knowledge. It is these gaps that will guide the
testing strategy. The use of therapeutic information to predict toxicity should be con-
sidered, and this also applies to herbal medicines already utilized. However, infor-
mation on overdose and reversibility, organ targets, and indicators such as NOAEL
cannot be established during therapeutic use.
It is also important to ascertain the relevance of published data to your extract
to ensure the same chemical constituents in the plant, same extraction method, and
same plant part in use. As mentioned, any difference in extract could result in pos-
sible toxic compounds being introduced or an increase in the concentrations of cer-
tain products to toxic levels.

4.7.2 Pharmacovigilance
It has always been argued that due to the established use of many herbal remedies
safety is proven. However, evidence for this is often anecdotal, and no documented
data are usually available. Without properly kept records describing the use and out-
come in animals, it is impossible to ascertain if the information is correct. In one
study, a commonly used herbal remedy in South Africa was subjected to a subacute
toxicity test. In this study (Figure 4.6, the traditional medicine, consisting of four
dried and milled African plants, was tested in vervet monkeys (Seier et al., 2004).
Administration of this material was associated with a significant decline in erythro-
cyte counts (anemia) in all treated groups, and there was a notable 31% loss of body
weight in the high-dose group. In addition to clearly establishing toxicity, it was
determined that the effects were reversible on cessation of therapy. This study clearly
indicated that a history of use was not indicative of safety.
However, if properly recorded safety data, collected in a well-established phar-
macovigilance monitoring system is available, these data may provide sufficient
and invaluable information in demonstrating safety. For proper interpretation, such
data must, however, be evaluated by an expert toxicologist. Any questions or doubt
remaining must thereafter be answered by undertaking the relevant toxicity tests. It
has to be emphasized that pharmacovigilance data will only be of value for the for-
mulation if history of use is provided; for example, data for dried leaves may not be
representative for a decoction from dried leaves as the latter involves a modification
and therefore constitutes a new formulation that may have new effects.

4.7.3 Species
In veterinary medicines, the use of a drug can be divided into two broad categories:
use in companion animals (dogs, cats, and horses) and use in food-producing ani-
mals (cattle, pigs, chickens, sheep, goats, horses, etc.).
86 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Red Blood Cells


7.50

7.00

6.50

6.00
X10^9/1

5.50

5.00

4.50

4.00
Baseline Week 4 Week 8 Week 12 study Week 22
completed washout

Group 1: low dose 3: high dose group


Group 2: medium dose group 4: control

Figure 4.6 Changes in erythrocyte counts in vervet monkeys following treatment with a
traditional medicine at various doses. This particular product was already used by people and
considered safe. (From Seier et al. 2004. MRC, Final Report. With permission.)

4.7.3.1 Testing in Companion Animals


When substances are to be used in companion animals not for food production, we
believe that even in the absence of pharmacovigilance or published data not all test-
ing listed need be applied. In these cases, the strategy must be based on the nature
of the herbal product.

1. Acute toxicity: This informs the subacute toxicity studies and can be
omitted if sufficient information is already available. It is possible that
acute toxicity for certain herbal medicines cannot be established as the
plant or herbal extract may be devoid of harmful effects even at high
doses.
2. Subacute toxicity: These tests are most important, particularly when
an animal is to receive multiple doses. They can and should always be
undertaken.
3. Reproductive studies: These are important when the product is to be used in
animals of reproductive age. Abortions in valuable breeding animals could
result in loss of income and prosecution of the manufacturer of the herbal
remedy. These should therefore be considered carefully.
4. Genotoxicity studies: Safety from mutagenic effects must be demonstrated.
5. Carcinogenicity: Considering the difficulty in interpreting these tests, it is
believed that they can be omitted unless evidence of genotoxicity is present.
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 87

6. Local tolerance testing: This is dependent on the nature of the compound


or herb being tested. It must also be considered that the person administer-
ing the medicine topically can be affected by absorbing it (i.e., dimethyl
sulfoxide [DMSO] in formulation) or local irritation. Gloves might have to
be worn when applying this treatment, and safety of the medicine in this
regard should be demonstrated.
7. Target animal tolerance studies: It is important to establish the safety of
the herbal remedy in the intended recipient species. In fact, the entire test-
ing strategy can be conducted in the target species. This has the benefit of
decreasing the total number of tests and animals. This method does have
the disadvantage of using a larger number of the target animal, which does
increase the expense of a study.

It should be borne in mind that the cost of developing herbal remedies for com-
panion animals can be prohibitive, and a cost-benefit analysis prior to the start of
testing should be considered. This applies to pharmaceutical remedies as well and
has unfortunately resulted in drug development for the companion animals being
secondary to human pharmaceutical research and development.

4.7.3.2 Production Animals
Production animals are a more complicated issue as there is the possibility of poison-
ing not only the animal but also the consumer of such animal or animal products.
Another problem is the possible unknown composition of herbal formulations and the
resultant inability to identify and quantify active ingredients. This makes it impos-
sible to determine when the withdrawal period will be reached. The use of microbial
quantification of tissue levels, fingerprinting, or the use of mass spectroscopy and
nuclear magnetic resonance may make this possible, but the onus is on the applicant
to prove that the medicinal substance is below MRLs. One should also consider that
in many countries, it is illegal to use any medicinal products in a production animal
without setting an appropriate withdrawal period.
In production animals, it therefore becomes necessary to undertake all the toxic-
ity tests listed. Exceptions from any of the tests must be based on information in
the currently available literature. The use of the same medicines in people is not
an accepted reason for exemption from testing since they would be consuming the
medicines unknowingly, and no informed consent was given.

4.7.4 Formulation
A number of active and inactive ingredients are present in the formulation of ethical
or allopathic medicines. The same applies to herbal remedies, and the amount and
ratio of these ingredients are dependent on the preparation of the plant (i.e., the plant
part and solvent used). This implies that toxicity testing is dependent on the prepa-
ration method. Therefore, each preparation method produces different remedies in
terms of toxicity and will require testing unless it can be proven that the ratio and
constituents within the various extracts are of an identical chemical nature.
88 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

4.8 Conclusion
It is clear that in veterinary ethnobotanical development, just as that in humans,
establishing toxicity is an important prerequisite for use of all medicines.
Toxicity testing of veterinary herbal remedies is important for the protection of
animals and people. Although some believe that such medicines are natural and
therefore safe, this is by no means correct. Besides, routine therapeutic use cannot
provide answers to the many questions asked during toxicity testing. In the absence
of safety information, both the treating veterinarian and the manufacturing company
will be liable for any toxicity that results.
The extent of toxicity testing is dependent on the information already available
and on finding and filling the gaps. Complete compliance with conventional strate-
gies is often not necessary and at times may not be possible as there are certain
practical limitations imposed by the nature of the material to be tested.
During testing, quality control is of critical importance. This involves ensuring
that material from plants was harvested at the same time, place, season, and soil con-
dition since plant constituents vary significantly with these factors. This also ensures
uniformity of the end product.
There is no doubt that the use of traditional medicine will continue in many coun-
tries informally without testing. However, should countries, communities, or organi-
zations wish to enter mainstream drug development with their traditional knowledge,
safety will have to be ensured through scientifically obtained data.

Appendix A1. Care and Use of Laboratory Animals


Introduction
In veterinary drug development, substances can be tested in target species, which is
an advantage over the human equivalent. However, even in veterinary drug develop-
ment, preclinical safety testing is often undertaken initially in laboratory animals.
The term laboratory animal is not an accurate taxonomical term but is often used to
refer to animal species commonly used in biomedical research.
Considering this, the following basic insights into laboratory animal science were
deemed appropriate for inclusion in this chapter. They are intended to create aware-
ness in readers with little or no knowledge of laboratory animals and stimulate fur-
ther reading since the literature abounds with information on their care and use.

Choice
Among the rodents, rats (Rattus norvegicus) are most commonly utilized for safety
testing, while nonrodent species (including dogs, pigs, and nonhuman primates) are
also used. In preclinical safety testing for human drugs, it is stipulated that a rodent
and nonrodent species be used. Since it is unlikely that drugs for cattle or chick-
ens would be tested in primates, the most likely species utilized would be the rat.
Rats have been well characterized and are available in a large variety of strains
(breeds). Some of these are produced for particular diseases such as hypertension;
others may have been altered genetically as disease models. However, for preclinical
Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies 89

safety testing, only normal rats of any strain may be used. While both sexes may be
used in testing, it is recommended that female rats be used. This is because through
a well-documented history of use, the female of the species has been shown to be
more sensitive if sexual sensitivity to toxicity was present.

Care
Laboratory animals, including rats, have highly specific requirements. This is con-
trary to the popular belief that rats are vermin and are associated with unsanitary
conditions. They are, on the contrary, actually prone to a wide variety of diseases,
some manifest only in stress situations, and all of them can significantly confound
research results. Therefore, to provide high standards of animal welfare and con-
trol diseases, rats have to be kept in highly hygienic conditions, and some are even
housed in situations that are certified free of certain pathogens, which is called spe-
cific pathogen free (SPF), or under completely sterile conditions, called germ free.
Cages must be made from sterilizable materials. Other confounding factors that need
to be controlled are environmental conditions and food. Appropriate air condition-
ing and standardized nutrition consisting of good-quality pelleted diets, produced
specifically for rats, will ensure minimal variability and good health.

Environmental Enrichment
Previously, the focus of laboratory animal management tended to be on physical
health and disease transmission. However, it is clear that animals also have behavioral
needs, and much attention has shifted to address this issue. For example, for hygienic
reasons rats were previously housed on grid floors, whereas studies have shown that
rats prefer solid ones, which have now become standard in rat housing. The sum of
actions taken to enable species-specific behavior is called environmental enrichment.
This has consequences for cage size, design, and complexity, depending on the ani-
mal’s needs. Provision of materials for gnawing, hiding, climbing, socializing, and
nest making are examples of actions to be taken to address the needs of rats.

Administration of Substances and Collection of Body Fluid


In regulatory safety testing, it will invariably be necessary to administer substances
by various routes, which may be gavage, injection, or in food. Collection of body
fluids, mainly blood, is another key activity and is required to determine possible
hematological and biochemical changes produced by the treatment. All require
highly skilled and trained personnel who, in some countries, have to be qualified or
registered with relevant authorities.

Ethics
The use of animals in research is an emotive and controversial issue in many societ-
ies. Although there is polarization about the right to use animals in research, it is
90 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

generally agreed that animals are sentient creatures, and that scientists have clear
moral obligations to treat them humanely. A commonly used yardstick is that the
benefits of the research must outweigh the harm to the research animal. This can
be particularly difficult to balance in preclinical safety testing, for which one of the
aims is to induce toxicity. However, some of the more severe tests, such as the LD50,
are not undertaken routinely, and there is increasing research into finding alterna-
tives such as cell cultures and computer modeling. At present, alternate models are
only acceptable for genotoxicity testing. A number of shortcomings of in vitro sys-
tems still need to be resolved (e.g., cells in culture may lose their natural function
and abilities, not being able to test the effects in an interdependent system of organs,
and testing for physical symptoms such as ataxia, vomiting, fever, and diarrhea).
Reducing safety testing would also require the cooperation of authorities since some
tests are legal requirements for product registration.

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Further Reading
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tory animals, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Poole, T. (Ed.). (1999). UFAW handbook on the care and management of laboratory animals.
7th ed., vol. 1. Blackwell, Malden, MA. Note: The UFAW (University Federation for
Animal Welfare) publishes extensively in the field of laboratory animal science, includ-
ing principles of humane experimentation and in vitro alternatives.
World Health Organization. Good laboratory practice. WHO/TDR handbook. (2001),
Geneva.
5 Revitalizing
Ethnoveterinary
Medical Traditions
A Perspective from India
M. N. Balakrishnan Nair and P. M. Unnikrishnan

Contents
5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 95
5.2 Modern Veterinary Services............................................................................96
5.3 A Historical Perspective of Ethnoveterinary Medicine...................................96
5.4 Community-Based Animal Health Care......................................................... 98
5.5 Revival of Ethnoveterinary Medicine........................................................... 115
5.6 The Indian Systems of Medicine and Rapid Assessment of
Ethnoveterinary Health Traditions................................................................ 116
5.6.1 Desk Research Report....................................................................... 118
5.6.2 RALHT Workshop............................................................................ 118
5.6.3 Promotion of the Best Traditional Health Practices.......................... 119
5.7 Conservation of Ethnomedico Knowledge.................................................... 119
5.8 Collaboration between Indigenous Medical Systems.................................... 119
5.9 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 120
Acknowledgments................................................................................................... 120
References............................................................................................................... 122

5.1 Introduction
Nearly 70% of the world’s rural poor depend on livestock as a critical component of
their livelihood (640 million poor farmers in rain-fed areas, 190 million pastoral-
ists in the arid and mountain zones, and more than 100 million people in landless
households; Swarup and Patra, 2005). Prevention, control, and eradication of dis-
eases among domesticated animals are major concerns as diseases in animals lead
to economic losses and possible transmission of the causative agents to humans.
Livestock are the foundation of agrarian economy, contributing about 32% of the
total share from agriculture to the national gross domestic product (GDP; Swarup
and Patra, 2005). Livestock rearing is considered a supplementary occupation and a
source of additional income for those engaged in agricultural operations.

95
96 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

People use meat, eggs, and dairy products for their food, wool and leather for clothing,
and animal power to till their fields. Livestock also provide manure to fertilize the crop
(Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO] Livestock Policy Brief No. 3). The Indian live-
stock sector today has 185 million cattle, 98 million buffalo, 124.5 million goats, 60 mil-
lion sheep, 343 million poultry, 13.5 million pigs, 1.6 million equines, and 6.3 million
camels. The world share is 16% of cattle and 57% of buffalo (ranked first), 18% of goats
(ranked second), and 6% of sheep (ranked third). The contribution of livestock to GDP is
5.38% (valued Rs 120,938 cr (about US$26121 million) in 2003) (Anonymous, 2006).
It is estimated that approximately Rs 50 billion (US$1 = about Rs 46.3) annually
are lost on account of livestock diseases in India. The high treatment cost, inacces-
sibility, and indiscriminate use of antibiotics and hormones, which leads to user-
unfriendly effects such as high antibiotic and hormone residues in the milk and other
animal products, are serious limitations of modern veterinary management (Khoda,
2005; Merai and Boghra, 2004). Decline in the animal husbandry budget and priva-
tization has led to the scanty veterinary services provided by the government to the
poor in rural areas (Anonymous, 2004). Veterinary services have a crucial role in
controlling highly contagious diseases and zoonotic infections, which have implica-
tions for human health as well as livestock health.

5.2 Modern Veterinary Services


The veterinary service in India under the government sector is solely based on allo-
pathic veterinary infrastructure. There were about 310,269 million adult units per the
1992 livestock census (assuming that either 1 cattle, 1 buffalo, 10 sheep, 10 goats,
5 pigs, or 100 poultry are equivalent to 1 adult unit) (Ravindra and Rao, 1999). There
are 45,760 veterinary institutions in India, comprised of 7,415 veterinary hospitals,
14,573 veterinary dispensaries, and 23,682 veterinary aid centers. There is one veteri-
nary institution for every 7,052 adult units, and one veterinarian serves around 10,000
adult units. Common problems in cattle are given in Table 5.1. The budget for veteri-
nary medicine and biologicals is less than Rs 13 (US$1 = about Rs 46.3) per adult unit
per annum. The existing infrastructure is inadequate (Ravindra and Rao, 1999).

5.3 A Historical Perspective of


Ethnoveterinary Medicine
Traditional veterinary medicine has evolved simultaneously with the evolution of human
beings specifically to take care of the health of animals, which were being domesti-
cated. A historical record of treatment of diseased animals is present in the river valley
civilizations. Ancient Egyptians used various methods, including application of herbs for
treatment of animal diseases, and it is believed that during that period the physicians had
knowledge of more than 250 medicinal plants and 120 mineral salts (Swarup and Patra,
2005). Veterinary science in India has a documented history of around 5,000 years. The
veterinary and animal husbandry practices are mentioned in Rigveda, one of the oldest
vedas (4000–1500 BC)—the primary scripture of Hinduism, and Atharvaveda, one of
the four vedas. The codified knowledge existed in the form of texts and manuscripts on
various aspects of veterinary care of livestock. Sage Shalihotra’s (1800 BC) asvasatra
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 97

Table 5.1
Common Problems in Cattle
Serial No. Modern Veterinary Science Ayurveda (ISM)
1 Abortion
2 Black quarter Pittajasopha/Visarpa
3 Bloat Adhmana, Gulma, Vistabdha ajeerna
4 Bronchitis Kasa
5 Dermatitis Kusta
6 Enteritis/diarrhea Atisara
7 Ephemeral fever Trithiyaka Jvara
8 Foot-and-mouth disease Sannipata jvara/Agni visarpa
9 Fracture/dislocation Asthi bhagna/sandhi mukta
10 Helminthiasis Krimi
11 Hypogalactia Stanya kshaya
12 Impaction of rumen
13 Indigestion Ajeerna (vistabdha)
14 Mastitis Sthana vidrahi
15 Prolapses of uterus Yoni bhramsha
16 Pyrexia Jvara
17 Repeat breeder/habitual abortion Apatyaya/Garbha srava
18 Retention of placenta Apathitha apara
19 Sterility
20 Vitamin deficiency
21 Yoke gall

Source: From Raneesh et al., 2005. A user’s guide on ethnoveterinary health practices,
FRLHT, Bangalore, India. With permission.

(Asva Shastra translated by R. Vijayaraghavacharya, 1927, Sri Venkaleswara Oriental


Library, Thirupathi) is considered the first work on veterinary science. Hastyayurveda
(1000 BC) by sage Palakapya is the oldest text on elephants (Palakapya Maharshi
Hastyayurvedam translated in Malayalam by Vaidyamadham Cheria Narayanan
Namboodiri Mathrubhoomi Printing and Publishing Co. Ltd. Kozhikode, 2006).
Treatises such as Asva Vaidyaka by Nakula Garuda Purana, Asvayur Veda Sarasindu by
Vysampayana are based on the principles of the humoral theory of the ayurvedic system.
A few vernacular scriptures like Sahadeva Pasu Vaidya Sastramu (Telugu) and Mattu
Vaidya Bodhini (Tamil) dealt with traditional veterinary medicine (Ravindra and Rao,
1999). Pashu Vaidya Mattuvagadam, a Tamil book based on ancient Tamil palm leaves
manuscript, discusses over 250 diseases in cattle and their management. Matsyapurana,
Garudapurana, Agnipurana, Brahmanandapurana, Lingapuranah, Caraka Samhita,
and Shusruta Samhita (Trikamgi 1954, 1992) have veterinary information. Arthasatra
by Kautilya described rearing of cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, horses, elephants, and other
animals. It also gave a detailed account of welfare practices of livestock and regulation
for the protection of wildlife. King Ashoka created animal hospitals between 269 and
232 BC (documentation found in Sagari and Nitya, 2004).
98 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

5.4 Community-Based Animal Health Care


Ethnoveterinary or folk medicine pertaining to animal health care is as old as the
domestication of various livestock species. There are rich and efficient ethnoveteri-
nary traditions existing in the villages of India that form an integral part of the village
life and play an important social, religious, and economic role. They consist of belief,
knowledge, practices, and skills pertaining to health care and management of livestock.
Table 5.2 shows the common problems in cattle and their management by folk healers.

Table 5.2
Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
1 Black quarter 1 Holoptelea integrifolia (bark) 50 g is pounded and boiled in a
liter of water and is reduced to 500 mL to make a decoction.
500 mL of the decoction are administered orally twice a day
before feed on alternate days until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Siddharamappa, Benegere, Shimoga District

2 Paste of Brassica nigra (seeds) in sufficient quantity is applied


over the affected area until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Siddharamappa, Benegere, Shimoga District

3 Rice cooked with palm jaggery should be given orally as feed


until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Guruswami, Desiya Nendhal, Virudhunagar District

4 Cuminum cyminum (seeds) 10 g and Ferula asafoetida (resin)


5 g are ground to a fine paste. The paste is administered
orally before feed along with lukewarm water until the
condition is relieved.
Vd. Thangaswami Thevar, Virudhunagar District

5 Curcuma longa (rhizome) is mixed with sufficient quantity of


coconut oil to form a fine paste, which is used as an external
application until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Thangaswami Thevar, Virudhunagar District

2 Bloat 6 Ricinus communis (seed oil) 100 mL along with 100 mL of


water are administered orally twice a day for 2 days.
Vd. Appaji, Hassan

7 Zingiber officinale (rhizome) 5 g, Acorus calamus (rhizome)


5 g, Syzygium aromaticum (flower buds) 10 nos., Piper betel
(leaves) 10 nos., and Piper nigrum (fruit) 10 nos. are boiled
in 500 mL of water and reduced to 250 mL. Add 25 g of
jaggery to the prepared lukewarm decoction. This is
administered orally twice a day for 2 days.
Vd. Shivanna, Tumkur
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 99

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
8 Pongamia pinnata (bark) 200 g is boiled in a liter of water and
reduced to 500 mL. Add the juice of Citrus limon (fruit) 1–2
nos., Ricinus communis (seed oil) 50–100 mL, and baking
soda 5 g to the prepared decoction. The decoction is
administered orally once a day. After 6 h of administration of
the decoction, 3 teaspoons of the fine powder of the compound
mixture of Piper nigrum (fruit) 50 g, Embelia ribes (seed) 200
g, Trachyspermum ammi (seed) 200 g, Zingiber officinale
(rhizome) 25 g, Butea monosperma (seed) 25 g, Holoptelea
integrifolia (bark) 200 g, and Ailanthes excelsa (bark) 200 g
are added to Pongamia pinnata decoction and are
administered orally three times daily for a day.
Vd. Siddabasavaraju, Bimangala, Siddlagatta, Kolar District

9 Holoptelea integrifolia (leaves) 1 handful, Aegle marmelos


(leaves) 1 handful, Zingiber officinale (rhizome) 5 g, and Allium
sativum (bulb) 1 no. are ground to a fine paste and administered
orally in a liter of water twice a day for 2 to 3 days.
Vd. Ramesh, Hassan

10 Sapindus laurifolia (fruit) 1 nos. (The fruit peel is squeezed


in water.) Zingiber officinale (rhizome) 10 g is ground to a
fine paste and mixed with water. This is administered orally
once a day for 2 days.
Vd. Siddharamappa, Benegere, Shimoga District

11 Dolichos biflorus (seed) 50 g, Acorus calamus (rhizome) 5 g,


Ferula asafoetida (resin) 5 g, and Ricinus communis (seed
oil) 50 mL are ground to a fine paste. The paste is
administered orally once with 50 mL of water.
Vd. Shekarappa, Shimoga

3 Bronchitis 12 Allium sativum (bulb) 4 nos., jaggery 50 g, Cinnamomum


camphora (resin) 5 g, Piper nigrum (fruit) 5 nos., and
Coriandrum sativum (seeds) 250 g are ground to a fine
paste. The paste is administered orally in two divided doses
for a day.
Vd. Shivaswami Gowda, Tumkur

13 Piper nigrum (fruit) 20 nos. and Zingiber officinale (rhizome)


10 g are boiled in 500 mL of water and reduced to 250 mL.
Then 250 mL of this decoction is administered orally twice
a day for 3 days.
Vd. Saraswathi Bhatta, Sutla Taluk, Udupi

(continued)
100 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
14 10 g of each of the stem barks of Tabernaemontana heyneana,
Zanthoxylum rhetsa, Pongamia pinnata, Holarrhena
pubescens, and Moringa oleifera are ground along with
Capsicum annum (fruit) 10 g, Piper nigrum (fruit) 10 g,
Brassica nigra (seeds) 10 g, Trachyspermum ammi (seeds)
10 g, and Allium sativum (bulb) 10 g to a fine paste. The
paste is rolled in pills of betel nut size and is administered
orally twice a day along with 500 mL of Trachyspermum
ammi decoction until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Kunjeeramulya, Karkala

4 Dermatitis 15 Plumbago zeylanica (roots) 5 g, Allium sativum (bulb) 2 nos.,


and Piper nigrum (fruits) 1–2 nos. are ground in the juice of
Citrus limon to make a fine paste. The paste is applied over
the affected part once a day until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Gangadarappa, Hassan

16 Finely powder 100 g of each of Toddalia asiatica (fruit),


Aristolochia indica (root), Vitex negundo (leaf), Clerodendrum
inerme (leaf), Argemone mexicana (leaf), Cipadessa baccifera
(leaf), Solanum nigrum (leaf), and Leucas aspera (leaf). The
powder is made into paste with water and is applied over the
affected part once a day for a week.
Vd. Anantharamiah, Bangalore Rural

17 Mix a kilogram of dried leaves of Streblus asper and 250 g of


charcoal. Make a fine paste with Pongamia pinnata seed oil.
This is applied over the affected part.
Vd. Siddhabasavaraju, Kolar

18 A handful of dried Evolvulus alsionoides (whole plant) is


mixed with 500 mL cow’s milk. This is administered orally
once a day for 3 days.
Vd. Siddharamappa, Shimoga

19 Scleropyrum pentandrum (seed oil) is applied over the


affected part for a week.
Vd. Kunjeeramulya, Karkala

20 Curcuma longa rhizome powder (5 g), is mixed with the


paste of Mimosa pudica and 50 mL of neem oil. The oil is
heated until bubbles appear on top of the oil and is devoid
of moisture content. The oil is applied over the affected part
once a day until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Shivaswami Gowda, Tumkur
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 101

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
5 Enteritis 21 Aerva lanata: A handful of the whole plant is ground with
rice-washed water to a fine paste. This is administered
orally twice a day until the animal gets cured.
Ms. Eliyamma, Waynad
22 Glycosmis mauritiana: A handful of root bark is ground with
rice-washed water to a fine paste. The paste is administered
orally twice a day until the animal gets cured.
Ms. Eliyamma, Waynad
23 Glycosmis mauritiana: A handful of root bark is ground with
rice-washed water to a fine paste. The paste is administered
orally twice a day until the animal gets cured.
Ms. Eliyamma, Waynad
24 The pulp juice of Garcinia gummi gutta and juice of Zingiber
officinale are mixed with a sufficient quantity of honey.
100 mL of this mixture is administered orally twice a day
until the condition is relieved.
Ms. Moli Jose Pullikal, Waynad
25 A handful of each of Punica granatum (tender leaves) and
Syzygium cumini (bark) are ground to a fine paste in a liter of
tender coconut water. This paste is administered orally three
times a day for 3 days.
Vd. Ramesh, Hassan
26 Mix 2 teaspoons of Wattakaka volubilis (stem powder) and
500 g of Eleusine coracana flour along with buttermilk.
This mixture is administered orally in three divided doses
for a day.
Vd. Siddhabasavaraju, Kolar
27 Caesalpinia crista: A handful of leaves is fed to the animal
orally three times a day until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Appaji, Hassan
6 Ephemeral 28 10 g of each of Bauhinia racemosa (bark), Buchanania
fever axillaris (bark), Ailanthes excelsa (bark), Capparis sepiaria
(bark), Balanites aegyptica (bark), Piper nigrum (fruit),
Trachyspermum ammi (seed), Butea monosperma (seed),
Ferula asafoetida (resin), Allium sativum (bulb), Brassica
nigra (seed), and Toddalia asiatica (bark) are finely powdered.
Orally, 50 g of the powder along with a liter of boiled and
cooled water are administered twice a day for 5 days.
Vd. Narayanappa, Kolar

(continued)
102 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
29 Decoction is prepared by boiling Toddalia asiatica (root)
25 g, Balanites aegyptica (root) 25 g, Capparis sepiaria
(bark) 25 g, and Capparis zeylanica (bark) 25 g in 2 L of
water and reduce to 1 L. To this decoction add 2 tablespoons
of the powder prepared from the following ingredients:
Embelia ribes (seed) 250 g, Trachyspermum ammi (seed)
250 g, Curcuma aromatica (rhizome) 250 g, Acorus
calamus (rhizome) 20 g, Butea monosperma (flower and
seed) 20 g, Ferula asafoetida (resin) 20 g, Zingiber
officinale (rhizome) 25 g, Ailanthes excelsa (bark) 250 g,
and Terminalia chebula (fruit) 50 g. This medicine is
administered orally twice a day for a fortnight.
Note: The bark of Ailanthes excelsa should be collected
either on Sunday (Hasta nakshatra) or Thursday (Pushya
nakshatra).
Vd. Siddhabasavaraju, Kolar

7 Foot-and- 30 Warm 200 g of Calotropis gigantea (flowers) and Syzygium


mouth aromaticum (flower buds) 4 nos. in 500 mL of tender
disease coconut water. To this add 50 g of jaggery; this is
administered orally once a day for 5–9 days.
Vd. Shivanna, Tumkur

31 Mesua ferrea (fruit) 50 g, Strychnos nux-vomica (bark) 25 g,


Curcuma longa (rhizome) 10 g, and Vernonia anthelmintica
(seed) 5 g are heated in 300 mL of coconut oil. The oil is
applied over the affected area three times a day until the
condition is relieved.
Vd. Kunjeeramulya, Karkala

32 Vigna radiata is boiled in water to which jaggery is added to


form a pudding. A ripe banana fruit is given separately prior
to feeding the pudding. The pudding is administered orally
twice a day for 3 days.
Vd. Karibasappa, Shimoga

33 Cissus quadrangularis (stem) 1 kg, Capsicum annum (fruit)


50 g, Piper nigrum (fruit) 10 g, Zingiber officinale (rhizome)
50 g, Allium sativum (bulb) 25 g, Curcuma longa (rhizome)
25 g, and jaggery 25 g are dried and powdered. 50 g of the
powder are given orally with water twice a day for a period
of 6 days.
Vd. Shekarappa, Shimoga
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 103

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
34 Sesamum indicum (seed oil) 100 mL, Zingiber officinale
(rhizome) 100 mL of juice, and Citrus limon (fruit juice)
100 mL are mixed and administered orally once a day until
the condition is relieved.
Vd. Saraswathi Bhatta, Sutla Taluk, Udupi
8 Helminthiasis 35 A handful of Carica papaya (seeds) is ground in water to
form a paste. The paste is administered orally on an empty
stomach or after evening feed for 2 days. The same
treatment is repeated after 6 months.
Ms. Sisily Mathew, Monipillil, Waynad
36 Myristica fragrans (fruit) is rubbed in honey to form a paste
and is administered orally on an empty stomach or after
evening feed for 2 days.
Ms. Sisily Mathew, Monipillil, Waynad
37 A handful of each of Embelia ribes (seeds), Kaempferia
galanga (rhizome), Allium sativum (bulb), and Vitex
negundo (leaves) are ground into a fine paste, and pills of
coffee seed-size are dried in shade. This is administered
orally, 3–4 pills once a day for 3 days consecutively.
Ms. Sisily Mathew, Monipillil, Waynad
38 Take equal amounts of Trachyspermum ammi (seeds), Allium
sativum (bulb), Kaempferia galanga (rhizome), Zingiber
officinale (rhizome), Myristica fragrans (fruit), and Acorus
calamus (rhizome) and grind into a fine paste. The paste is
rolled into pills of gooseberry size, which are administered
orally once daily for 7 days.
Ms. Eliyamma, Vadakkayil Veedu, Waynad
39 Pastes of Piper nigrum (fruit) and Allium sativum (bulb) 10 g
each are heated in neem oil. The oil is administered orally
once a month. Adult dosage is 30 mL, and dosage for young
ones is 10 g.
Mr. E. V. Antony, Impalil, Waynad
40 Mix juice of one Citrus limon (fruit) with 25 mL of Sesamum
indicum (seed oil). No heating of oil is done. The oil is
administered orally once a day for 3 days.
Vd. Kunjeeramulya, Karkala
41 Citrullus colocynthis (fruit) is burned over red-hot coal and
mixed with 500 mL of buttermilk. This is administered
orally only once.
Vd. Vishveswara, Shimoga

(continued)
104 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
42 Boil 50 g of Cassia italica (leaves) in 250 mL of water and
reduce it to 125 mL. This is administered orally once a day
for 2 days. This kashaya acts as a purgative.
Vd. Siddharamappa, Shimoga

43 Momordica charantia (leaves) 2 handfuls are finely ground to


form a paste. The paste is mixed with water and
administered orally. This medicine should not be given to
pregnant cows.
Vd. Saraswathi Bhatta, Sutla Taluk, Udupi

44 Equal quantities of the leaves of Delonix elata,


Clerodendrum inerme, Tylophora indica, Azadirachta
indica, and Capparis zeylanica are dried under sun and
finely powdered. 150 g of the powder are administered
orally with lukewarm water once a day for a week.
Vd. Anantharamiah, Bangalore Rural

9 Hypogalactia 45 A handful of Asparagus racemosus (tubers) is ground in the


water in which Cuminum cyminum seeds are kept soaked
overnight to form a fine paste. The paste is administered
orally once a day for a week.
Vd. Siddharamappa, Shimoga

46 A handful of Sesamum indicum (seeds) is ground to a fine


paste. The paste is administered orally twice a day for a
week.
Ms. Mary Thomas, Neenduthalakal, Waynad

47 The fruit of Carica papaya is boiled and smashed to a paste.


250 g of the paste are administered orally twice day for a
week. This formulation is contraindicated in pregnant animals.
Ms. Sisily Jose, Kadakkayan House, Waynad

48 250 g of Aerva lanata (entire plant) is boiled in 800 mL of


water and is reduced to 200 mL. Then 200 mL of the
decoction is administered orally once a day for a period of
5 days. This formulation is to be administered only for
15 days after delivery.
Ms. Moli Jose Pullikal, Ammarakuni, Waynad

49 Ipomea mauritiana (tuber and leaves) (250 g) is dried and


finely powdered. Two teaspoons of the powder are
administered after milking the cow. Avoid a dose exceeding
2 teaspoons.
Ms. Thangamma Mathai, Mattathil House, Waynad
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 105

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
50 Paste of 5 g of Glycyrrhiza glabra (roots) is administered once
a day before milking the cow regularly.
Ms. Eliyamma, Vadakkayil Veedu, Waynad

51 50 g of the fine paste of Gossipium arborium (seeds) is used


orally frequently.
Ms. Eliyamma, Vadakkayil Veedu, Waynad

10 Impaction of 52 Fine powder of Holoptelia integrifolia (leaves) (two


rumen handfuls) is mixed with a liter of boiled water. This mixture
is administered orally twice a day on an empty stomach
until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Palani, Pappampallam, Dharmapuri

53 A handful of leaves of each of Cocculus hirsutus,


Aristolochia indica, Waltheria indica, Hibiscus rosa-
sinensis, and Holoptelia integrifolia is ground to a fine
paste. The paste is mixed with 1,500 mL of boiled water and
administered orally three times a day until the condition is
relieved.
Vd. Chenrayan, Adhagapadi, Dharmapuri

54 150 g of Merremia tridentata (leaves and stem) are mixed


with 600 mL water. 200 mL of this mixture (water together
with leaves and stem) are administered orally once a day for
3 days.
Vd. Kunjeeramulya, Karkala

11 Indigestion 55 The fine powder from the seeds of Coriandrum sativum 50 g


along with the bark of Holoptelea integrifolia and Ailanthes
exelsa 150 g each, 25 g of Zingiber officinale (rhizome),
100 g of Withania somnifera (roots), 10 g of Acorus
calamus (rhizome), 5 g of Ferula asafoetida (resin), 15 g of
flower and seed of Butea monosperma, 10 g of Piper
nigrum (fruit), and 20 g of Terminalia chebula (fruit rind)
are mixed thoroughly. Three teaspoons of the powder are
mixed with 50 mL of castor oil and are administered orally
three times a day for 1 to 2 days.
Vd. Siddhabasavaraju, Kolar

56 A handful of Cassia fistula (bark) is finely powdered and is


administered orally with a liter of boiled water twice a day
for 1 day.
Vd. Anataramiah, Bangalore

(continued)
106 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
57 A paste from the rhizome of Acorus calamus and Zingiber
officinale 5 g each, 5 g of Ocimum basilicum (leaves), Piper
nigrum (fruit) 5 nos., Allium sativum (bulb) 5 flakes, along
with 10 g of jaggery is rolled into a pill. Two pills are
administered orally twice a day until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Shivanna, Tumkur

58 Phyllanthus emblica fruits are crushed mildly and filtered in


a mesh to separate the pulp. A small amount of rock salt is
added to the pulp and dried. 50 g of this pickle is
administered orally along with water twice a day until the
condition is relieved.
Vd. Saraswathi Bhatt, Sutla Taluk, Udupi District

59 Take 25 g of each of Syzygium aromaticum (flower bud),


Myristica fragrans (fruit), Piper longum (fruit), Allium
sativum (bulb), Brassica nigra (seed) along with 100 g of bark
powders of Moringa oleifera, Zanthoxylum rhetsa,
Holarrhena pubescens, Tabernaemontana heyneana,
Oroxylum indicum, and Pongamia pinnata. All the ingredients
are made into paste form and rolled into pills of betel nut size.
Each pill is taken along with 600 mL of Trachyspermum ammi
water (25 g of Trachyspermum ammi is kept in a vessel to
which 600 mL of boiled water is added and keep a lid closed
over the vessel) twice a day until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Kunjeeramulya, Karkala

60 Decoction made from rhizome of Zingiber officinale and


Piper nigrum (fruit) 50 g each is administered orally twice a
day on empty stomach until the condition is relieved.
Ms. Mary Sebastian, Madiyakkankal, Waynad

61 A handful of each of Zingiber officinale (rhizome), Piper


nigrum (fruit), Allium sativum (bulb), and Psidium guajava
(Tender leaves) are ground to a fine paste. The paste is mixed
in water and filtered. The filtered water is administered orally
three times a day until the condition is relieved.
Ms. Sisily Jose, Kadakkayan House, Waynad

62 Take 50 g each of Trachyspermum ammi (seeds), Allium


sativum (bulb), and Piper nigrum (fruit). All these
ingredients are ground to a fine paste, which is rolled into
pills of gooseberry size. The pill is administered orally
twice a day until the condition is relieved.
Ms. Sisily Mathew, Monipillil, Waynad
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 107

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
63 The bark of Jatropha curcas 100 g, Zanthoxylum rhesta 50 g,
and Erythrina indica 50 g along with Piper nigrum
2 teaspoons, Trachyspermum ammi 2 teaspoons, Allium
sativum bulb 4 flakes, and 50 g of jaggery are ground to a
fine paste and administered orally as a single dose.
Vaidyas of Dakshina Kannada region

64 Piper nigrum (fruits) 100 g and 50 g of each of


Trachyspermum ammi (seed), Allium sativum (bulb),
Moringa oleifera (bark), and Punica granatum (fruit rind)
are boiled in a liter of water, which is reduced to 500 mL.
This decoction is administered orally before feed until the
condition is relieved.
Vaidyas of Dakshina Kannada region

65 A handful of Vitex negundo (leaves), Piper nigrum (fruit)


5 teaspoons, Leucas aspera (leaves) 20 nos., Allium sativum
(bulb) 5 flakes, Tabernaemontana heyneana (bark) 20 g,
Allium cepa (bulb) 1 no., Wattakaka volubilis (leaves) 4 nos.,
Aristolochia indica (root/stem) 10 g, Trachyspermum ammi
(seeds) 3 teaspoons, Zingiber officinale (rhizome), and
Myristica fragrans (fruit) 1 no. are ground to a fine paste and
administered orally once a day until the condition is relieved.
Vaidyas of Dakshina Kannada region

12 Mastitis 66 Seeds of Cajanus cajan and the leaves of Piper betel are
ground to a fine paste. The paste is applied over the udder
once a day for 3 days.
Vd. Gandhi, Virudhunagar District

67 A handful of Ocimum basilicum (leaves) and Curcuma longa


(rhizome) 20 g is ground into a fine paste. The paste is
applied over the udder twice a day for 4 days.
Vd. Thangaswami Thevar, Virudhunagar District

68 Add a pinch of Calcium hydroxide to leaf paste of Pergularia


daemia and apply over the udder once a day for 2 days.
Vd. Govindhan, Nathapatti, Dharmapuri

69 Prepare a paste from a handful of leaves of Pergularia


daemia, Phyllanthus reticulatus, Tylophora indica, and
Acalypha indica, a handful of Curcuma longa rhizome, a
leaf of Piper betle, and a pinch of calcium hydroxide. The
paste is applied over the udder three times a day for 2 days.
Vd. Muthu Gounder, Muthappanagaram, Dharmapuri

(continued)
108 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
70 Five handfuls of Pisonia aculeata (leaves) are boiled in a liter
of water, which is reduced to 500 mL. 500 mL of the
decoction is administered orally twice a day until the
condition is relieved.
Vd. Sevatha Gounder, Chinna Peramanur, Dharmapuri

71 The leaves and stems of Wattakaka volubilis are dried in


shade and powdered well. This powder is made into a paste
by adding boiled water, and the paste is applied over the
udder every half hour for nearly 12 times a day until the
condition is relieved.
Vd. Siddhabasavaraju, Kolar

72 The leaves of Commelina benghalensis and the stem of


Wattakaka volubilis are dried well and powdered. This
mixture of powders is made into a paste by adding boiled
water, and the paste is applied over the udder every half an
hour for nearly 12 times a day for 2 to 3 days.
Vd. Siddhabasavaraju, Kolar

73 The leaves and roots of Andrographis serpyllifolia 500 g


each, 15 flakes of Allium sativum, and 9 nos. of Piper
nigrum fruit are ground to a fine paste and rolled into
boluses of egg size. Three boluses are administered orally
three times a day for a period of 9–21 days.
Vd. Shivanna, Tumkur

74 A handful of leaves of each of Mimosa pudica and Datura


metel, 150 g of Sorghum vulgare flour, along with 2 inches
of Aloe vera leaf pulp are made into a paste, which is
applied over the udder three times a day for 3 days.
Vd. Vishweswar, Shimoga

75 Take 10 leaves of Vitex negundo, Aegle marmelos, and


Azadirachta indica, along with a teaspoon of Zingiber
officinale rhizome powder, 9 nos. of Piper nigrum fruits,
and jaggery of gooseberry size. Grind well to make a fine
paste. This paste is divided into six equal parts and made
into six boluses. One bolus is given twice a day for 3 days.
Vd. V. Shekarappa, Yaraganalu, Davanagere

76 The leaves of Phyllanthus reticulatus and Curcuma longa in


equal quantities are ground into a fine paste and applied
over the udder for 2 to 3 days.
Ms. Mary John, Cherriyambanadu, Waynad
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 109

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
77 The leaf pulp of Aloe vera, a teaspoon of Curcuma longa
rhizome powder, and a pinch of calcium hydroxide are
ground to a paste. This paste is applied over the udder three
times a day for 3 days.
Vd. Ramesh, Hassan

78 A handful of Wattakaka volubilis (root) and 50 g of Cuminum


cyminum (seeds) are ground to a fine paste along with sour
buttermilk. This paste is applied over the udder twice a day
for a period of 4–7 days.
Vd. Kunjeeramulya, Karkala

79 Grind 50 g of Cassia alata (leaves) and 10 g of Cuminum


cyminum (seeds) to a fine paste. The paste is applied over
the udder three times a day until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Shankar Shetty, Hosamane, Udupi District

80 Powder the shade-dried leaves of Aegle marmelos, Delonix


elata, Azadirachta indica, Capparis zeylanica, and Leucas
aspera taken in equal quantities. A handful of the powder is
given with lukewarm water on an empty stomach twice
daily for 3 days.
Vd. Anantharamiah, Bangalore Rural

81 The fruit rind of Datura metel and seeds of Sesamum indicum


and Brassica nigra are boiled in cow’s milk in equal
quantities to make a fine paste, which is applied over the
udder until the condition is relieved.
Ms. Mary Sebastian, Madiyakkankal, Waynad

82 Grind a handful of Asparagus gonocladus tubers into a fine


paste and add a pinch of common salt to it. Apply the paste
over the udder until the condition is relieved.
Ms. Thangamma Mathai, Mattathil House, Waynad

83 The leaves of Gymnema sylvestris and Curcuma longa in


equal quantities are ground into a fine paste. The paste is
applied over the udder until the condition is relieved.
Ms. Mary Thomas, Neenduthalakal, Waynad

84 Aloe vera (leaf pulp) 1 foot long, Curcuma longa (rhizome)


2 inches long, and Citrus limon (fruit juice) 2 nos. are
ground to a fine paste and administered orally until the
condition is relieved.
Vaidyas of Dakshina Kannada region

(continued)
110 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
85 A handful of each of Benincasa hispida (leaves), Cocos
nucifera (inflorescence), and Indigofera tinctoria (leaves),
Entada pursaetha (fruit) 3 nos., Tabernaemontana
divaricata (leaves) 3 nos., and Vitex negundo (leaves) 3 nos.
is ground to a fine paste, which is applied over the udder
until the condition is relieved.
Vaidyas of Dakshina Kannada region

13 Prolapse of 86 Diplocyclos palmatus (entire plant) two handsful and


the uterus Mimosa pudica (leaves) 1 handful are ground to a fine paste.
The paste is administered orally with buttermilk once a day
until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Shekarappa, Shimoga

87 Pongamia pinnata (bark) 1 handful is finely powdered and


administered orally along with rice-washed water three
times a day until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Siddharamappa, Shimoga

88 Andrographis panniculata (leaves) 2 teaspoons is finely


powdered and administered orally along with rice-washed
water three times a day until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Siddharamappa, Shimoga

14 Pyrexia 89 Take 20 g of fine bark powder of each of Zanthoxylum rhetsa,


Tabernaemontana heyneana, Pongamia pinnata,
Holarrhena pubescens, and Moringa oleifera along with the
fine powders of 10 g of each of Capsicum annum (fruits),
Piper nigrum (fruits), Trachyspermum ammi (seeds),
Brassica nigra (seeds), and Allium sativum (bulb) and grind
well to a paste. Pills of betel nut size are made, and a pill is
administered orally along with Trachyspermum ammi
decoction (25 g of Trachyspermum ammi is kept in a vessel
to which 600 mL of boiled water is added with a lid kept
closed over the vessel for 15 minutes).
Vd. Kunjeeramulya, Karkala

90 Take equal amounts of dried leaves of Delonix elata, Aegle


marmelos, Capparis zeylanica, Azadirachta indica, and
Leucas aspera. The ingredients are powdered, and 50 g are
administered with lukewarm water twice a day for 2 days.
Vd. Anantharamiah, Bangalore Rural
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 111

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
91 Take a handful leaves of each of Vitex negundo, Aegle
marmelos, and Azadirachta indica along with Piper nigrum
(fruit) 9 nos., Allium sativum (bulb) 9 flakes, Zingiber
officinale (rhizome powder) 10 g, and Piper betle (leaves)
9 nos. The ingredients are ground to a fine paste, and six pills
with jaggery are made. A pill is administered once a day.
Vd. Shekarappa, Shimoga

92 Prepare a decoction of Careya arborea by boiling 500 g of


bark powder (coarse) in 5 L of water and reduce it to 3 L.
Crush 250 g of Allium sativum (bulb) and 150 g of jaggery.
Add them to the prepared kashaya. Administer a liter as a
single dose three times a day for 2 days.
Vd. Saraswathi Bhatt, Sutla Taluk, Udupi District

93 Take 10 g of each of Tinospora cordifolia (stem and leaves),


Ocimum sanctum (leaves) Ocimum basilicum (leaves and
stem) along with Allium sativum (bulb) 10 flakes, Piper
nigrum (fruit) 10 nos., and Syzygium aromaticum (dried
flower buds) 10 nos. Grind the ingredients to a fine paste and
make a bolus of hen egg size. Administer a bolus before feed
three times a day for 3 days along with boiled water.
Vd. Shivanna, Tumkur

94 Boil 100 g of each of Carvum carvi (seeds), Brassica nigra


(seeds), Acorus calamus (rhizome), Andrographis
paniculata (leaves), Ocimum sanctum (leaves), Cuminum
cyminum (seeds), and Tinospora cordifolia (stem) in
1,500 mL of water and reduce it to 400 mL. Add 10 g of
rock salt to the decoction and administer twice a day before
feed until the condition is relieved.
Ms. Eliyamma, Vadakkayil Veedu, Waynad

95 100 g of each of Coleus zeylanicus (whole plant) and Vetivera


zizanioides (root) are mildly heated in 500 mL of water and
administered twice a day before feed until the condition is
relieved. Note: During the administration of these
medications, avoid feeding with fresh grass.
Ms. Moli Jose Pullikal, Ammarakuni, Waynad

(continued)
112 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
15 Retention of 96 Equal quantities of the leaves of Ficus hispida, Bambusa
placenta arundinaceae, and Saccharum officinarum along with the
entire plant of Cyathula prostata and the inflorescence of
Musa paradisiaca are crushed to extract fresh juice. The
fresh juice is administered only once.
Ms. Mary John, Cherriyambanadu, Waynad

97 50 g of the roots of Jasminum angustifolium along with a


pinch of Ferula asafoetida and rock salt (saindhava in
Sanskrit) are ground to a fine paste. The paste is
administered only once.
Ms. Mary John, Cherriyambanadu, Waynad

98 A handful of fresh leaves of Saccharum officinarum is


administered only once.
Vd. Kunjeeramulya, Karkala

99 A handful of fresh leaves of Ficus hispida is administered


only once.
Vd. Kunjeeramulya, Karkala

16 Sterility 100 Gruel is prepared by boiling a handful of Pterocarpus


marsupium (bark powder) and 500 g of rice grain. This
gruel is administered once a day on an empty stomach for
5 consecutive days a month for 3 consecutive months. Thus,
the medicine is administered a total of 15 times.
Vd. Kunjeeramulya, Karkala

101 A handful of bark powder of each of Pterocarpus


marsupium, Ficus racemosa, Spondias pinnata, and
Madhuca latifolia are mixed thoroughly, and one-eighth of
the total quantity is cooked with 500 g of rice grains to
prepare gruel. Black gram is fed for 5 consecutive days
prior to administering the medicated gruel.
Vd. Kunjeeramulya, Karkala

102 Two handfuls inflorescence of Cocos nucifera are ground in


warm water to yield a paste, which is squeezed in a clean
cloth to collect the fresh juice. 25 g Cuminum cyminum
seeds are powdered and added to the juice. The fresh juice
is administered once a day for 3 days. Each month, the
procedure is repeated for 3 days.
Vd. Saraswathi Bhatt, Sutla Taluk, Udupi District
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 113

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
103 The crushed barks of Erythrina indica and Adenanthera
pavonina along with the stem of Coccinia indica, each 100 g
are kept in a cloth and are immersed in a vessel containing
broken rice (250 g) and water for gruel preparation. Gruel is
prepared and fed to the cattle for 3 days.
Vd. Saraswathi Bhatt, Sutla Taluk, Udupi District

104 100 g each of the barks of Calophyllum inophyllum,


Pterocarpus marsupium, and Madhuca latifolia are added to
the rice gruel and further boiled and filtered. The medicine
is administered once a day for 10 days before the estrus
cycle of the cow.
Vd. Shankara Shetty, Udupi

105 A handful each of Biophytum reinwardtii (entire plant) and


Mimosa pudica (leaves) are ground to a fine paste and
administered orally along with a liter of buttermilk. On the
21st day after consuming the medication, the cow enters the
estrus cycle. During estrus, a handful of Biophytum reinwardtii
(entire plant), Piper nigrum (fruit) 9 nos., and Allium sativum
(bulb) 7 flakes are administered orally with buttermilk.
Vd. Shekarappa, Shimoga

106 The roots of Tribulus terrestris 100 g are boiled in 2 L of


water and reduced to 500 mL. This decoction is
administered once a day for 5 days.
Mr. E. V. Antony, Impalil, Waynad

107 Mix thoroughly the fine powders of the barks each 20 g of


Fagraea ceilanica, Putranjiva roxburghii, Erythrina indica,
and Oroxylum indicum. The powder is administered orally
by mixing with a liter of water twice a week for
4 consecutive weeks.
Vd. Vishveswara, Shimoga

108 100 g of the bark of each of Madhuca indica, Albizia lebbeck


and Breynia spp., 50 g of Moringa oleifera (bark), and
Carica papaya root 50 g are crushed and tied in a thick
cloth suspended in a bowl in which rice gruel is cooked.
The juices from the herbs are thoroughly mixed with 1 liter
gruel, which is administered orally. No feed or water is
given for 3 hours after the administration of the medicine.
Vaidyas of Dakshina Kannada region

(continued)
114 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 5.2 (continued)


Common Problems in Cattle and Their Management
Serial Health Number of
No. Conditions Practices Folk Remedies
109 A handful of leaves of each of Biophytum sensitivum and
Premna meruneta are mixed with rice gruel and
administered orally for 3 days.
Vaidyas of Dakshina Kannada region

110 Albizia chinensis (bark) 200 g is powdered and kept inside a thick
cloth, which is suspended into a bowl that contains about a liter
of rice for gruel preparation. This preparation is administered
orally for 3 days.
Vaidyas of Dakshina Kannada region

17 Yoke gall 111 Initially, sesamum oil is applied over the wound followed by
application of the leaf paste of Albizia amara. The paste is
applied over the affected area until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Poongavanam, Periyapangunatham, Pangutham Post,
Dharmapuri

112 Justicia glauca (entire plant) is ground with groundnut oil to


form a fine paste. The paste is applied over the affected part
until the condition is relieved.
Vd. Thathan, E. K. Pudur, Dharmapuri

18 Vitamin A 113 Flacourtia ramontchi (leaves) 100 g, Anacardium occidentale


deficiency (leaves) 5 nos., and Oryza sativa (boiled rice) 50 g are
cooked and administered orally early in the morning.
Vaidyas of Dakshina Kannada region

114 Calophyllum inophyllum (seed oil) is mixed with a teaspoon of


lemon juice and is administered orally.
Vaidyas of Dakshina Kannada region

Source: From Raneesh et al., 2005. A user’s guide on ethnoveterinary health practices, FRLHT,
Bangalore, India. With permission.
Note: These folk remedies are the property of folk healers; therefore, any further use of the knowledge
must be after prior consent from the healers.

There are local healers and livestock farmers (both settled and nomadic) who are
knowledgeable and experienced in traditional veterinary health care. The folk health
practices largely remain undocumented and are passed on from one generation to
another by word of mouth. They use the locally available medicinal plants for treat-
ment of animals. The local healers are popular in their communities, and farmers
generally consult them. The ethnoveterinary medicines used are ecosystem and ethnic-​
community specific; therefore, the characteristics, sophistication, and intensity of these
practices differ greatly among individuals, societies, and regions. These local veteri-
nary health practices are accessible, affordable, and culturally acceptable.
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 115

The use of antibiotics and other chemical products have in fact been banned for
animal health care in many countries, and the world is looking for safer herbal alter-
natives. Ethnoveterinary medicine has great potential to address current challenges
faced by veterinary medicine as it has decentralized ecosystem-specific, resource-
based applications that are safe and efficacious and create little or no adverse effects
in the target animals. However, they are facing the threat of rapid erosion due to
urbanization and westernization. The urgent revival of these traditional veteri-
nary practices is a high priority in the light of the constraints of modern medicine
and the benefits of these practices in terms of their accessibility, affordability, and
acceptability.

5.5 Revival of Ethnoveterinary Medicine


Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle (1989) compiled an annotated bibliography with
emphasis on the ethnoveterinary practices of the African continent and Latin
America and, to a lesser extent, Asia. The authors opined that the gap between con-
temporary allopathic veterinarians and the traditional practitioners can be reduced
if the two can work together for the betterment of livestock owners. Ethnoveterinary
medicine was not recognized and appreciated by researchers, scholars, planners,
developers, and veterinarians (McCorkle, 1986; Mathias-Mundy, 1989; Mathias-
Mundy and McCorkle, 1989; McCorkle et al., 1999), even though conventional vet-
erinary medicine has its origins in aspects of traditional medicine (Wanzala et al.,
2005). Presently, traditional veterinary health techniques and practices, particularly
the use of herbal and holistic medicines, are increasingly being accepted in Western
societies and becoming mainstream (Mugera, 1970a, 1970b; Mathias-Mundy and
McCorkle, 1989; Bizimana, 1994; Farah, Ngatia, and Munyua, 1996; Intermediate
Technology Development Group and International Institute of Rural Reconstruction
[ITDG and IIRR], 1996; Schillhorn van Veen, 1997; Munyua et al., 1998). It is now
recognized that a complementary medical approach is crucial and necessary to boost
livestock production at the community level (Toyang et al., 1995). Because of their
holistic nature, traditional remedies may offer efficacy combined with safety more
often than single cosmopolitan or conventional drugs (Varier, 1996; Wynn, 2001).
There are no harmful effects in most cases with the use of traditional medicine
(Rangnekar, 1999). The Indian Council of Agricultural Research in 2000 docu-
mented 595 veterinary traditions from different sources (Swarup and Patra, 2005).
About 48 of them were recommended for scientific validation, and some have shown
therapeutic and ameliorative potential. In another study, 158 plants were catalogued
and 50 were evaluated for antiparasitic activity (Anonymous, 2004).
The commercialization of herbal medicines for animals in India is much
more advanced than in other countries, with the exception of China. The total
market of animal health care products in India is estimated at about Rs 1,600 cr
(about US$400 million), of which about Rs 200 cr (about US$50 million) is spent on
herbal products. An estimate showed that the gap in demand and supply of veteri-
nary health care products is Rs 7,600 to 10,500 million (Swarup and Patra, 2005).
Modern veterinary care reaches only 20% of livestock owners. Hence, there is enor-
mous scope to develop standardized herbal products for veterinary health care.
116 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

The key issues expected to be resolved are as follows:

1. Reduction in the cost of health care among the dairy animals.


2. Reduction in the antibiotic and hormone residues in the milk and other ani-
mal products by using safe, effective, and standardized products based on
time-tested local traditions.
3. Provision of timely veterinary service to farmers in response to the primary
health care needs of the livestock.
4. Contribution to the economy of the local producers.

A participatory rapid assessment program was designed to study and promote ethnove-
terinary traditions and to establish safe and efficacious ethnoveterinary health prac-
tices in select locations of south India. The program has the following components:

• Prioritize and document local ethnoveterinary practices.


• Assess this knowledge and practices for their efficacy and safety based on
evidence from both codified traditional and scientific literature.
• Promote positively assessed practices through various extension programs,
such as training, establishment of home herbal gardens, publications, and
product development through local enterprises.

5.6 The Indian Systems of Medicine and Rapid


Assessment of Ethnoveterinary Health Traditions
Traditional systems of medicine in India include codified systems such as ayurveda,
siddha, unani, and Tibetan and the noncodified oral or folk traditions. The codified
systems are based on the theory of physiological functioning, disease etiology, and
clinical practices. They have formal traditions of training and possess an extensive
collection of written documents, the materia medica, specialized subjects related to
medicine and surgery, clinical procedure, and medical ethics. The noncodified folk
medicines are practiced by local healers and have been transferred from generation
to generation orally or by demonstration. These Indian systems derive from a world-
view that living beings share all its elements with the world outside and vice versa,
thus showing oneness. The philosophical foundations of ayurveda are derived from
sad-darshanas. Its logical system is called nyaya vaisesika. The means of knowledge
are apta (verbal testimony), pratyaksa (direct perception), anumana (inference), and
upamana (analogy). For example, in indigenous pharmacology (Dravya guna sastra)
the entire plant or its parts (leaves, stem, roots, bark, flowers, fruits, and seeds) are
studied as a whole in terms of their in vivo systemic effects on parameters such as
six Rasa (six tastes), each suggestive of the composition, properties, and biological
activity; Virya (the potency of the substance immediately after ingestion); Vipaka
(the postdigestion state of a substance); and Prabhava (unique biological activity of
a substance) (Tripati, 1982).
Even though the logic of folk knowledge lacks the theoretical rigor of ayurveda
or modern medicine, there is an inherent relationship between classical textual
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 117

PROCESS STEPS OUTPUTS

Identification of
local health
Data on health practices
traditions
of the selected areas
Compilation from
database, literature of
Documentation
codified indigenous
system of medicine
Prioritized list of health
(Ayurveda, Siddha, and
conditions
Unani), and modern
pharmacology Prioritization of
health conditions References of 120
plants used in
ethnoveterinary
Literature
reference Desk research
Set of assessed
remedies
Rapid
Identification of assessment
safe and effective of
remedies ethnoveterinary
practices

Promotion Training programs

Home herbal gardens

Clinical research and Product development


publications through local enterprise

Figure 5.1 Process of rapid assessment of local health traditions.

knowledge and folk knowledge (Unnikrishnan and Darshan Shankar, 2005). The
worldview of the theoretical foundation of modern science and traditional knowledge
are completely different. The codified Indian medical traditions share a similar world-
view as that of the oral folk traditions’ therefore, they are (ayurveda/mrugayurveda)
better tools for assessment of the folk health traditions (Unnikrishnan and Darshan
Shankar, 2005).
It is necessary to find out the effectiveness and contemporary relevance of the
ethnoveterinary knowledge and practices. This involves critical and comprehensive
assessment of these practices using the Indian systems of medicine. We developed
such a method, called the rapid assessment of local ethnoveterinary health traditions
(RALHT, see Figure 5.1).
RALHT is a participatory method developed to document and validate ethnove-
terinary knowledge in a rapid and cost-efficient way. In this process, the traditional
health practices are assessed through a method of dialogue and consensus; local
healers, veterinary doctors, researchers, community members, and other ethno­
veterinary experts take part. The process involves comprehensive documentation of
health practices, desk research for finding out and compiling scientific data on these
118 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

practices, and assessment workshops for prioritizing and selecting practices for pro-
motion. The assessment workshops form a pluralistic medicine platform for a cross-
cultural dialogue between traditional and the contemporary medical sciences. The
participants in this program are traditional healers, veterinary doctors, ayurvedic
doctors, ethnobotanists, documenters, and community members.
The RALHT process consists of the following steps:

• Ethnographic documentation and identification of important ethnoveteri-


nary health traditions
• Community validation of these identified traditions along with multidis-
ciplinary assessment (using comprehensive ayurveda, siddha, unani, and
pharmacology databases) for encouraging the best practices, adding to the
incomplete and discouraging distorted or harmful ones
• Promotion of the use of the validated ethnoveterinary health traditions at
household and community levels

The documentation of local health traditions is aimed at systematic recording of


local health traditions and the resources used in them. The RALHT process will help
select the best ethnoveterinary practices for their promotion. This form of assessment
is termed rapid as it does not involve laboratory or clinical studies. The herbarium
records of the plants used by the community are sent to competent local taxonomists
for identification.

5.6.1 Desk Research Report


The desk research report consists of assessment of the local health practices based on
the three Indian systems of medicine and the pharmacology report. An ethnographi-
cally sensitive approach is used to draw correlation of the locally described health
problem with traditional diagnosis or modern health condition. In this process, the
documented health conditions and practices were rigorously analyzed and correlated
with literature on ayurveda or mrugayurveda and modern veterinary science and on
plant pharmacological studies. This is a prerequisite for assessing the local remedies.
The details of the locally used formulation, such as the ingredients in local name,
botanical names, part used, proportions used, method of preparation, form of medi-
cine, and the dosage used, are conveyed to the evaluators.

5.6.2 RALHT Workshop
The RALHT workshop is an essentially participatory method of assessment
that involves the community, vaidyas (local healers), medical practitioners from
various systems of medicine, pharmacologists, botanists, and the facilitators
(nongovernmental organizations [NGOs], peoples’ organizations, etc.). The priori-
tized list of health conditions or illnesses and the causes and symptoms are presented
to the panel of practitioners. The panel discusses with the community (in the case of
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 119

RALHT for household remedies) and the folk healers (in the case of RALHT for folk
remedies) and seeks clarifications if required. During the analysis, the total number
of formulas having consensus from the community and all the experts of the Indian
systems of medicine and modern medicine, the number of formulas having consen-
sus from the community and one of the Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM) experts,
formulas suggested for modification or additions, and formulas to be discouraged as
per consensus of the participants are listed.

5.6.3 Promotion of the Best Traditional Health Practices


The positively assessed remedies are promoted among the communities in the same
region. This is taken up through promotional workshops and awareness programs
for the households. Following the assessment, clinical evidence is collected on a
particular practice based on pilot clinical studies. Selected best remedies are made
into suitable product through local enterprises or the program can be used to develop
medicinal plant kits for the home herbal gardens. The data collected from the com-
munity are kept in a place decided by the community where the community can
access it. This serves as a register of the health traditions of the area.
The first level of assessment is purely based on consensus among the healers and
other practitioners and is supported with literature and available pharmacological
studies. These assessments are not based on clinical study in the field. Therefore,
many of the practices do not carry the tag of any clinically proven records or obser-
vational data from the field.

5.7 Conservation of Ethnomedico Knowledge


In India, ethnomedico-botanical surveys and inventories receive little attention,
and detailed information and documentation on the uses of medicinal plants in
indigenous communities are lacking. This disinterest in the existing knowledge
and wanton neglect by authorities and public slowly result in the loss of this
knowledge. It is high time that effective measures and programs are adopted to
save this information before it is lost forever. Ethnomedico-botanical surveys in
each district are needed. Comparing and cross-checking the results will provide
information about herbal medicines presently in use. Furthermore, concerted
efforts are needed toward the usage of plant resources, linking conservation
strongly with utilization.

5.8 Collaboration between Indigenous


Medical Systems
The lack of communication between indigenous medical systems of different coun-
tries is a major reason why the systems are not able to convince the world of their
rich traditions and sound principles. For example, there are many commonalties
between India and China. Both countries have cultural histories dating uninterrupted
120 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

thousands of years. Actually, if the countries of South and Southeast Asia that have
common knowledge systems come together to discuss these aspects, much hidden
information on indigenous systems could be consolidated.

5.9 Conclusion
Ethnoveterinary practices have immense contemporary relevance. A rapid par-
ticipatory assessment model for finding out the best practices was developed in
FRLHT and tested in four geographical locations in southern India. Of the docu-
mented folk remedies, about 70% had positive evidence from various systems of
medicine and practical experience. The medicinal plants used in the remedies can
be easily grown in home herbal gardens and are locally available. Some of the
remedies have gone through pilot clinical studies and have been made into prod-
ucts, which are now being made through local enterprises. It is suggested that this
model, if promoted widely, can be of immense use for rural communities and dairy
farmers. We believe revitalization of ethnoveterinary theory and practice holds the
key to better animal health and hence to the prosperity of animal farmers in rural
India. It also ensures reduction of antibiotic and hormone residue from the animal
products and thus promotes green health.

Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the community, folk healers, ISM doctors, botanists, and all oth-
ers who are directly or indirectly associated with this program.

Aegle marmelos
Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions 121

Asperagus racemosus

Benincasa hispida
122 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Hibiscus rosasinensis

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Wanzala W et al. 2005. Ethnoveterinary medicine: A critical review of its evolution, percep-
tion, understanding and the way forward. Livestock Research for Rural Development
17(11).
Wynn GS. 2001. Herbs in veterinary medicine. Alternative veterinary medicine. http://www.
altvetmed.com/articles/herbs.html (accessed on October 9, 2001).
6 Inventory of Traditional
Veterinary Botanicals
from around the World
Zafar Iqbal and Abdul Jabbar

Contents
6.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 125
6.2 Inventory of Plants Used in Animal Health and Production......................... 126
6.3 Validation of the Traditional Use of Plants................................................... 148
6.4 Parts of Plants Used....................................................................................... 151
6.4.1 Modes of Preparation and Administration........................................ 152
6.5 Discussion...................................................................................................... 152
6.6 Conclusions.................................................................................................... 154
References............................................................................................................... 154

6.1 Introduction
There has been a resurgence of interest in traditional health care practices in the Western
as well as in the developing world. In animal health, this has led to further attention
in ethnoveterinary research and development.1–16 This is a relatively new field of study
that covers traditional practices, ethnobotany, and application of animal care prac-
tices embedded in local tradition. During its annual convention (1996), the American
Veterinary Medical Association17 recognized veterinary acupuncture and acutherapy,
veterinary chiropractic, physical therapy, massage, homeopathic, botanical, nutra-
ceutical, and holistic veterinary medicine as “modalities to be offered in the context
of a valid veterinarian/client/patient relationship” (http://www.veterinarywatch.com/
guidelines.htm). These developments have coincided with the emergence of a consen-
sus on the validity and importance of indigenous knowledge and traditional ecological
knowledge and the risk that such knowledge, including traditional veterinary practice
as well as medicine, is to be lost.18,19
Traditional practices were commonly used in many parts of the world but were rarely
recorded in mainstream literature except in anthropology,13, 20 in early colonial reports
in the context of broader narratives about livestock,21,22 or if related to ethnobotany.
Plants constitute a major part of traditional veterinary practices throughout the
world. Farmers and traditional healers have acquired the empirical knowledge of
medicinal and toxic plants and the medicinal prescriptions based on these plant prod-
ucts passed down to them from generation to generation. Natural (plant) products can

125
126 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

also be important sources for new pharmaceuticals for both animals and humans.23
There is significant evidence that plants are an important source of medicines for
indigenous people.24 Even so-called weeds have a significant representation in the
flora from which drugs are derived. Therefore, undervaluing and even destruction
of weeds could have an impact on availability of certain medicinal plants. Also,
the realization that medicinal plants are readily available in a “living pharmacy”
right outside the door and along trailsides rather than deep in the forest could lead
governments and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to encourage and promote
traditional medical practices rather than discourage them.25 Based on a World Health
Organization survey26 and more recent review articles based on literature searches
for drugs of natural plant product origin,27,28 there are more than 121 pharmaceutical
compounds used as medicine worldwide that are derived from plants.
Therefore, key themes of the emerging debate surrounding the status and future
of medicinal plants are the recognition that medicinal plants constitute a vast, undoc-
umented, and overexploited economic resource, and that they are the principal health
care resource for the majority of the world’s human and animal populations. This
chapter serves as an inventory of the plants used in traditional veterinary practices
in different parts of the world.

6.2 Inventory of Plants Used in Animal


Health and Production
A total of 451 plants representing 308 genera and 116 families have been listed for
the treatment of different health and production problems in animals (Tables 6.1
through 6.15). The most frequently used plants were Malva sylvestris L. (12),
Sambucus nigra L. (11), Khaya senegalensis A. Juss (9), Linum usitatissimum L.
(9), Olea europaea L. (8), Allium sativum Linn. (7), Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (7),
Fraxinus ornus L. (7), Ruta chalepensis L. (7), Urtica dioica L. (7), Allium cepa L.
(6), Butyrospermum parkii (6), Helleborus viridis L. (6), Nicotiana tabaccum L.
(6), Apium nodiflorum (L.) Lag. (5), Arachis hypogea Linn. (5), Elaeis guineensis
Jacq. (5), Ficus thonningii (5), Hedera helix L. (5), Juniperus communis L. (5),
Mercurialis annua L. (5), Triticum aestivum L. (5), Vitis vinifera L. (5), and Zea
mays L. (5). The frequency of usage for the remaining listed plants was 15 (n = 4),
49 (n = 3), 62 (n = 2), and 300 (n = 1). The values in parentheses indicate the num-
ber of conditions or diseases for which the respective number of plants (outside the
parentheses) was used.
The most frequently represented families were Asteraceae (n = 67 plants), Lamiaceae
(n = 45), Fabaceae (n = 41), Poaceae (n = 35), Solanaceae (n = 29), Apiaceae (n = 27),
Euphorbiaceae (n = 23), Malvaceae (n = 22), Urticaceae (n = 20), Liliaceae (n = 17),
Oleaceae (n = 17), Moraceae (n = 16), Boraginaceae (n = 14), Ranunculaceae (n = 14),
Rosaceae (n = 14), Rutaceae (n = 14), Scrophulariaceae (n = 14), Alliaceae (n = 13),
Meliaceae (n = 13), Caprifoliaceae (n = 12), Cupressaceae (n = 12), Araceae (n = 11),
Crassulaceae (n = 10), Chenopodiaceae (n = 9), Plantaginaceae (n = 8), Polygalaceae
(n = 8), Salicaceae (n = 8), Sapotaceae (n = 8), Verbenaceae (n = 8), Brassicaceae (n = 8),
Combretaceae (n = 7), Cucurbitaceae (n = 7), Papaveraceae (n = 7), Pinaceae (n = 7),
Vitaceae (n = 7), Acanthaceae (n = 6), Aspleniaceae (n = 6), Melanthiaceae/Liliaceae
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 127

Table 6.1
Plants Used in the Treatment of General Gastrointestinal Complaints
in Animals
Plants Used Plant Family References
Allium cepa L. Alliaceae 144–146
Allium sativum L. Alliaceae 144–147
Apium nodiflorum L. Apiaceae 148
Cuminum cyminum L. Apiaceae 149
Pimpinella anisum L. Apiaceae 150
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae 151
Asplenium trichomanes L. Aspleniaceae 148
Artemisia absinthium L. Asteraceae 150–153
Cynara cardunculus ssp. Asteraceae 146
Scolymus (L.) Hayek
Chamomilla recutita (L.) Asteraceae 145, 154
Rauschert
Santolina marchii Arrigoni Asteraceae 153
Calendula officinalis L. Asteraceae 155
Borago officinalis L. Boraginaceae 156
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 147, 157, 158
Sempervivum tectorum L. Crassulaceae 150, 159–162
Equisetum arvense L. Equisteraceae 163
Euphorbia lathyris L. Euphorbiaceae 148, 164
Mercurialis annua L. Euphorbiaceae 146, 150, 151, 155, 156, 161, 164, 165
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Fabaceae 156
Lotus corniculatus L. Fabaceae 155
Vicia faba L. Fabaceae 156
Quercus sp. Fagaceae 144
Geranium rotundifolium L. Geraniaceae 166
Geranium sanguineum L. Geraniaceae 166
Aesculus hippocastanum L. Hippocastanaceae 146
Marrubium vulgare L. Lamiaceae 160, 167
Mentha sp. pl. Lamiaceae 146
Rosmarinus officinalis L. Lamiaceae 148, 167
Teucrium chamaedrys L. Lamiaceae 159
Laurus nobilis L. Lauraceae 163
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 147, 148, 151, 153, 156, 159, 161, 162, 168, 169
Lavatera cretica L. Malvaceae 165, 170
Malva sp. pl. Malvaceae 146
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 144, 145, 147, 148, 150, 158, 169
Ficus carica L. Moraceae 146, 150, 160, 163, 170
Fraxinus excelsior L. Oleaceae 171, 148, 1712, –173
Fraxinus ornus L. Oleaceae 146, 150, 157, 159–161, 171, 174–177
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae 158

(continued)
128 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 6.1 (CONTINUED)


Plants Used in the Treatment of General Gastrointestinal Complaints
in Animals
Plants Used Plant Family References
Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. Poaceae 146
Cynodon dactylon Pers. Poaceae 178
Triticum aestivum L. Poaceae 148, 162
Triticum durum Desf. Poaceae 156
Zea mays L. Poaceae 153
Rumex sp. Polygonaceae 146
Clematis vitalba L. Ranunculaceae 179
Crataegus laevigata L. Rosaceae 180
Rubus fruticosus L. Rosaceae 154
Rubus sp. pl. Rosaceae 156
Sorbus domestica L. Rosaceae 156
Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae 180
Ruta graveolens L. Rutaceae 146, 161, 181, 182
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Rees Saccharomycetaceae 162
Populus sp. Salicaceae 153, 162
Salix alba L. subsp. Alba Salicaceae 146, 148, 150, 156, 159, 183, 184
Salix sp. Salicaceae 144, 160, 162
Salix viminalis L. Salicaceae 167
Solanum tuberosum L. Solanaceae 146
Ulmus minor Mill. Ulmaceae 156, 162
Parietaria judaica L. Urticaceae 146
Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae 148
Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae 159, 160

Table 6.2
Plants Used as Antidiarrheals or Antidysentrics in Animals
Plants Used Plant Family References
Blepharis ciliaris Acanthaceae 185
Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae 186, 187
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae 188
Trachyspermum ammi L. Apiaceae 188
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Arecaceae 189
Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) Ait. F. Asclepiadaceae 190
Carduus nyassanus (S. Moore) R. E. Fries Asteraceae 190
Crepis rueppellii Sch. Bip. Asteraceae 190
Sphaeranthus gomphrenoides O. Hoffm. Asteraceae 191
Vernonia amygdalina Delile Asteraceae 192
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 129

Table 6.2 (continued)


Plants Used as Antidiarrheals or Antidysentrics in Animals
Plants Used Plant Family References
Adansonia digitata Linn. Bombacaceae 189
Cynoglossum coeruleum Hochst. Boraginaceae 190
Opuntia maxima Mill. Cactaceae 193
Deterium microcarpum Caesalpiniaceae 189
Herniaria glabra L. Caryophyllaceae 193
Chenopodium opulifolium Koch & Ziz Chenopodiaceae 192
Guiera senegalensis Lam Combretaceae 189
Terminalia macroptera Guill & Perr. Combretaceae 189
Cupressus lusitanica Mill. Cupressaceae 190
Juniperus procera L. Cupressaceae 190
Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach. Euphorbiaceae 190
Ceratonia siliqua L. Fabaceae 193
Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak. Fabaceae 190
Senna occidentalis L. Fabaceae 192
Acacia polyacantha Fabaceae 194
Piliostigma thonningii Schum Fabaceae 189
Quercus ilex L. Fagaceae 193
Quercus pubescens Willd. Fagaceae 193
Mentha pulegium L. Lamiaceae 193
Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. Lamiaceae 193
Ocimum lam Hochst. Lamiaceae 190
Thymus vulgaris L. Lamiaceae 193
Cordyla africana Leguminosae 194
Aloe secundiflora Engl. Liliaceae 191
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 195
Lythrum salicaria L. Lythraceae 193
Corchorus olitorius Malvaceae 194
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 193
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Ficus thonningii B. Moraceae 191
Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae 186, 187, 191
Pinus patula Schlect. & Charm. Pinaceae 191
Avena sativa L. Poaceae 193
Oryza sativa L. Poaceae 193, 195
Phragmites australis Cav. Poaceae 189, 195
Sorghum bicolor Linn. Moench Poaceae 189
Zea mays L. Poaceae 191
Zizyphus nummularia Rhamnaceae 185
Agrimonia eupatoria L. Rosaceae 193
Rubus ulmifolius Schott. Rosaceae 193
Galium verum L. Rubiaceae 195
Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. Rutaceae 192
130 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 6.3
Plants Used in Gastroenteritis or Abdominal Pain and as a
Laxative or Purgative
Plants Used Plant Family References

Gastroenteritis/Abdominal Pain
Apium nodiflorum (L.) Lag. Apiaceae 195
Sphaeranthus gomphrenoides O. Hoffm. Asteraceae 191
Lepidium sativum Brassicaceae 185, 196
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 195
Cupressus sempervirens L. Cupressaceae 195
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Ficus thonningii B. Moraceae 191
Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae 191
Fraxinus excelsior L. Oleaceae 195
Fraxinus ornus L. Oleaceae 195
Pinus patula Schlect. & Charm. Pinaceae 191
Zea mays L. Poaceae 191
Solanum incanum Linn. Solanaceae 189

Laxative/Purgative
Rhazya stricta Apocynaceae 185, 196
Artemesia abyssinica Asteraceae 185, 197
Artemesia inculata Asteraceae 185
Beta vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris var. Vulgaris Chenopodiaceae 193
Citrullus colocynthis Cucurbitaceae 185
Euphorbia cocuneata Euphorbiaceae 185, 198
Euphorbia lathyris L. Euphorbiaceae 195
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 195
Papaver rhoeas L. Papaveraceae 195
Malva sylvestris L. Pinaceae 193, 199
Cymbopogon schoenanthus Poaceae 185, 196
Triticum aestivum L. Poaceae 195
Agrimonia eupatoria L. Rosaceae 193
Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae 195

(n = 6), Apocynaceae (n = 5), Asclepiadaceae (n = 5), Canellaceae (n = 5), Fagaceae (n = 5),


and Myrtaceae (n = 5). The frequency of distribution of the remaining plants among
different families was four plants each in Basellaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Rhamnaceae,
Rubiaceae, and Zingiberaceae; three each in Araceae, Balanitaceae/Zygophyllaceae,
Convallariaceae, Hypericaceae/Clusiaceae, Lauraceae, Leguminosae, Sapindaceae,
Ulmaceae, and Zygophyllaceae; two each in Amaranthaceae, Anacardiaceae,
Aristolochiaceae, Betulaceae, Cactaceae, Caesalpinaceae/Fabaceae, Capparaceae/
Capparidaceae, Geraniaceae, Hippocastanaceae, Lythraceae, Phytolaccaceae, and
Tamaricaceae.
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 131

Table 6.4
Plants Used for Rumination, Bloat, and Colic and as Detoxicants
Plants Used Plant Family References

Rumination
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae 195
Anchomanes difformis Engl. Araceae 189
Asplenium trichomanes L. Aspleniaceae 195
Artemisia abisinthium L. Asteraceae 195
Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don fil. Asteraceae 199
Sempervivum tectorum L. Crassulaceae 195
Juniperus communis L. Cupressaceae 195
Euphorbia hirta Linn. Euphorbiaceae 189
Spartium junceum L. Fabaceae 195
Marrubium vulgare L. Lamiaceae 195
Rosmarinus officinalis L. Lamiaceae 195
Satureja montana L. Lamiaceae 199
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 195
Gossypium barbadens Linn. Malvaceae 189
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 195
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Triticum aestivum L. Poaceae 195
Salix alba L. Salicaceae 195
Ulmus minor Miller Ulmaceae 195
Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae 195
Bloat
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 193
Momordica balasamia Linn. Cucurbitaceae 189
Arachis hypogea Linn. Fabaceae 189
Cymbopogon schoenanthus Poaceae 185, 196
Salix aiha L. Salicaceae 199
Schwenkia americana Linn. Solanaceae 189

Colic
Brassica campestris L. var. sarson Prain Brassicaceae 188
Cymbopogon schoenanthus Poaceae 196
Lycium barbarum Solanaceae 196
Detoxicants
Nelsonia canescens Acanthaceae 189
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Arecaceae 189
Arachis hypogea Linn. Fabaceae 189
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae 195
Striga hermontheca (Del.) Benth Scrophulariaceae 189
132 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 6.5
Plants Used for Anorexia/ or Indigestion/ or as a Carminative
Plants Used Plant Family References
Allium cepa L. Alliaceae 188
Allium sativum L. Alliaceae 188
Anethum graveolens L. Apiaceae 188
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae 188
Trachyspermum ammi L. Apiaceae 188
Calotropis procera Asclepiadaceae 200, 201
Schkuria pinnata (Lam.) Thell. Asteraceae 191
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) Gray Asteraceae 191
Matricaria chamomilla L. Asteraceae 199
Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Asteraceae 188
Lepidium sativum L. Brassicaceae 188
Eruca sativa Mill. Brassicaceae 188
Capparis deciduas (Forssk.) Edgew. Capparaceae 188
Sempervivum tectorum L. Crassulaceae 199
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Kuntze Cucurbitaceae 188
Melilotus alba Fabaceae 202
Trigonella foenum-gracum L. Fabaceae 188
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 199
Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae 188
Punica granatum L. Punicaceae 188
Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth Scrophulariaceae 188
Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae 188
Lycium barbarum Solanaceae 196
Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dund. Solanaceae 188
Amomum subulatum Roxb. Zingiberaceae 188
Zingiber officinale Rosc. Zingiberaceae 188

Maximum number of plants were used as antiseptic (n = 67) followed by repro-


ductive and metabolic problems (n = 60), skin conditions (n = 58), gastrointestinal
disorders (n = 54), respiratory and viral problems (n = 44), antidiarrhoeal/ antidysen-
tric (n = 43), ectoparasitic problems (n = 42), blood protozoal diseases (n = 28),
anthelmintic (n = 22), anorexia, indigestion and carminative (n = 21), rumination
(n = 18), laxative/purgative (n = 14), and gastroenteritis (n = 13).
The most diversified use in animal health and production problems was that of
plants belonging to the family Asteraceae (n = 14; value indicates the number of
ailments or conditions for which the plants of this family are used) followed by
Fabaceae (n = 12), Apiaceae (11), Euphorbiaceae (11), Lamiaceae (10), Poaceae (10),
Malvaceae (10), Solanaceae (9), Meliaceae (9), Moraceae (8), Boraginaceae (7),
Rosaceae (7), Ranunculaceae (7), Caprifoliaceae (7), Linaceae (7), Oleaceae (6),
Alliaceae (6), Brassicaceae (6), Crassulaceae (6), Cupressaceae (6), Polygonaceae (6),
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 133

Table 6.6
Plants Used as Anthelmintics
Plants Used Plant Family References
Ruellia tuberosa Acanthaceae 187
Achryanthes indica Amaranthaceae 186
Rhazya stricta Apocynaceae 185, 196
Tanacetum balsamita L. Asteraceae 193
Artemesia inculata Asteraceae 185
Artemesia abisinthium L. Asteraceae 195
Balanites aegyptiaca L. Balanitaceae 192
Heliotropium strigosum Boraginaceae 185, 203
Cassia alata Caesalpinaceae 186
Carica papaya Caricaceae 186
Chenopodium ambrosiodes Chenopodiaceae 186
Anogeissus leicarpa D.C. Guill & Perr Combretaceae 189
Guiera senegalensis Lam. Combretaceae 194
Citrullus colocynthis Cucurbitaceae 185
Cucurbita maxima Lam. Cucurbitaceae 191
Juniperus communis L. Cupressaceae 193
Cajanus cajan Fabaceae 186
Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) Irwin & Barneby Fabaceae 191
Cordyla africana Leguminosae 194
Gossypium spp. Malvaceae 186
Azadirachta indica Meliaceae 187
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Ficus sycomorus Linn. Moraceae 189
Fraxinus ornus L. Oleaceae 195
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae 191
Petiveria alliacea Phytolaccaceae 187
Sorghum bicolor Linn. Moench Poaceae 189
Zizyphus mauritania Rhamnaceae 194
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Verbenaceae 187
Zygophylum album Zygophyllaceae 185, 196
Zygophylum coccineum Zygophyllaceae 185, 196

Apocynaceae (6), Vitaceae (6), Scrophulariaceae (5), Rutaceae (5), Chenopodiaceae


(5), Urticaceae (4), Combretaceae (4), Plantaginaceae (4), Salicaceae (4), Verbenaceae
(4), Acanthaceae (4), Liliaceae (4), Papaveraceae (4), Pinaceae (4), Asclepiadaceae
(4), Myrtaceae (4), Melanthiaceae (3), Aspleniaceae (3), Cucurbitaceae (3), Fagaceae
(3), Sapotaceae (3), Araliaceae (3), and Arecaceae (3)
Some plants used in poultry have also been documented (Table 6.15). Six plants
representing six families were used for egg production, one plant to improve plum-
age, and eight plants representing seven families as parasiticides.
134 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 6.7
Plants Used in Some Protozoal Diseases
Plants Used Plant Family References
Trypanosomiasis
Terminalia superba Combretaceae 204
Terminalia vorensi Combretaceae 204
Alchornea cordifolia Euphorbiaceae 204
Acacia artaxacantha Fabaceae 204
Eugenia uniflora Myrtaceae 204
Adenia cissampeloides Passifloraceae 204
Murraya koenigii Rutaceae 204
Clerodendron capitata Verbenaceae 204

Theileriosis
Thunbergia alata Sims Acanthaceae 191
Solanecio mannii (Hook. f.) C. Jeffrey Asteraceae 191
Sonchus oleraceus L. Asteraceae 191
lpomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Convolvulaceae 191
Kalanchoe densiflora Rolfe Crassulaceae 191
Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae 191
Synadenium compactum N. E. Br. Euphorbiaceae 191
Ajuga remota Benth Lamiaceae 191
Plectranthus barbatus Andr. Lamiaceae 191
Dodonaea angustifolia L. f. Sapindaceae 191

East Coast Fever


Synadeniuni grantii Hook. 192
Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. Apiaceae 192
Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Apocynaceae 192
Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae 192
Aristolochia elegans Mast. Aristolochiaceae 192
Ananas comosus L. Bromeliaceae 192
Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae 192
Maytenus senegalensis Lam. Celastraceae 192
Euphorbia tirucalli L. Euphorbiaceae 192
Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae 192
Albizia coriaria Oliv. Fabaceae 192
Oncoba spinosa Forssk. Flacourtiaceae 192
Tetradenia riparia Hochst. Lamiaceae 192
Asparagus racemosus (Wild) Liliaceae 192
Strychnos innocua Del. Loganiaceae 192
Milicia excelsa Welw. C. Berg. Moraceae 192
Musa paradisiaca L. var. paradisiaca Musaceae 192
Securidaca longipedunculata Fres. Polygalaceae 192
Oxygonurn sinuatum Meisn. Polygonaceae 192
Gardenia tern Schumach. & Thonn. Rubiaceae 192
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 135

Table 6.7 (continued)


Plants Used in Some Protozoal Diseases
Plants Used Plant Family References
Citrus limon L. Rutaceae 192
Citrus sp., Buniimu, NC Rutaceae 192
Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. Rutaceae 192
Physalis peruviana L. Solanaceae 192
Clerodendrum myricoides Hochst. Verbenaceae 192

Anaplasmosis
Thunbergia alata Sims Acanthaceae 191
Helichrysum odoratissimum (L.) Less. Asteraceae 191
Solanecio mannii (Hook. f.) C. Jeffrey Asteraceae 191
Sonchus oleraceus L. Asteraceae 191
Kalanchoe densiflora Rolfe Crassulaceae 191
Euclea divinorum Hiern Ebenaceae 191
Synadenium compactum N. E. Br. Euphorbiaceae 191
Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) Irwin & Fabaceae 191
Barneby
Achyrospermum schimperi (Hochst.) Perkins Lamiaceae 191
Ficus thonningii BI. Moraceae 191
Dodonaea angustifolia L. f. Sapindaceae 191
Cyphostemma maranguense (Gilg) Desc. Vitaceae 191

Table 6.8
Plants Used for Ectoparasitic Problems
Plants Used Plant Family References

Scabies/Mange
Apium nodiflorum (L.) Lag. Apiaceae 195
Rhazya stricta Apocynaceae 196
Eclipta alba Asteraceae 186
Sonchus bipontini Asch. Asteraceae 190
Crescentia. Cujete Bignoniaceae 186
Bixa orellana Bixaceae 186
Eruca sativa Mill. Brassicaceae 188
Musa spp. Musaceae 186
Discopodium eremanthum Chiov. Solanaceae 190
Fagonia bruguieri Zygophyllaceae 202

Myiasis
Anthostema senegalense Euphorbiaceae 194
Manilkara zapota Sapotaceae 186

(continued)
136 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 6.8 (continued)


Plants Used for Ectoparasitic Problems
Plants Used Plant Family References
Ectoparasite
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) Gray Asteraceae 191
Cordia curassavica Boraginaceae 186
Warburgia ugandensis Sprague Canellaceae 191
Tagetes minuta L. Compositae 191
Synadenium compactum N. E. Br. Euphorbiaceae 191
Caesalpinia volkensii Harms Fabaceae 191
Ajugu remota Benth Lamiaceae 191
Mentha aquatica L. Lamiaceae 195
Melia volkensii Gurke Meliaceae 191
Pouteria sapota Sapotaceae 186
Nicotiana tabacum Solanaceae 186
Insecticidal
Allium cepa L. Alliaceae 195
Sambucus ebulus L. Caprifoliaceae 195
Sempervivum tectorum L. Crassulaceae 195
Lupinus albus L. Fabaceae 195

Ticks, Fleas, Lice


Allium sativum Linn. Alliaceae 189
Nicotiana tobbacum Linn. Solanaceae 188, 189
Antiparasitics/or Repellents
Allium cepa L. Alliaceae 146
Allium sativum L. Alliaceae 144
Apium nodiflorum L. Apiaceae 148
Achillea ligustica All. Asteraceae 205
Artemisia absinthium L. Asteraceae 145–147, 153
Tanacetum vulgare L. Asteraceae 149, 182, 206
Alnus glutinosa L. Betulaceae 148
Echium vulgare L. Boraginaceae 162
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 206
Mercurialis annua L. Euphorbiaceae 156
Lupinus albus L. Fabaceae 144, 148, 152, 156, 159
Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae 146, 205, 207
Glechoma hederacea L. Lamiaceae 157
Laurus nobilis L. Lauraceae 146, 205
Veratrum album L. Melanthiaceae 154, 207
Veratrum nigrum L. Melanthiaceae 146
Veratrum sp. Melanthiaceae 208
Fraxinus ornus L. Oleaceae 153, 208
Ruta graveolens L. Rutaceae 146, 153, 163, 168, 208
Salix sp. Salicaceae 144
Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae 145, 155, 179
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 137

Table 6.9
Plants Used in the Treatment of Reproductive and Metabolic Ailments
Plants Used Plant Family References

General
Allium cepa L. Alliaceae 146
Heracleum sphondilium L. Apiaceae 207
Ceterach officinarum Lam. et DC. Aspleniaceae 148
Helianthus annuus L. Asteraceae 146
Picris echioides L. Asteraceae 156
Carduus pycnocephalus L. Asteraceae 156
Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert. Asteraceae 144, 146, 208
Sonchus oleraceus L. Asteraceae 156
Nasturtium officinale R. Br. Brassicaceae 146
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 148
Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Caryophyllaceae 159
Juniperus sabina L. Cupressaceae 156, 207
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn Dennstaedtiaceae 146, 153, 156
Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. Fabaceae 153
Galega officinalis L. Fabaceae 160, 179
Melissa officinalis L. Labiatae 146
Teucrium chamaedrys L. Lamiaceae 156
Scorpiurus subvillosus L. Leguminosae 155
Malva neglecta Wallr. Malvaceae 209
Papaver rhoeas L. Papaveraceae 146
Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae 161
Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae 161
Zea mays L. Poaceae 156
Helleborus viridis L. Ranunculaceae 148
Prunus avium L. Rosaceae 148
Rubia tinctorum L. Rubiaceae 210
Scrophularia canina L. Scrophulariaceae 156
Capsicum annum L. Solanaceae 146, 208
Solanum tuberosum L. Solanaceae 144
Parietaria judaica L. Urticaceae 148
Parietaria sp. pl. Urticaceae 146, 208
Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae 147, 153, 155, 156, 211
Urtica sp. pl. Urticaceae 146, 212
Abortive
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae 195
Postpartum Problems
Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Adiantaceae 195
Apium nodiflorum L. Apiaceae 195
Ceterach officinarum DC. Aspleniaceae 195

(continued)
138 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 6.9 (continued)


Plants Used in the Treatment of Reproductive and Metabolic Ailments
Plants Used Plant Family References
Mercurialis annua L Euphorbiaceae 195
Laurus nobilis L. Lauraceae 195
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 195
Rubia peregrine L. Rubiaceae 195
Parietaria diffusa M. et K. Urticaceae 195
Depurative
Angelica sylvestris L. Apiaceae 195
Ceterach officinarum DC. Aspleniaceae 195
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 195
Retained Placenta
Balanites aegyptiaca Del. Balanitaceae 189
Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. Malvaceae 189
Ficus thonningii Blume Moraceae 189
Sorghum bicolor Linn. Moench Poaceae 189

Infertility/Fertility Enhancer
Guiera senegalensis Lam Combretaceae 189
Tamarindus indica Linn. Fabaceae 189
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Avena sativa L. Poaceae 195
Prunus avium L. Rosaceae 195
Striga hermontheca Del. Benth Scrophulariaceae 189
Galactogogue
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae 195
Euphorbia hirta Linn. Euphorbiaceae 189
Arachis hypogea Linn. Fabaceae 189
Melilotus alba Fabaceae 202
Galega officinalis L. Fabaceae 195, 199
Gossypium barbadens Linn. Malvaceae 189
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 195
Ficus carica L. Moraceae 195
Ficus sycomorus Linn. Moraceae 189
Schwenkia aritime Linn. Solanaceae 189
Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae 195
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Verbenaceae 186

Acetonaemia
Arachis hypogea Linn. Fabaceae 189

Mineral Deficiencies
Euphorbia aegyptica Boiss Euphorbiaceae 189
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 139

Table 6.10
Plants Used for Wound Healing and as Antiseptics
Plants Used Plant Family References
Blepharis ciliaris Acanthaceae 202
Allium sativum L. Alliaceae 193, 199
Angelica sylvestris L. Apiaceae 193
Conium maculatum L. Apiaceae 146, 156
Eryngium campestre L. Apiaceae 193
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae 193
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae 199
Achillea millefolium L. Asteraceae 195
Inula aritim L. Asteraceae 154, 162
Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Asteraceae 193
Schultz-Bip.
Borago officinalis L. Boraginaceae 207
Cynoglossum creticum Miller Boraginaceae 195
Heliotropium strigosum Boraginaceae 203
Brassica oleracea L. Brassicaceae 156
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. Cactaceae 213
Cleome arabica Capparaceae 202
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 195
Beta vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris Chenopodiaceae 193
var. Vulgaris
Hamada elegans Chenopodiaceae 202
Cistus laurifolius L. Cistaceae 193
Sedun telephiuin L. ssp. Maximum Crassulaceae 193
(L.) Krocker
Umbilicus rupestris (Salisb.) Crassulaceae 193
Dandy
Juniperus oxycedrus L. subsp. Cupressaceae 211
Oxycedrus
Equisetum telmateja Ehrh. Equisteraceae 195
Euphorbia cocuneata Euphorbiaceae 198
Mercurialis annua L. Euphorbiaceae 193
Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link Fabaceae 195
Tephrosia vogelii Hook. Fabaceae 192
Quercus pubescens L. Fagaceae 199
Quercus suber L. Fagaceae 214
Hypericum perforatum L. Hypericaceae 162, 195
Crocus sativus L. Iridaceae 193
Marrubium vulgare L. Lamiaceae 145, 154, 164, 193
Teucrium polium L. ssp. Polium Lamiaceae 193
Thymus vulgaris L. Lamiaceae 193
Lavandula latifolia Medik. Lamiaceae 193

(continued)
140 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 6.10 (continued)


Plants Used for Wound Healing and as Antiseptics
Plants Used Plant Family References
Salvia officinalis L. ssp. Lamiaceae 193
Lavandulifolia (Vahl) Gams
Stachys germanica L. Lamiaceae 156
Stachys officinalis (L.) Trevisan Lamiaceae 195
Asphodelus microcarpus Salzm. Liliaceae 213
et Viv.
Urginea aritime (L.) Baker Liliaceae 193
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 193
Veratrum album L. subsp. Melanthiaceae 146
Lobelianum (Bernh.) Arcang.
Veratrum nigrum L. Melanthiaceae 199
Fraxinus ornus L. Oleaceae 146
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae 193
Chelidonium majus L. Papaveraceae 182
Papaver rhoeas L. Papaveraceae 193
Pinus halepensis Miller Pinaceae 195
Pinus sylvestris L. Pinaceae 193
Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae 193
Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae 144, 148, 162, 168, 181, 195
Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. Poaceae 146
Arundo donax L. Poaceae 193
Avena sativa L. Poaceae 162
Oryza sativa L. Poaceae 193
Triticum aestivum L. Poaceae 193, 199
Zea mays L. Poaceae 195
Polygonum persicaria L. Polygonaceae 193
Helleborus viridis L. Ranunculaceae 176
Zizyphus nummularia Rhamnaceae 202
Agrimonia eupatoria L. Rosaceae 193
Rubus fruticosus L. Rosaceae 145
Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae 193
Saxifraga paniculata Mill. Saxifragaceae 193
Kichxia elatine (L.) Dumort. Scrophulariaceae 154, 184
Scrophularia canina L. Scrophulariaceae 146, 153, 156, 184, 215
Verbascum densiflorum Bert. Scrophulariaceae 216
Verbascum sinuatum L. Scrophulariaceae 154, 217
Verbascum sp. pl. Scrophulariaceae 184
Parietaria judaica L. Urticaceae 147
Parietaria officinalis L. ssp. Urticaceae 193
judaica (L.) Beg.
Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae 193
Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae 162, 193
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 141

Table 6.11
Plants Used for Skin Problems
Plants Used Plant Family References

Dermatosis/Skin Disorders
Conium maculatum L. Apiaceae 146, 156
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae 155, 180
Hedera sp. Araliaceae 167
Achillea millefolium L. Asteraceae 160, 168, 218
Cirsium arvense (L.) Asteraceae 168
Inula viscosa L. Asteraceae 154, 162
Sonchus oleraceus L. Asteraceae 156
Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich Benincaseae 164
Cordia curassavica Boraginaceae 186
Cynoglossum creticum Miller (syn. Boraginaceae 160, 167, 218
Cynoglossum pictum Aiton)
Cynoglossum officinale L. Boraginaceae 160, 167
Echium vulgare L. Boraginaceae 162, 195
Brassica oleracea L. Brassicaceae 156
Lepidium sativum Brassicaceae 185, 196
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 146, 148, 153, 162, 219
Cupressus sempervirens L. Cupressaceae 195
Tamus communis L. Dioscoreaceae 146, 159
Euphorbia cocuneata Euphorbiaceae 185, 198
Hypericum perforatum L. Hypericaceae 162
Marrubium vulgare L. Lamiaceae 145, 154, 164
Satureja montana L. Lamiaceae 154
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 144, 156, 157, 161
Lycoperdon sp. Lycoperdaceae 156
Althaea officinalis L. Malvaceae 146, 156, 183
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 144, 153, 159, 218, 220
Veratrum album L. subsp. lobelianum (Bernh.) Melanthiaceae 146
Arcang
Morus nigra L. Moraceae 162
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae 144
Chelidonium majus L. Papaveraceae 182
Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae 158
Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae 144, 148, 162, 168, 181
Rumex crispus L. Polygonaceae 151
Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae 156
Helleborus viridis L. Ranunculaceae 176
Ranunculus ficaria L. Ranunculaceae 146
Salix alba L. subsp. Alba Salicaceae 159
Scrophularia canina L. Scrophulariaceae 153, 156, 184, 215
Verbascum thapsus L. Scrophulariaceae 159

(continued)
142 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 6.11 (continued)


Plants Used for Skin Problems
Plants Used Plant Family References
Tamarix aphylla Tamaricaceae 221
Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae 195

Ringworm
Arachis hypogea Linn. Fabaceae 189
Khaya sengegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Ficus thonningii Blume Moraceae 189
Butyrospermum parkii Kotsky Sapotaceae 189

Fungal Skin Infections


Pistacia lentiscus L. Anacardiaceae 193
Conium maculatum L. Apiaceae 193
Nerium oleander L. Apocynaceae 195
Eclipta alba Asteraceae 186
Calendula arvensis L. Asteraceae 193
Heliotropium europaeum L. Boraginaceae 193
Raphanus raphanistrum L. ssp. sativus (L.) Brassicaceae 193
Dornin
Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. Fabaceae 190
Bersama abyssinica Fresen. Melianthaceae 190
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae 193
Helleborus foetidus L. Ranunculaceae 193
Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae 193
Solanum marginatum L. f. Solanaceae 190
Footrot
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Arecaceae 189
Acacia nilotica Del. Fabaceae 189
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189
Butyrospermum parkii Sapotaceae 189
Nicotiana tobbacum Linn. Solanaceae 189
Snakebite
Calotropis procera Asclepiadaceae 200, 201
Euphorbia cocuneata Euphorbiaceae 198
Lycium barbarum Solanaceae 196
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 143

Table 6.12
Plants Used in the Treatment of Some Bacterial Diseases
Plants Used Plant Family References

Anthrax
Euphorbia schimperiana Scheele Euphorbiaceae 190
Leonotis ocymnifera (Burm. f.) Lamiaceae 190
Iwarsson
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Meliaceae 189

Antimastitic
Buxus semperirens L. Buxaceae 195
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 195
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 195
Avena sativa L. Poaceae 195
Butyrospermum parkii Kotsky Sapotaceae 189
Schwenkia americana Linn. Solanaceae 189
Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae 195

Blackleg
Crepis rueppellii Sch. Bip. Asteraceae 190
Sonchus bipontini Asch. Asteraceae 190
Vernonia myrantha Hook. f. Asteraceae 190
Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich. Cucurbitaceae 190
Erythrina brucei Schweinf. Fabaceae 190
Salvia merjamie Forssk. Lamiaceae 190
Salvia nilotica Jacq. Lamiaceae 190
Sida schimperiana Hochst ex A. Malvaceae 190
Rich.
Cymbopogon citrates (DC.) Stapf Poaceae 190
Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Polygonaceae 190
Clematis hirsute Perr. & Guill. Ranunculaceae 190
Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae 190
Alchemilla abyssinica Fresen. Rosaceae 190
Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae 190
Discopodium eremanthum Chiov. Solanaceae 190
Nicotiana tabaccum L. Solanaceae 190
Solanum incanum L. Solanaceae 190

Urinary Infections
Petroselinum sativum Hoffm. Apiaceae 195
Potentilla reptans L. Rosaceae 162, 195
144 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 6.13
Plants Used for the Treatment of Respiratory and Viral Infections
Plants Used Plant Family References

Respiratory Problems/Pneumonia
Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) Ait. f. Asclepiadaceae 190
Helichrysum italicum (Roth) Don Asteraceae 195
Inula sp. Asteraceae 182
Solanecio mannii (Hook. f.) C. Jeffrey Asteraceae 191
Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Asteraceae 188
Alnus glutinosa L. Betulaceae 153
Borago officinalis L. Boraginaceae 146
Polygonatum multiflorum All. Convallariaceae 157
Polygonatum officinale All. Convallariaceae 157
Mercurialis annua L. Euphorbiaceae 156
Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) Fabaceae 191
Irwin & Barneby
Aesculus hippocastanum L. Hippocastanaceae 157
Mentha pulegium L. Lamiaceae 195
Thymus sp. Lamiaceae
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 148
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 153
Ficus carica L. Moraceae 156
Ficus sycomorus Linn. Moraceae 189
Eucalyptus saligna Myrtaceae 191
Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae 154
Rumex abyssinicus Polygonaceae 190
Helleborus viridis L. Ranunculaceae 176, 195
Eryobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindley Rosaceae 161
Dodonaea angustifolia L. f. Sapindaceae 191
Striga hermontheca Del. Benth Scrophulariaceae 189
Ulmus minor Mill. Ulmaceae 156
Parietaria diffusa Mert. et Koch Urticaceae 178

Colds and Coughs


Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae 188
Vernonia amygdnlina Delile Asteraceae 192
Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Asteraceae 188
Chenopodium opulifolium Koch & Ziz. Chenopodiaceae 192
Haloxylon ammodendron Chenopodiaceae 185
Acacia seyal Del. var. fistula Fabaceae 192
Mentha pulegium L. Lamiaceae 195
Helleborus viridis L. Ranunculaceae 195
Measles
Vernonia amygdnlina Delile Asteraceae 192
Balanites aegyptiaca L. Balanitaceae 192
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 145

Table 6.13 (continued)


Plants Used for the Treatment of Respiratory and Viral Infections
Plants Used Plant Family References
Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae 192
Chenopodium opulifolium Koch & Ziz. Chenopodiaceae 192
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae 192
Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae 192
Hepatitis
Allium sativum L. Alliaceae 190
Kniphofia foliosa Hochst. Asphodelaceae 190
Carduus nyassanus (S. Moore) R. E. Fries Asteraceae 190
Crepis rueppellii Sch. Bip. Asteraceae 190
Solanecio gigas (Vatke) C. Jeffrey Asteraceae 190
Sonchus bipontini Asch. Asteraceae 190
Vernonia amygdalina Del. Asteraceae 190
Silene macrosolen A. Rich. Caryophyllaceae 190
Lotus corniculatus L. Fabaceae 190
Cymbopogon citrates (DC.) Stapf Poaceae 190
Cheilanthes farinose (Forssk.) Kaulf. Pteridaceae 190
Rhamnus prinoides L’Herit. Rhamnaceae 190
Cycniopsis hum (Forssk.) Sengl Scrophulariaceae 190

Rabies
Carduus nyassanus (S. Moore) R. E. Fries Asteraceae 190
Asparagus africanus Lam. Liliaceae 190

Table 6.14
Plants Used in the Treatment of Some Miscellanous Conditions
Plants Used Plant Family References
Anti-inflammatory
Allium cepa L. Alliaceae 193
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae 195
Aristolochia rotunda L. Aristolochiaceae 193
Phyllitis scolopendrium (L.) Newm. Aspleniaceae 193
Helichrysum italicum (Roth) Don Asteraceae 195
Inula viscosa (L.) Aiton Asteraceae 193
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 193
Beta vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris var. Vulgaris Chenopodiaceae 193
Hrpericum perforatum L. Clusiaceae 193
Teucrium chamaedrys L. Lamiaceae 195
Thymus vulgaris L. Lamiaceae 193
Lavandula latifolia Medik. Lamiaceae 193
Althaea officinalis L. Malvaceae 195

(continued)
146 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 6.14 (continued)


Plants Used in the Treatment of Some Miscellanous Conditions
Plants Used Plant Family References
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 193
Marchantia paleacea Bertol. Marchantiaceae 193
Morus nigra L. Moraceae 195
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae 193
Oryza sativa L. Poaceae 193
Triticum aestivum L. Poaceae 193
Anemone hepatica L. Ranunculaceae 193
Parietaria officinalis L. ssp. judaica (L.) Urticaceae 193
Beg.
Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae 193
Lippia triphylla (L’Hér.) Kuntze Verbenaceae 193

Analgesic/Antipyretic
Juniperus communis L. Cupressaceae 195
Hypericum perforatum L. Hypericaceae 195
Helleborus odorus W. et K. Ranunculaceae 195
Helleborus viridis L. Ranunculaceae 195

Newborn Navel Diseases Protection


Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Arecaceae 189
Butyrospermum parkii Kotschy Sapotaceae 189

Sprain
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Arecaceae 189
Butyrospermum parkii Kotschy Sapotaceae 189

Emollients
Umbilicus rupestris (Salisb.) Dandy Crassulaceae 193
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae 193

Strengthens Joints
Juniperus communis L. Cupressaceae 195

Swollen Joints or Feet


Colocasia esculentum (L.) Schott Var. Araceae 189
Lawsonia inermis Linn. Lythraceae 189
Butyrospermum parkii Kotschy oil Sapotaceae 189

Antirheumatic
Cupressus sempervirens L. Cupressaceae 195
Fraxinus ornus L. Oleaceae 195

Myositis and Arthritis


Calotropis procera Asclepiadaceae 200, 201
Lycium barbarum Solanaceae 196
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 147

Table 6.14 (continued)


Plants Used in the Treatment of Some Miscellanous Conditions
Plants Used Plant Family References
Eye/Ocular Problem
Calendula arvensis L. Asteraceae 193
Acacia girardil Benth. Fabaceae 222
Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae 193
Solanum incanum L. Solanaceae 192
Tamarix aphylla Tamaricaceae 185, 221

Zérbád (Dropsy)
Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Asteraceae 188
Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae 188
Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth Scrophulariaceae 188
Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae 188
Amomum subulatum Roxb. Zingiberaceae 188

Anhidrosis
Trachyspermum ammi L. Apiaceae 188
Brassica campestris L. var. sarson Prain Brassicaceae 188
Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze Theaceae 188
Amomum subulatum Roxb. Zingiberaceae 188

Salutiferous
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae 193
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 193
Juniperus communis L. Cupressaceae 193
Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. Lamiaceae 193
Hyparrhenia hirta (L.) Stapf in Oliver Poaceae 193
Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae 193
Smilax aspera L. Smilacaceae 193
Parietaria officinalis L. ssp. judaica (L.) Urticaceae 193
Beg.
Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae 193
Diuretic
Scabiosa atropurpurea L. Dipsacaceae 193
Arctostaphylos uvaursi (L.) Spreng. Ericaceae 193
Arundo donax L. Poaceae 193
Abortion
Acacia polyacantha Willd. Fabaceae 191
Aloe secundiflora Engl. Liliaceae 191
Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. Meliaceae 191
General Weakness
Basella alba L. Basellaceae 191
Cucumis aculeatus Cogn. Cucurbitaceae 191

(continued)
148 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 6.14 (continued)


Plants Used in the Treatment of Some Miscellanous Conditions
Plants Used Plant Family References
Acacia mearnsii De Wild. Fabaceae 191
Ajuga remota Benth Lamiaceae 191
Aloe secundiflora Engl. Liliaceae 191
Urtica massaica Mildbr. Urticaceae 191
Clerodendrum johnstonii Oliv. Verbenaceae 191
Cayratia ibuensis (Hook. f.) Suesseng. Vitaceae 191

Weakening of Bones
Cyathula polycephala Bak. Amaranthaceae 191
Synadenium compactum N. E. Br. Euphorbiaceae 191
Aloe secundiflora Engl. Liliaceae 191
Urtica massaica Mildbr. Urticaceae 191

Dietary Deficiencies
Warburgia ugandensis Spragueb Canellaceae 191
Plectranthus barbatus Andr. Lamiaceae 191
Urtica massaica Mildbr. Urticaceae 191

Nervous/Sensory/Locomotory Ailments
Allium sp. pl. Alliaceae 156
Inula viscosa (L.) Aiton Asteraceae 162
Brassica nigra (L.) Koch Brassicaceae 177
Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae 182
Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae 147
Satureja montana L. Lamiaceae 181
Teucrium chamaedrys L. Lamiaceae 160
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 144
Papaver somniferum L. Papaveraceae 156
Lolium temulentum L. Poaceae 156, 217
Clematis vitalba L. Ranunculaceae 162
Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae 161
Hyoscyamus niger L. Solanaceae 155
Valeriana officinalis L. Valerianaceae 153, 157

6.3 Validation of the Traditional Use of Plants


Although validation of safety of traditional practices and drugs is universally accepted,
the need for efficacy testing, using Western standards, is still debated. Agarwal29
noted that indigenous knowledge differs from Western scientific knowledge on sub-
stantive, methodological or epistemological, as well as contextual grounds, arguing
that indigenous knowledge is more deeply rooted in its environment, is based on
different values, and is assessed by different methods. Accordingly, validation and
preservation of indigenous knowledge should be done in situ. Ex situ preservation
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 149

Table 6.15
Plants Used in Different Poultry Conditions
Plants Used Plant Family References

Egg Production
Stellaria media (L.) Caryophyllaceae 195
Fraxinus ornus L. Oleaceae 195
Popover rhoeas L. Papaveraceae 199
Echinochloa crus-galli Beauv. Poaceae 195
Rumex acetosa L. Polygonaceae 195
Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae 195

To Improve Plumage
Phytolacca americana L. Phytolaccaceae 195

Parasiticide
Umbilicus rupestris (Salisb.) Crassulaceae 193
Dandy
Psoralea bituminosa L. Fabaceae 193
Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. Lamiaceae 193
Lavandula latifolia Medik. Lamiaceae 193
Eucalyptus globulus Labill Myrtaceae 193
Plantago coronopus L. Plantaginaceae 193
Asplenium adiantum-nigrum L. Polypodiaceae 193
ssp. onopteris (L.) Heufl.

creates a museum for knowledge and is likely to benefit outsiders. As some practices
are risky or incorrect dosing of medicinal extracts can lead to poisoning, validation
of safety is a minimal requirement. Efficacy may be more difficult to demonstrate ex
situ, and guidelines such as those by the World Health Organization (WHO)30 may
be helpful.
In the validation process, recognition that certain plants are used in combina-
tions is important as there are complex chemical interactions among constituents of
a single plant and with mixtures of plants.31 Other considerations are whether some
plants mixed together increase availability of bioactive compounds or if preparations
diminish toxicity while retaining therapeutic actions.
Various ailments, in humans or their animals, are the result of microbial infec-
tions, nutritional deficiencies, and genetic disorders. Traditional medicine mainly
constitutes the use of plants. Very few plants emprically used in veterinary medicine
have been validated. However, there is no dearth of literature on the phytochemical
aspects of several plants. Although not specifically targeted at veterinary medicine,
antimicrobial and antifugal activities of several plants have been reported in the
literature. An increasing number of researchers have demonstrated that commonly
used herbs and spices such as garlic, black cumin, cloves, cinnamon, thyme, oregano,
allspice, bay leaves, mustard, and rosemary possess antimicrobial properties.32 The
150 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

activity is mainly due to the presence of essential oils.33 The use of plants in different
animal ailments has been rarely validated except as anthelmintics.
As far as could be ascertained, anthelmintic activity of plants is one of the most
important areas subjected to scientific validation in veterinary medicine. There
are more than 150 plants that have been validated for their anthelmintic effects in
animals using standard parasitological procedures. Some of the examples include
Acacia albida;34 Albizia anthelmintica;35,36 Albizia coriavera;36 Albizia lebbek;37
Allium sativum;36 Aloe barteri;37 Ananas comosus;38 Anogeissus leiocarpus;39
Khaya senegalansis;40 Artemisia annua;41 Artemisia brevifolia;42 Artemisia herba-
alba;43 Artemisia inflorescence;44 Artemisia maritime;38,45–47 Artemisia senna;48,49
Azadirachta indica;50,51 Azadirachta indica;52 Vernonia anthelmintica and Bixa
orellana;38 Butea spp.;53–57 Caesalpina crista;58–60 Calliandra portoricensis;61–64
Calotropis procera;65 Carissa edulis;36 Cassia alata;38 Chenopodium album;66,67
Caesalpinia crista;67 Cucurbita maxima;68 Cucurbita pepo;60 Cymbopogon nar-
dus and Cymbopogon citrates;69 Hyoscyamus niger;70 Juglans regia, Musa par-
adisaca, and Scindapsus officinalis;60 Melia azedarach;71–74 Nicotiana tabacum;75
Nigella sativa;76 Peganum harmala;77,78 Punica granatum;79 Swertia chirata;80
Tamarindus indica;36 Trachyspermum ammi;81,82 Vernonia anthelmintica;83,84
Withania coagulans;85 and Zingiber officinale.86 Githiori et al.87 and Jackson and
Miller88 claimed that plants with anthelmintic properties typically contain saponins,
alkaloids, nonprotein amino acids, tannins and other polyphenols, lignins, alkaloids,
terpenes, lactones, glycosides, and phenolic compounds. Other active anthelmintic
compounds include cysteine proteinases, which digest the protective cuticle of the
rodent gastrointestinal nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus;89 anthraquinones,
which are active against Schistosoma mansoni;90 and condensed tannins, which are
active against gastrointestinal nematodes.91
Onions (Allium cepa) and garlic (Allium sativum) have a wide array of veterinary
uses, ranging from treating gastrointestinal complaints (i.e., anorexia, indigestion, or
as a carminative) to proven insecticidal, antiparasitic, repellant, and antiseptic actions.
Sufficient scientific evidence is available regarding the use of Allium species as anti-
protozoal agents against Giardia lamblia, G. intestinalis, Entamoeba histolytica,
Trichomonas vaginalis, and different strains of Leishmania;92,93 antifungals94–96 with
activity against Candida, Trichophyton, Torulopsis, Rhodotorula, Cryptococcus,
Aspergillus, and Trichosporon;97 and as an antibacterial against Pseudomonas,
Proteus, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella, Salmonella,
Micrococcus, Bacillus subtilis, Mycobacterium, and Clostridium.98 The antiviral
activities of various commercial garlic products, including garlic powder tablets and
capsules, oil-macerated garlic, steam-distilled garlic oils, garlic aged in aqueous
alcohol and fermented garlic oil, against herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2, influ-
enza A and B viruses,99 human cytomegalovirus,100 vesicular stomatitis virus, rhino-
virus, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), viral pneumonia, and rotavirus have
also been studied. Evidence from several investigations suggested that the biological
and medical functions of garlic and onions are mainly due to the high organo-sulfur
compound content.101 The biological effects of additional constituents of intact garlic
and onion, such as lectins (the most abundant proteins in garlic and onion); prosta-
glandins; fructan; pectin; adenosine; vitamins B1, B2, B6, C, and E; biotin; nicotinic
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 151

acid; fatty acids; glycolipids; phospholipids; and essential amino acids, have been
studied for over several decades.99 Some proteins, saponins, and phenolic compounds
of onions and garlic can also contribute to their pharmacological activity.102
Artemesia spp. are used as laxatives, purgatives, and anthelmintics in tradi-
tional veterinary medicine. Several essential oils from Artemesia species have
shown important antimicrobial activity against bacteria, yeasts, dermatophytes, and
Aspergillus strains103–105 and have therapeutic potential, mainly in diseases involv-
ing mucosal, cutaneous, and respiratory tract infections. The major constituents of
many of these oils are phenolic compounds (terpenoids and phenylpropanoids) like
thymol, carvacrol, or eugenol, for which antimicrobial and antioxidant activities are
well documented.106
Anacardium occidentale has been reported for its antimicrobial property107 and
is used as an antidiarrheal and antidysentric in veterinary medicine. It has been
reported to contain cardol, methylcardol, cardanol (alkylphenol), and anacardic
acid.108 Cardanol derivatives were found to show antibacterial, antifungal, antioxi-
dant, and antitumor activities.109
Ruta spp. are used for gastrointestinal complaints; blackleg; and nervous, sen-
sory, or locomotory ailments and as an antiparasitic, repellent, and antiseptic in
veterinary medicine. Ruta spp. leaves have been reported to possess antibacterial
activity against Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus, whereas, essential oil
has a slight anthelmintic effect attributed to nonylmethyl ketone, and its odor is
effective in inhibiting the fifth instar of the triatomine Rhodnius prolixus.110–112
Aloe secundiflora is used as an antidiarrheal and antidysentric and in abortion, gen-
eral weakness, and weakness of bones in veterinary medicine. Emodin, an anthraqui-
none, is the virucidal agent (enveloped viruses) in Aloe spp. (A. vera) and possesses
antibacterial, diuretic, vasorelaxant, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and anticar-
cinogenic properties.113 Dhananjeyan et al.90 successfully tested other anthraquino-
nes against the human filarial parasite Brugia malayi and the pathogenic trematode
Schistosoma mansoni.
Mentha spp. are used in gastrointestinal complaints and respiratory and viral
problems, against ectoparasites, and as an antidiarrheal or antidysentric in veterinary
medicine. Mentha spp. oil has been found effective against Staphylococcus aureus,
Salmonella enteritidis, Enterococcus faecium, Shigella sonei, and Micrococcus
flavus.114
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) is used in gastrointestinal complaints, repro-
ductive disorders, respiratory ailments, and skin problems. Flaxseed flour has been
reported to possess antifungal activity.115 Health benefits of flaxseed are associated
with α-linolenic acid (ALA), lignan, and flax dietary fiber.116

6.4 Parts of Plants Used


The commonly used parts of the plants or plant products are leaves, bark, oil, shoots,
whole plant, root, flowers, cobs, fruit, sap, gum, seeds, pulp, aerial parts, latex, stem,
pods, galls, wood, buds, bulb, rhizomes, cake, cladode, inflorescence, infructescence,
stigmas, floral tops, gametophyte, petals, grain, frond, vinegar, and wine.
152 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

6.4.1 Modes of Preparation and Administration


The plant parts to be used are crushed and powdered, boiled with water, beaten,
burned to smoke or ash, chewed, ground, brewed, soaked in solvent, added in feed,
used as forage, macerated, embrocated, and used as concoction, decoction, infusion,
poultice, smoke, distillate, ash powder, juice, syrup, tisane, lotion, wine, sap, and so
on. The common modes of administration are ingestion, oral and nasal administra-
tion, drinking, licking, enema, stinging, and topical application such as painting,
rubbing, ointment, poultice, massage, emulsion, liniment, and so on.
Different vehicles are also used frequently for administration of plants. For liquids
these include water, milk whey, oils, wine, vinegar, and the like. Jaggery, salt, butter,
and so on are used for making physic drench balls, and oils, butter, Vaseline, and so on
are used for making preparations for topical application of plants.

6.5 Discussion
As stated by Schillhorn van Veen,19 farmers and herders have historically relied on
empirically derived practices in management and health. Veterinary medicine as
practiced today has its origins in traditional medicine as practiced in prehistory in
China, India, and the Middle East. King Hammurabi of Babylon, for example, laid
out laws concerning the fees veterinarians could charge for treatment of cattle and
donkeys as early as 1800 BC. Early Buddhist Indian society already worshipped
cattle and other animals, and animal health was mentioned in the Rock Edict II
of King Ashoka (269–232 BC). It is suggested that animal hospitals were cre-
ated during his reign (Smith, 1924, as cited by Lodrick20). China, Egypt, and later
Arabia developed into centers of veterinary and other medical practice knowledge.
Schwabe1 compared the beliefs and practices of past and present herders in the Nile
valley and suggested a long tradition behind contemporary ethnoveterinary practice.
Throughout much of history, however, medical knowledge was subordinate to reli-
gious certainties and seen as an empirical art rather than a science. This was also
the case with veterinary medicine, and the distinction between traditional practice
and “studied” empirical knowledge was vague, although early veterinary schools
tried to distinguish between quackery and rational explanation of diseases and their
treatment. These attitudes changed drastically in the 20th century, especially after
World War II, when chemotherapeutic control of disease became predominant and
when diseases were explained and treated in ways based on the understanding of
pathophysiology and immunology. This change was dominated by a rational Western
society and its beliefs and rarely reached the non-Western world, apart from mass
vaccinations, insecticides, and some (sometimes outdated) antibiotics and anthelm-
intics. Indeed, the Western developments in the elucidation and treatment of animal
disease bypassed many livestock owners in poorer developing countries, who contin-
ued to rely on their age-old methods in disease control and often considered Western
animal health care expensive, not embedded in local beliefs and concerns, and not
always in tune with animal welfare.
A compendium of ethnoveterinary medical practices in parts of Africa has been
published.36 In other studies,117–119 the active principles as well as the mechanisms of
Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around the World 153

action of some plant extracts that are used in ethnoveterinary medicine have been
discussed. In some of the studies cited here, the appropriate dosages of the plant
extracts required to suppress the growth of causative organisms of some diseases
have been given, thus suggesting the potential of traditional drugs in primary animal
health care.
Mainstream medicine is increasingly receptive to the use of antimicrobial and
other drugs derived from plants as traditional antibiotics (products of microorgan-
isms or their synthesized derivatives) become ineffective and as new, particularly
viral, diseases remain intractable to this type of drug. Another driving factor for
the renewed interest in plant antimicrobials in the past 20 years has been the rapid
rate of (plant) species extinction.120 There is a feeling among natural products chem-
ists and microbiologists alike that the multitude of potentially useful phytochemical
structures that could be synthesized chemically is at risk of being lost irretrievably.121
There is a scientific discipline known as ethnobotany (or ethnopharmacology) whose
goal is to utilize the impressive array of knowledge assembled by indigenous peoples
about the plant and animal products they have used to maintain health.122–125
Plants have an almost limitless ability to synthesize aromatic substances, most of
which are phenols or their oxygen-substituted derivatives.126 There is increasing evi-
dence to support the hypothesis that plants are relatively high in bioactive secondary
compounds and are thus likely to hold promise for drug discovery. Secondary com-
pounds in weeds are important for a variety of ecological functions. Chief among
these are allelopathy, for which secondary compounds inhibit germination and
growth of other plants and as chemical defense against herbivory.127 At least 50 spe-
cies of weeds have been shown to interfere with crops through allopathic secondary
compounds.128 However, because allelopathy usually occurs through the complex
chemical matrix of the soil, it is difficult to conclusively show a causal relation-
ship.129 Investigations into plant antiherbivore defense are perhaps further developed.
The two major antiherbivory chemical defense strategies for plants are metabolically
inactive immobile (or quantitative, as defined by Feeny130) defenses such as tannins
and lignins that reduce digestibility and mobile (or qualitative) defenses such as
alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, or terpenoids.130,131 It is the latter types of compounds
that are the basis for plant-derived pharmaceuticals. Ephemeral, successional, or
r-selected species (all common characteristics of weeds) tend to rely on these sorts
of toxic chemical defenses.132,133 Most of the plant-derived chemicals are secondary
metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been isolated, a number estimated to be
less than 10% of the total.134 Some of these secondary metabolites, such as terpe-
noids, give plants their odors; others (quinones and tannins) are responsible for plant
pigment. Many compounds are responsible for plant flavor (e.g., the terpenoid cap-
saicin from chili peppers). Useful antimicrobial phytochemicals can be divided into
phenolics and polyphenols (e.g., simple phenols and phenolic acids, quinones, fla-
vones, flavonoids, and flavonols, tannins, coumarins, etc.); terpenoids and essential
oils; alkaloids; lectins and polypeptides; mixtures; and other compounds (reviewed
by Cowan135).
The efficacy of different plants based on their traditional or empirical use is
attributed to the compounds or chemical groups given in this section. For example,
phenolics possess a wide spectrum of biochemical activities, such as antioxidant,
154 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

antimutagenic, and anticarcinogenic properties, as well as the ability to modify gene


expression.136,137 There is, however, variation in the chemistry of plants, which leads
to differences in the efficacy even within same species of plants. It has been reported
that plant genotype138 and cultivation139 affect total phenolic and flavonoid contents
in fruit. The variation in phenolic compounds depends on many factors, such as
degree of maturity at harvest, genetic differences, environmental conditions, devel-
opment stages of the plant at harvesting, drying process, and storage technique.140,141
Moreover, the type of solvent can also influence the amount and spectrum of the
active components in the final extract of a plant.140

6.6 Conclusions
1. Although ethnomedicine is a readily available alternative to modern veteri-
nary inputs and services, there is a lack of information on the efficiency and
mode of action of many traditional drugs. Standard drugs are often more
effective and convenient to use than traditional remedies. Furthermore, tra-
ditional drugs have not been tested extensively for their effects on organ
integrity. There is also the need to determine the active ingredients and
their amounts in the plant. Such information is important in dosages.
Biochemical studies also would reveal any poisons (such as alkaloids and
cardiac glycosides) that may exist in the plants.
2. The treatments and practices reported in this chapter are based on selected
reviews and papers and need to be validated to identify those that can be
of practical advantage in agricultural development.14 Issues that should be
addressed are efficacy, quality, safety, and standardization of doses. Models
and guidelines to validate and develop human medicines have been devel-
oped, and these could probably be modified and applied to animals.142,143

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7 The Current Status and
Future Prospects of
Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants in Veterinary Health
Care in Southeast Asia
Shanmugavelu Sithambaram,
Murugaiyah Marimuthu, and
Chandrawathani Panchadcharam

Contents
7.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 166
7.2 Countries of SEA........................................................................................... 167
7.2.1 Brunei................................................................................................ 167
7.2.2 Cambodia........................................................................................... 167
7.2.3 Democratic Republic of Timor Leste (East Timor)........................... 167
7.2.4 Indonesia............................................................................................ 167
7.2.5 Lao People’s Democratic Republic.................................................... 168
7.2.6 Malaysia............................................................................................. 168
7.2.7 Myanmar............................................................................................ 169
7.2.8 The Philippines.................................................................................. 169
7.2.9 Singapore........................................................................................... 169
7.2.10 Thailand............................................................................................. 170
7.2.11 Vietnam............................................................................................. 170
7.3 Current Research and Application of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants......... 170
7.3.1 Andrographis paniculata (Hempedu bumi)...................................... 172
7.3.2 Centella asiatica (Pegaga)................................................................. 173
7.3.3 Citrus hystrix (Limau purut)............................................................. 173
7.3.4 Eurycoma longifolia (Tongkat Ali)................................................... 174
7.3.5 Morinda citrifolia (Mengkudu or Noni)............................................ 174
7.3.6 Orthosiphon stamineus (Misai kucing)............................................. 175
7.3.7 Phyllanthus niruri (Dukung anak).................................................... 175
7.3.8 Zingiber officinale (Halia)................................................................. 175

165
166 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

7.4 Use of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Animals....................................... 175


7.5 Scientific Studies on the Use of Plant Extracts in Animals........................... 180
7.6 Future Potential for the Development of MAPs in Veterinary
Health Care.................................................................................................... 183
7.7 Conclusions.................................................................................................... 183
References............................................................................................................... 183

7.1 Introduction
Southeast Asia (SEA) is geographically divided into two regions: mainland SEA (or
Indochina) and the Maritime SEA (or the Malay Archipelago). The subcontinent
(Figure 7.1) includes Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Democratic Republic of Timor
Leste (East Timor), Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), Malaysia,
Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Four of the world’s 25
main biodiversity hot spots lie in SEA (Myers et al., 2000). The major hot spots are
Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam with 29,000, 15,500, 11,625, and 10,500
plant species, respectively (Anon., 2004). Based on traditional and cultural practice,
medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) constitute a major portion of health care in
these parts of the world. For instance, it was estimated that in Lao PDR, about 77%
of the population uses traditional treatments (Sydara et al., 2005). In Indonesia, on

INDIA Fuzhou

N)
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it ( JA
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an
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Hanoi Zhanjiang Macau
BURMA S.A.R.
Pratas
Akyab Haiphong Island Luzon
LAOS Strait
Gulf of BABUYAN ISLANDS
Nay Pyi Chiang Halrian
Taw Mai Vientiane
C
H
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Tonkin
Dao Philip
A
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Pathein
THAILAND
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PARACEL
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CAMBODIA Nha
ANDAMAN
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(INDIA) Phnom Penh
a P H I L I P P I N E S Samar
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Sea Gulf of Long
Xuyen C Palawan
Thailand h SPRATLY Negros

ut ISLANDS Sulu Sea Cagayan de Oro


NICOBAR
So
ISLANDS Mindanao
(INDIA)
Phuket Songkhla Zamboanga
Davao
Great Channel
Bandar Seri Kota Kinabalu
George Town
Banda Aceh St Ipoh Begawan
ra BRUNEI
ito MALAYSIA Celebes
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MALAYSIA
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GU

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Singapore
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ait

Samarinda Palu Sea


AN

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Banda Sea
Selat Sunda Semarang Madura
A

Flores Sea
Surabaya Lombok
S

Ban dung Java Bali Flores Dili


Denpasar
Sumbawa EAST TIMOR
Christmas Island Selar Lombok Kupang
Sumba Timor
(AUSTRALIA)

Figure 7.1 Countries of Southeast Asia. (Source: Factbook 2008. Central Intelligence Agency
Office of Public Affairs, Washington, DC. https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/site-policies/index.
html#copy)
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 167

the other hand, 40% of the population uses traditional medicine, with 28% from the
in rural areas (World Health Organization [WHO], 2001). The status of countries of
SEA and their ethnic makeup are discussed briefly in the following section.

7.2 Countries of SEA
7.2.1 Brunei
The source of herbal and medicinal plants in Brunei is its natural forest, which cov-
ers almost 80% of its land area of 5,770 km2. There is no commercial-scale cultiva-
tion in the country, which has about 5,000 native species of plants. Brunei has also
been known for its superior camphor, with medicinal properties derived from the
trunk of Dryobalanops aromatica. Traditional medicine practice is based on the
ethnic makeup of Brunei, which includes Malay (66.3%), Chinese (11.2%), indig-
enous (3.4%), and others (19.1%). Its official religion is Muslim (66.3%), followed by
13% Buddhist, 10% Christian, and 10% others. Most of its traditional medicines are
imported, such as the Jamu medicines from Indonesia.

7.2.2 Cambodia
Cambodia covers an area of 181,035 km2 with a population of more than 14 mil-
lion people. The ethnic makeup of Cambodia includes about 90% Khmer followed
by 5% Vietnamese, 1% Chinese, and 4% of others. About 95% of Cambodians are
Theravada Buddhist, with 5% of other religions. Traditional medicine has been
practiced for thousands of years, and the traditional practitioners are known as Kru
Khmer since only the rich can afford modern medicine. The research and documen-
tation of MAP in Cambodia is very limited. Some of the important plants are listed
in Appendix 7.1.

7.2.3 Democratic Republic of Timor Leste (East Timor)


The ethnic groups of Timor Leste are Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian), Papuan, and
a small Chinese minority. Their religious makeup is Roman Catholic (98%), Muslim
(1%), and Protestant (1%). Their official languages are Tetum and Portuguese, with
some Indonesian and English. There are about 16 indigenous languages spoken, with
the main being Tetum, Galole, Mambae, and Kemak. Many locals rely on traditional
medicine for their health care needs. However, there is almost negligible information
on the use of MAP resources.

7.2.4 Indonesia
Indonesia consists of 17,000 islands and is the world’s largest archipelago
(Figure 7.1). It is separated from the peninsula of Malaysia and Singapore by
the Straits of Malacca and the South China Sea. The ethnic groups of Indonesia
are Javanese (40.6%), Sundanese (15%), Madurese (3.3%), Minangkabau (2.7%),
Betawi (2.4%), Bugis (2.4%), Banten (2%), Banjar (1.7%), and others (29.9%). The
main religions are Muslim (86.1%), Protestant (5.7%), Roman Catholic (3%), Hindu
168 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

(1.8%), and others (3.4%). The official language is Bahasa Indonesia, but other com-
monly used languages include English and Dutch, while the local dialect is mainly
Javanese. About 60% of Indonesia is under forest cover, which represents about
10% of all tropical forests of the world. It is second largest in biodiversity after
Brazil, and about 90% of medicinal plant species of Asia can be found there. About
40% of Indonesia’s population uses traditional medicine, with 70% of users from
rural areas (WHO, 2001). The well-known traditional medicine is called Jamu, and
it is reported to be preferred over other “available over-the-counter” Western drugs
(Stevensen, 1999).

7.2.5 Lao People’s Democratic Republic


Lao PDR has tropical rain forests covering almost 47% of its total land area of 236,800
km2. These serve as a reserve for natural resources, including MAPs. The ethnic
groups of Lao PDR are Lao (55%), Khmou (11%), Hmong (8%), and over 100 minor
ethnic groups (26%). Their main religion is Buddhism (67%), followed by Christianity
(1.5%) and others (31.5%). The official language is Lao, with some French, English,
and various ethnic languages. The traditional medicine in Lao PDR is known as ya
phurn meung, which means “medicine from the foundation of the country.” The origin
of this medicine goes back to the 12th century and is a combination of Buddhist and
Indian medical systems, resulting in traditional Laotian medicine. However, the inva-
sion of the French in 1893 brought about the introduction of allopathic medicine in Lao
PDR (WHO, 2001). There are an estimated 4,000 plant species found in Lao PDR, of
which a number have important medicinal and aromatic values (Kraisintu, 2003).

7.2.6 Malaysia
Malaysia is listed as the 14th most biologically diverse country in the world (Anon.,
2006) and ranks fourth in Asia, with over 15,000 flowering plants. Of these, only
about 50 species are used commercially and researched scientifically for their
medicinal properties, although about 2,000 plant species have been reported to have
medicinal values (Soepadmo, 1999). Malaysia is rich in its biological and cultural
heritage, which consists of three main communities: Malay, Indian, and Chinese.
These three major ethnic groups have traditions and knowledge of herbal use for
health and healing spanning generations. The Malays comprise about 50.4% of the
total population, followed by Chinese (23.7%), indigenous (11%), Indians (7.1%),
and others (7.8%). There are about 60.4% Muslims in Malaysia, followed by
Buddhists (19.2%), Christians (9.1%), Hindus (6.3%), traditional Chinese religions
(Confucianism, Taoism, 2.6%), other or unknown (1.5%), and none (0.8%). The
official language is Bahasa Malaysia with other spoken languages, such as English,
Chinese (Cantonese, Mandarin, Hokkien, Hakka, Hainan, Foochow), Tamil, Telugu,
Malayalam, Panjabi, and Thai. In East Malaysia, the most widely spoken indige-
nous languages are Iban and Kadazan. The traditional medicine system in Malaysia
follows its ethnic makeup and includes ayurveda, siddha, traditional Chinese, tra-
ditional Malay, and unani. The indigenous Malay medicinal system has been influ-
enced by those from Arabia, India, Java, and aboriginal races. Based on a survey by
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 169

Aziz (2004), it was observed that about 19% of physicians recommended some form
of herbal remedies for their patients. At present, the Malaysian market for herbal
and natural products has been estimated to be worth more than US$1.5 billion, of
which 90% of the raw materials are imported. However, the use of MAP products in
veterinary health care in Malaysia has been limited.

7.2.7 Myanmar
Myanmar, the largest country in SEA, has an area of 676,553 km2 with about 43%
of its total area under forest. The Myanmar traditional medicine system is generally
based on Buddhist philosophy and ayurveda. Allopathic medicine was introduced
during the colonial period (1885), but its shortage during World War II drove the
people toward traditional medicine (WHO, 2001). The ethnic groups of Myanmar
include Burman (68%), Shan (9%), Karen (7%), Rakhine (4%), Chinese (3%), Indian
(2%), Mon (2%), and others (5%). The Buddhists in Myanmar comprise about 89%,
followed by Christians (4%), Muslims (4%), animist (1%), and others (2%). About
7,000 plant species have been recorded in Myanmar, of which 1,071 species are
endemic (Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2002). The number of tradi-
tional medicine practitioners registered in Myanmar exceeds 8,000 (WHO, 2001).

7.2.8 The Philippines
The Philippines is made up of 7,100 islands, with forest covering only about 20%
of the total land area. The ethnic groups of the Philippines are Tagalog (28.1%),
Cebuano (13.1%), Ilocano (9%), Bisaya/Binisaya (7.6%), Hiligaynon Ilonggo (7.5%),
Bikol (6%), Waray (3.4%), and others (25.3%). The main religious groups are Roman
Catholics (80.9%), Muslims (5%), Evangelicals (2.8%), Iglesia ni Kristos (2.3%),
Aglipayans (2%), other Christians 4.5%, others 2.4%, and none (0.1%). The official
languages are Tagalog (which has eight major dialects) and English. The traditional
medicine practitioners in the Philippines are known as arbolario and have common
roots with other traditional healing methods in SEA countries, including Myanmar,
Cambodia, and Indonesia (Apostol, 2003). There are about 13,500 plant species in
the Philippines, of which 1,500 have medicinal value (Tan, 2003). Herbal medicines
in the Philippines are regulated as over-the-counter medicines, while medical claims
have to be scientifically supported (WHO, 2005). The use of traditional medicine
is more common in rural areas despite the availability of allopathic medicine, with
about 80% of the rural population utilizing herbal remedies (FAO, 2002).

7.2.9 Singapore
The ethnic breakdown of Singapore has hardly changed since the 1980s and now
stands at 76% Chinese, 15% Malays, 8% Indians, and 1.4% others. The 400,000
people who make up the Malay community today have roots throughout the
Malayan archipelago (especially Bali, Java, Sulawesi, Bawean, and Malaysia), with
strong cultural links (Tuschinsky, 1995). The religious makeup is Buddhist (42.5%),
Muslim (14.9%), Taoist (8.5%), Hindu (4%), Catholic (4.8%), other Christian (9.8%),
170 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

other (0.7%), and none (14.8%). The major languages are Mandarin (35%), English
(23%), Malay (14.1%), Hokkien (11.4%), Cantonese (5.7%), Teochew (4.9%), Tamil
(3.2%), other Chinese dialects (1.8%), and others (0.9%). About 45% of Singaporeans
have consulted traditional medicine practitioners at one time (WHO, 2001), while
Jamu, the traditional Indonesian medicine, is widely practiced, especially among the
Malay community (Tuschinsky, 1995).

7.2.10 Thailand
Thailand covers an area of 514,000 km2, of which less than 33% is forest cover.
The ethnic groups of Thailand include Thai (75%), Chinese (14%), and others (11%).
The major religions are Buddhism (94.6%), Muslim (4.6%), Christianity (0.7%), and
others (0.1%). The official language is Thai with some English and ethnic regional
dialects. Thailand’s traditional medicine is famous for its herbal saunas, steam baths,
hot compresses, traditional massages, acupressure, and reflexology, and traditional
medicine practitioners are an important part of country’s health care system (WHO,
2001). Thailand has about 11,000 species of vascular plants, of which 10,200 are
flowering plants. The Thai Traditional Materia Medica lists about 1,400 plants with
medicinal and aromatic properties (Handa, Rakesh, and Vasisht, 2006).

7.2.11 Vietnam
Vietnam covers an area of 330,000 km2, of which 60% is forest. The ethnic groups
of Vietnam are Kinh or Viet (86.2%), Tay (1.9%), Thai (1.7%), Muong (1.5%), Khome
(1.4%), Hoa (1.1%), Nun (1.1%), Hmong (1%), and about 4.1% others. The majority of
the Vietnamese (80.8%) do not have any religious beliefs, with some Buddhists (9.3%),
Catholics (6.7%), Hoa Haos (1.5%), Cao Dais (1.1%), Protestants (0.5%), and Muslims
(0.1%). The official language is Vietnamese, followed by English (a favored second
language), French, Chinese, Khmer, and mountain area languages (Mon-Khmer
and Malayo-Polynesian). Vietnamese medicine is a merger of Chinese, Vietnamese,
and Western medical systems (Ladinsky, Volk, and Robinson, 1987). Western medi-
cine was introduced when the French arrived in Vietnam in the 19th century. Vietnam
is the 16th most biologically diverse country in the world, with some 12,000 plant spe-
cies, of which 40% of the total flora has been identified as endemic (An, 2000).

7.3 Current Research and Application


of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Although traditional or complementary medicine has been practiced for a long time,
it was only recently that the efficacy and safety of a small number of MAPs have
been subjected to scientific investigations. Most MAPs investigated are for human
medicine, and very limited ethnoveterinary studies have been done. Based on their
widespread traditional use, the plants shown in Table 7.1 are cultivated commercially
both for local and export markets. The relative importance of these cultivated plants
differs among the different SEA countries.
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 171

Table 7.1
Major Commercially Cultivated Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
(for Both Humans and Animals)
Family Botanic Name Country of Cultivation
Acanthaceae Adhatoda vasica Vietnam
Andrographis paniculata Thailand, Vietnam
Apiaceae Ammi majus Vietnam
Angelica acutiloba Vietnam
Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus Philippines, Vietnam
Rauvolfia serpentina Vietnam
Araliaceae Panax pseudoginseng Vietnam
Panax vietnamensi Vietnam
Arecaceae Areca catechu Thailand, Vietnam
Asphodelaceae Aloe barbadensis Thailand
Asteraceae Artemisia annua Thailand, Vietnam
Chrysanthemum morifolium Thailand, Vietnam
Convallariaceae Ophiopogon japonicus Vietnam
Fabaceae Cassia angustifolia Thailand, Vietnam
Lamiaceae Mentha arvensis Thailand, Vietnam
Vitex negundo Philippines
Lauraceae Cinnamomum camphora Thailand, Vietnam
Malvaceae Hibiscus sabdariffa Thailand, Vietnam
Menispermaceae Tinospora crispa Philippines
Myrtaceae Syzygium aromaticum Indonesia, Malaysia
Paeoniaceae Paeonia lactiflora Pall. Vietnam
Piperaceae Piper betle Vietnam
Piper nigrum Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam
Piper retrofractum Indonesia, Thailand
Poaceae Cymbopogon winterianus Indonesia, Thailand
Rubiaceae Morinda officinalis Vietnam
Solanaceae Atropa belladonna Vietnam
Zingiberaceae Curcuma domestica Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam
Kaempferia galanga Indonesia, Vietnam
Zingiber officinale Indonesia, Thailand

Source: Adapted from Handa, Rakesh, and Vasisht, Compendium of medicinal and aromatic
plants: Asia ICS-UNIDO, 2006.

In Malaysia, for instance, 10 major plant species were identified for the evalua-
tion of their efficacy, safety, and cultivation and propagation methodologies. These
10 plants are Andrographis paniculata (Hempedu bumi), Centella asiatica (Pegaga),
Citrus hystrix (Limau purut), Eurycoma longifolia (Tongkat Ali), Ficus deltoidea
(Emas cotek), Labisia pumila (Kacip Fatimah), Morinda citrifolia (Mengkudu or
Noni), Orthosiphon stamineus (Misai kucing), Phyllanthus niruri (Dukung anak),
and Zingiber officinale (Halia). Although there are a number of published reports
172 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 7.2
Herbal Medicines Used for Different Disorders in Animals
Disorders/Use Herbs Used
Degenerative joint disease Picrorrhiza kurroa, Zingiber officinale, Allium sativum
Liver tonic and performance enhancer Andrographis paniculata, Eclipta alba, Phyllanthus
niruri
Ectoparasities: antidandruff, antilice Cedrus deodara, Azadiracta indica
Respiratory conditions and allergy Adhatoda vasica, Solanum xanthocarpum, Glycyrrhiza
glabra, Albezia lebbek, Alpinia galanga, Piper longum,
Hedychium spicatum
Antidiarrheal and gut function stabilizer Aegle marmelos, Holorrhoena antidysentrica, Punica
granatum, Woodfordia fruticosa, Areca catechu,
Symplocos racemosa, Cyperus rotundus, Salmalia
malabarica, Zingiber officinale, Berberis aristata,
Tinospora cordifolia
Renal protection, kidney tonic, and diuretic Tinospora cordifolia, Boerhaavia diffusa, Tribulus
terrestris, Bergenia ligulata, Crataeva nurvala,
Andrographis paniculata, Solanum nigrum, Eclipta
alba, Terminalia arjuna
Immune modulator Ocimum sanctum, Withania somnifera, Tinospora
cordifolia

Source: Adapted from Handa, Rakesh, and Vasisht, Compendium of medicinal and aromatic plants: Asia
ICS-UNIDO, 2006.

regarding the safety, efficacy, and phytochemical properties of these plants, a detailed
study of these species has been initiated as the phytochemical properties are known
to vary between subspecies and geographical locations. For instance, there are at
least four different local subspecies of Phyllanthus, which vary in phytochemical
profiles. Most of the studies on MAPs have been geared toward treatment of human
diseases (e.g., bacterial and viral infections, diabetes mellitus, cancer, and hyper-
tension). Besides these studies, other investigations are ongoing to identify herbs
commonly used by traditional communities. This is being done for the preservation
of local knowledge and identification of new resources (Andersen, Nilsson, and De
Richelieu, 2003). The common MAPs traditionally used to treat various animal ail-
ments in SEA are listed in Table 7.2. Some of the chemical constituents and use of
these MAPs that have ethnoveterinary applications are described briefly next.

7.3.1 Andrographis paniculata (Hempedu bumi)


Phytochemistry: Several diterpenoids and diterpene glycosides have been iso-
lated from the aerial parts. Its bitter taste was attributed to
its andrographolide constituent (Yanfang et al., 2006). The
leaves were observed to contain flavone derivatives such as
oroxylin and wogonin.
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 173

Biological studies: Diterpene andrographolide has been shown to have protec-


tive effects on hepatotoxicity induced in mice by carbon
tetrachloride. Andrographis paniculata has been tradi-
tionally known to have an antifertility effect and has been
demonstrated to have these effects in both male and female
mice. It has also been used traditionally for diabetes mel-
litus, but it has been demonstrated in experimental stud-
ies that these effects were only apparent in the chloroform
extracts of A. paniculata. Leaf extracts were found to have
in vitro activity against Heterometrus laoticus scorpion
venom with low cytotoxicity (Uawonggul et al., 2006).
Veterinary uses: Uses include reduction of flatulence, abdominal pain, and
cough and as a scorpion venom antidote in Thailand
(Uawonggul et al., 2006).

7.3.2 Centella asiatica (Pegaga)


Phytochemistry: The main components are triterpenoid saponins, including
asiaticoside, centelloside, madecassoside, and asiatic acid.
It also contains other components, including volatile oils,
flavonoids, tannins, phytosterols, amino acids, and sugars
(Anon., 2008a; Ling, 2004).
Biological studies: Traditionally, this is used for wound-healing properties with
its ability to relieve skin conditions such as lupus, varicose
ulcers, eczema, psoriasis, and wounds. Asiaticoside, the
main active constituent, exhibited significant wound-heal-
ing activity in normal as well as delayed-healing models
(Shukla et al., 1999). It has also been used for the treatment
of diarrhea, fever, amenorrhea, and genitourinary tract dis-
eases. Centella asiatica has also been demonstrated to have
cardioprotective as well as cognitive-enhancing effects.
Veterinary uses: It is used as a health tonic.

7.3.3 Citrus hystrix (Limau purut)


Phytochemistry: The leaves of Citrus hystrix have been reported to contain
up to 400 mg/kg of alpha-tocopherol besides glycerogly-
colipids, coumarins, flavonoids (principally flavanone),
and glycosides (e.g., narirutin, naringin, hesperidin, and
neohesperidin), and flavone aglycons such as nobiletin and
tangeretin. The oil of C. hystrix contains citronellal, gera-
nial, and d-limonene (Lawrence et al., 1971).
Biological studies: The leaves of C. hystrix have traditionally been used for
the relief of flu, fever, hypertension, abdominal pains, and
diarrhea in children. The extracts of C. hystrix have dem-
onstrated anti-tumor-promoting activity, antiviral activity
against herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) but not poliovirus
174 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

and antibacterial activity, especially against gram-pos-


itive bacteria. Citrus hystrix extracts have also shown
anti-inflammatory effects, probably due to its d-limonene
content. Antifertility activities such as the inhibition of
embryo implantation and abortion have also been reported
with C. hystrix extracts. The volatile oils of C. hystrix have
demonstrated mosquito-repelling potential.
Veterinary uses: Although not specific to this species, other Citrus spp. such as
C. junos have been used against poultry viral respiratory
infections (Kim, Jeon, and Ko, 2001).

7.3.4 Eurycoma longifolia (Tongkat Ali)


Phytochemistry: Eurycoma longifolia has been studied extensively and consists
of a number of phytochemical components, such as terpe-
noids, steroids, benzoquinones, coumarins, and alkaloids.
Biological studies: The reported aphrodisiac effect of E. longifolia has made
it much sought after in Asia. Extracts of E. longifolia
were observed to promote the growth of rat prostate and
seminal vesicles (Ang and Sim, 1998). The extracts of
E. longifolia have shown dose-dependent antimalarial
activities against six Malaysian chloroquine-resistant
parasites of Plasmodium falciparum. In fact, it was
observed that the eurycomanone constituents of E. longi-
folia were relatively more potent than chloroquine against
a multidrug-resistant P. falciparum in vitro. Extracts of
E. longifolia have also shown anticarcinogenic activities
(Jiwajinda et al., 2002).
Veterinary uses: Although mostly used in humans, recent work (unpublished)
has been initiated to evaluate its effect on the fertility of
production animals.

7.3.5 Morinda citrifolia (Mengkudu or Noni)


Phytochemistry: Major components identified in Morinda citrifolia include
coumarins, terpenoids, alkaloids, anthraquinones, and fla-
vonoids (Wang et al., 2002).
Biological studies: The fruit juice of M. citrifolia has been popularized for the
treatment of different kinds of illnesses, such as arthritis,
diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, among many others
(Chan-Blanco et al., 2006). It also has been reported to be
used in the treatment of colds and influenza, broken bones,
bruises, sores, and wounds.
Veterinary uses: The alcoholic extracts of another Morinda Species, namely
Morinda lucida, exhibited a dose-dependent inhibition of
Haemonchus (Hounzangbe-Adote et al., 2005).
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 175

7.3.6 Orthosiphon stamineus (Misai kucing)


Phytochemistry: Orthosiphon stamineus has been reported to possess flavones,
diterpenes, and triterpenes (Olah et al., 2003)
Biological studies: Orthosiphon stamineus has been used for the treatment
of diabetes, rheumatism, and catarrh of the bladder. It
has been shown to have diuretic, antiallergic, anti-in-
flammatory, antihypertensive, and antitumor properties
(Matsubara et al., 1999; Nirnoy and Muangman, 1991).
Veterinary uses: Although not widely used in ethnoveterinary medicine, there
were indications of interactions with conventional diuretics.

7.3.7 Phyllanthus niruri (Dukung anak)


Phytochemistry: The types of phytochemicals reported in Phyllanthus niruri
include triterpenoids, steroids, alkaloids, flavonoids, and
tannins (Khatoon et al., 2006).
Biological studies: Phyllanthus niruri has been traditionally used to treat jaun­
dice, gonorrhea, frequent menstruation, dysentery, diabetes,
skin ulcers, sores, swelling, and itchiness. Current research
is focused on its potential antiviral effects, especially against
hepatitis B virus. It has also been reported to have antitumor
and antiparasitic effects, especially against malaria parasite.
Veterinary uses: It is used as a liver tonic addressing conditions of the liver such as
jaundice and viral infections. It is also used for the treatment
of chronic diarrhea and infections of the genitourinary tract.

7.3.8 Zingiber officinale (Halia)


Phytochemistry: The extracts of Z. officinale have been reported to contain
monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes (Ali et al., 2008).
Biological studies: Zingiber officinale has been traditionally used as a diges-
tive aid. It has also been reported to have other beneficial
properties, such as cardiotonic, antilipidemic, antinausea/
antiemetic, carminative, antiulcer, anti-inflammatory,
hypoglycemic, antiplatelet, antiviral, antibacterial, antifun-
gal, antineoplastic, and antioxidant properties. It has also
been used in the treatment of baldness, toothache, snake-
bite, heart disease, hypercholesteremia, and arthritis.
Veterinary uses: It is used as an anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antioxidant,
nematodicidal, insect repellent, and antifilarial agent.

7.4 Use of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Animals


Most of the application of ethnoveterinary medicine is in the rural areas where
access to modern medicine is scarce or costly. A number of plants traditionally used
for animal treatment, their preparation, and application are shown in Table 7.3.
176 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 7.3
Common Plants Used for Ethnoveterinary Applications in SEA
Parts
Plant Species Used Indications Preparation Dosages
Allium sativum Cloves Poisoning Burn 3 heads of Adults: Drench with 1 cup of the
garlic, pulverize, mixture.
and mix with 1 Young: Drench with 0.5 cup of
glass of water. the mixture. Repeat the
procedure if animal does not
vomit.
Areca catechu Fresh nut Intestinal Pound and mix Chickens: One nut as big as a
worms with enough peanut
water to facilitate Cattle and water buffalo:
drenching. 8–10 nuts
Goats and pigs: 3 nuts
Repeat the procedure after
2 weeks.
Blumea Dried Fluke Pound air-dried Drench 1 time/day for 6 days.
balsamifera seeds infestation ripe seeds and add 1 kg seeds for large ruminants,
a little water. 0.5 kg for small ruminants.
Carica papaya Fresh Cold, cough, Boil leaves for Drench.
leaves fever 15–20 minutes in 0.5 L twice a day for 1–3 days.
1 L of water.
Chrysophyllum Fresh Diarrhea Boil 0.5 kg of Adult cattle and buffalo:
cainito leaves leaves in 3 glasses Drench: 1–2 cups three times/
of water. day for 1–3 days.
Calves, sheep, and goats:
Drench: Half the amount given
above.
Gliricidia septum Fresh External Pound the leaves Swine and ruminants:
leaves parasites (the number of Apply the juice of leaves on the
leaves will affected area.
depend on the Repeat the procedure two or
severity of the three times/day until the
infestation). parasites are eliminated.
Warts Pound the leaves Apply the juice and massage the
(the number of affected part two or three times/
leaves will day until the warts disappear.
depend on the
severity of the
infestation).
Cocos nucifera Water Dehydration Mix water from 3–5 Adult cattle and buffalo:
young coconuts Drench with 2–3 L.
with a cup of Calves, sheep, goats:
brown sugar and a Drench with 1–1.5 L three times/
little salt. day until animal recovers.
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 177

Table 7.3 (Continued)


Common Plants Used for Ethnoveterinary Applications in SEA
Parts
Plant Species Used Indications Preparation Dosages
Charcoal Diarrhea In feed: Pound and In feed:
(from mix with feed. Divide the mixture into several
shell) In water: Grind rations and feed the animal one
coconut shell ration at a time until it recovers.
charcoal to a As drench: three times/day.
powder and mix Adult cattle and buffalo:
with water. 1 cup of powdered coconut shell
mixed in 500 mL of water.
Calves, goats, and sheep:
Half of the above amount.
Powder External Scrape external part Apply on clean wound two or
(from the wound or of the shell to three times/day for 3 days.
external cuts collect powder
part of (amount will
the shell) depend on the size
of the wound).
Momordica Fresh Intestinal Pound 0.5 kg of Drench: 1 dose of the juice one
charantia leaves worms leaves. Extract the to three times/day. Repeat the
juice of the leaves procedure after 2 weeks.
and divide into
small doses.
Anemia Pound a handful of Piglets: Give 5 drops (1 cc) of
leaves. juice per piglet twice/day for
3–4 days. The juice extracted
should be enough for 7–8
piglets
Moringa oleifera Fresh Anemia Pound 0.5 to 1 kg Piglets: Give 5 drops (1 cc) of
leaves of leaves and juice per piglet as drench two to
extract the juice. three times/day for 3–4 days.
Musa sapientum Fresh Bloat Chop 2 leaves for Feed to animal twice a day until
leaves calves, sheep, and it recovers. Only works at the
goats or 3–5 early stage of bloat.
leaves for adult
cattle and buffalo.
Bleeding Steam 1 leaf over Ruminants and pigs:
wound boiling water. Apply the leaf on the wound two
to three times/day until the
wound heals.
Premna odorata Fresh Wound with Pound 3–5 leaves Apply the juice on the wound
leaves maggots and extract the two or three times/day for 3–4
juice days.

(continued)
178 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 7.3 (Continued)


Common Plants Used for Ethnoveterinary Applications in SEA
Parts
Plant Species Used Indications Preparation Dosages
Fever, colds, Boil 8–15 leaves in Drench: 0.5–1 cup two or three
cough 2–3 glasses of times/day for 3 days.
water.
Mite A bunch of fresh Poultry: Hang leaves in roosts/
infestation leaves. house until the leaves are fully
dried.
Psidium guajava Fresh Diarrhea Boil 0.5 kg of Adult cattle and buffalo: Drench
leaves leaves in 3 glasses twice/day for 3–4 days.
of water. Calves, sheep, and goats:
Half of the amount given above.
Severe Pound 5–10 leaves. Ruminants, pigs, and poultry:
wounds Apply juice on clean wound two
or three times/day for 3–4 days.
Tamarindus indica Fresh Fever, colds, Boil 1 kg of leaves Adult ruminants: Drench the
leaves cough in 1 gallon of animal with 1 dose two or three
water. Divide into times/day until the animal
small doses. recovers.
Young ruminants: One-third to
one-half the dosage given above.
Tinosphora rumpii Fresh Intestinal Soak 0.5 kg of Adult cattle and buffalo: Drench
stems parasites pounded stems in with 1 L. Repeat after 2 weeks.
1 L of water. Calves, sheep, and goats:
Half of the dosage given above.
Vitex negundo Fresh Fever, colds, Boil 0.5 kg of Adult ruminants:
leaves cough leaves for 15–20 Drench two or three times/day
min in 2 L of for 3–4 days.
water. Young ruminants:
One-third to one-half of the
dosage given above.
Mite A bunch of fresh Poultry: Hang leaves in roosts/
infestation leaves. house until the leaves are fully
dried.

Source: International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (1994).

Due to the widespread use of MAPs in traditional medicine, most countries of


SEA have some regulatory measures to control their commercial trade and use.
Informal use is not, and cannot be, regulated. For instance, the Philippines enacted
the Traditional and Alternative Medicine Act in 1997, while in Indonesia (WHO,
2001) it is regulated by Health Law Act 23 (1992). This regulatory issue has become
more important in view of a number of toxicities reported following the use of herbal
products. For instance, Ang, Lee, and Kiyoshi (2004) observed that about 15% of the
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 179

Table 7.4
Agricultural Product Exports of Major SEA Countries (Million US$)
Growth
Country 1991 1998 1999 2000 2001 Rate/Year
Cambodia 35.20 27.20 44.20 26.60 23.10 3.80%
Indonesia 3,122.50 5,054.30 5,135.70 4,946.40 4,368.40 4.10%
Lao PDR 26.80 28.00 33.80 34.30 29.30 −1.90%
Malaysia 4,421.80 7,756.40 7,117.50 5,821.00 5,515.50 2.80%
Myanmar 220.40 300.20 267.30 364.80 453.70 4.80%
Philippines 1,260.90 1,717.90 1,358.40 1,539.80 1,443.60 1.30%
Thailand 5,880.50 7,097.40 7,158.60 7,275.30 7,422.50 1.80%
Vietnam 617.40 2,373.10 2,428.40 2,191.80 2,036.40 14.20%

Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (2003).

products they evaluated contained high levels of lead. Despite these observations,
herbal medicine can be regarded as generally safe.
In general, the use of pharmaceutical plant products (botanicals or phytomedi-
cines) in veterinary health care in SEA is limited. However, recent years have seen
an increase in the use of such products in veterinary practice, especially in produc-
tion animals. An example is Utrifit®, an herbal product used by cattle farmers to
tone the uterus and improve breeding efficiency. This product is a combination of
a number of herbs, such as Citrullus colocynthis, Piper longum, Piper nigrum, and
Zingiber officinale.
However, most such products are at the moment imported. There are intensi-
fied research efforts to evaluate indigenous medicinal plants for use especially in
production animals in view of the magnitude of the agricultural and livestock indus-
tries in SEA (Tables 7.4 and 7.5, respectively) and the anticipated expansion.

Table 7.5
Livestock Production Indices of Major SEA Countries
Country 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Cambodia 120.3 124.2 134.8 147.7 169.7 156.7
Indonesia 110.3 132.6 134.4 116.3 121 128.4
Lao PDR 111.6 133.3 140 151.4 174.8 196.1
Malaysia 125.9 145.4 149.1 152.9 136.7 150.7
Myanmar 103.6 107.7 121.3 137.7 157.6 181.7
Philippines 102.9 117.7 137 154 162.9 197.7
Thailand 121.7 126.7 132.1 132.3 130 139.9
Vietnam 111.9 125.2 137.8 159.1 183.4 210.6

Net livestock products increase, assume base year 1989–1991 = 100


Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (2003).
180 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Furthermore, the total ban by the European Union on the use of antibiotic feed
additives (AFAs) and growth promoters in January 2006 has resulted in the search for
plant alternatives. This is basically due to the fact that a number of plants have potent
antimicrobial components. Wiart et al. (2004) screened 72 methanol extracts from
the leaves, bark, and roots of 50 plant species used in traditional medicine for their
putative antibacterial and antifungal properties. They observed that 10 species—
Peristrophe tinctoria, Polyalthia lateriflora, Knema malayana, Solanum torvum,
Celosia argentea, Eclipta prostrata, Ancistrocladus tectorius, Dillenia suffruticosa,
Piper stylosum, and Rafflesia hasseltii—displayed broad antimicrobial activities. At
present, the detailed phytochemical constituents of most plants have not been fully
ascertained, but these plants were selected following their ethnomedical uses (Wiart
et al., 2004).

7.5 Scientific Studies on the Use


of Plant Extracts in Animals
Besides their antimicrobial properties, MAPs are being evaluated for their anthelm-
intic effects in ruminants. Some of the studies conducted and the research approach
adopted as well as associated issues concerning the use of MAPs in livestock pro-
duction are discussed next.
As far as ruminants are concerned, parasitic infections remain a constant problem
in ruminant production, especially in goats and sheep. A survey (Chandrawathani,
2004) of the prevalence of anthelmintic resistance in Peninsula Malaysia revealed
that about 75% of the goat farms were infected with nematode parasites. The study
also observed the presence of resistance of nematodes to benzimidazoles, levami-
sole, and ivermectin. The urgent need for new approaches to worm control led to
the evaluation of MAPs for nematode control. For instance, the feeding of neem
leaves (Azadirachta indica) to sheep was observed to reduce Haemonchus contortus
fecal egg counts and larval recoveries after 5 weeks (Chandrawathani et al., 2002).
However, other studies failed to show the effectiveness of neem against nematodes.
Another study (Shanmugavelu, Marugaiyah and Rohana, 2007) was conducted to
evaluate the effects of feeding Melia excelsa (same family as neem) leaves in con-
trolling helminths in goats. The in vitro study revealed high efficacy, but the in vivo
investigation failed to show significant reduction in fecal egg counts (Figure 7.2).
Nevertheless, the coefficient of variation (CV) in fecal egg counts was reduced in
the animals fed Melia excelsa leaves. Research efforts are ongoing to identify new
MAPs for this application.
Other studies on the use of MAPs in nonruminant production animals, namely
poultry and swine, have been targeted toward their use as feed additives in an attempt
to substitute AFAs. Most studies investigated the effects of plant extracts on the gut
microflora; however, in one study, Shanmugavelu, Acamovic, and Cowieson (2004)
evaluated the effects of thyme oil (Thymus vulgaris) and garlic (Allium sativum)
powder on the digestibility of nutrients in the chicken. This was done because any
improvement to digestibility of feed would indirectly translate to increased utiliza-
tion by the animal and less by the gut microbes (Shanmugavelu et al., 2006). The
authors observed that thyme oil and garlic did not improve the nutritional value of
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 181

9000

8000 Control
Leaf
7000 Powder
Faecal egg count (n/g)

6000 Error bars = SEM

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 3 6 8 10 13 16 20
Days post-treatment

Figure 7.2 Effect of feeding Melia excelsa on the total fecal egg counts.

soybean meal (Table 7.6). The differences in digestibility parameters between thyme
oil and garlic powder could have been due to their different antimicrobial effects.
The authors further evaluated thyme oil and garlic powder for in vitro antimicro-
bial effects on chicken gut microbes (Shanmugavelu, Brooker, et al., 2004). Total gut
microbiota of the chicken rather than selected microbes were used in the assay. The
interesting observation in the study was the potent antimicrobial effects of thyme oil,
which virtually reduced the fermentative activity (an indication of microbial viabil-
ity) of most microbes after 6 h of incubation in vitro. Nevertheless, fermentative

Table 7.6
Effect of Addition of Thyme Oil and Garlic Powder on the Nutritive Value of
Soybean Meal
Treatment Groups
Soybean Meal
Soybean Meal Soybean Meal Plus Garlic
Parameters (SBM) Plus Thyme Oil Powder p
ADMD 0.43 0.47 0.43 .081
TDMD 0.58 0.62 0.57 .076
AME (MJ/kg) 10.89a,b 11.76a 10.79b .028
TME (MJ/kg) 13.20a,b 14.08a 13.10b .026
AMEn (MJ/kg) 10.92a,b 11.64a 10.82b .039
TMEn (MJ/kg) 12.32a,b 13.04a 12.22b .037

ADMD = apparent dry matter digestibility coefficient; TDME = true dry matter digestibility coeffcient;
AME = apparent metabolizable energy; TME = true metabolizable energy; AMEn and TMEn are
AME and TME corrected for nitrogen, respectively.
a,b Different superscripts between columns differ significantly ( p < .05).
182 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

1.4

1.2
Control
Volume of gas produced (ml)

1 Garlic powder

0.8 Thyme oil

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
2 4 6 8 10 24
Time of measurement (h)

Figure 7.3 Effect of thyme oil and garlic powder on the fermentative characteristics of
chicken duodenum and jejunum gut microbes.

activity resumed after 24 hours (Figure 7.3). This observation led to the evaluation
of this herbal extract in an in vivo study in which thyme oil was fed at two concentra-
tions (1 and 10 g/kg) compared with the control in a diet based on maize-soybean
meal (Shanmugavelu et al., 2005). The potent antimicrobial activity demonstrated in
vitro failed to improve performance similar to those fed AFAs (Table 7.7).

Table 7.7
Performance of Birds Fed Maize-/Soybean-Based Diets Supplemented with
Enzyme and Thyme Oil
Treatment Groups
Control Thyme Oil
1 g/kg 10 g/kg
Parameters Mean SEM Mean SEM Mean SEM p
Body weight (g, 21 days) 731.60a 15.503 725.50a 15.899 585.82b 16.032 .0001
Average daily feed intake (g) 52.43a 0.982 52.88a 1.191 45.49b 0.788 .0001
Average daily gain (g) 36.71a 0.756 36.41a 0.774 28.64b 0.800 .0001
Feed conversion efficiency 0.70a 0.005 0.69a 0.004 0.63b 0.012 .0001
Coefficient of ADMD (19–21 days) 0.75 0.004 0.75 0.005 0.73 0.006 .0582
AME (MJ/kg, 5–7 days) 14.10ab 0.164 13.88b 0.129 14.40a 0.246 .0226

ADMD = apparent dry matter digestibility; AME = apparent metabolizable energy; SEM = standard
error of mean.
ab Different superscripts between columns differ significantly ( p < .05).
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 183

Further analysis of the microbial community was done using percent-guanine-plus


cytosine (%G+C) analysis according to the methods of Apajalahti et al. (1998). It was
observed that there was a shift toward an increase of microbes within the 34–37%G+C,
which happens to be the range within which the bacterium Clostridium falls (data not
shown here). Although it could not be concluded that the predominant bacterium was
Clostridium, this study revealed the complications and various aspects that have to be
considered when developing an MAP for use as a dietary supplement.

7.6 Future Potential for the Development


of MAPs in Veterinary Health Care
The development of MAPs in veterinary health care is relatively new in SEA.
However, the existing framework for its application in humans can be utilized for
the research and development of MAPs for animals. Research in most SEA coun-
tries has been targeted toward the domestication of popular medicinal plants (gener-
ally regarded as safe) to ensure better yield and improved quality of raw materials.
Similarly, chemical profiling and toxicology studies are also being carried out by a
number of research agencies and universities. However, without extensive scientific
research to characterize and evaluate the efficacy of these MAPs, they will remain
traditional and be sidelined by the mainstream allopathic medicine.

7.7 Conclusions
Southeast Asia has the right environment for the development of MAPs for use
for both human and animal application by virtue of its rich biological and cultural
diversity, available infrastructure, and scientific expertise. The current interest and
support by governments of the region and additional collaborative ventures with
other organizations outside SEA may help realize these efforts to develop products
for use in both humans and animals.

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The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic 187

Appendix 7.1
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Common Use
in Countries of Southeast Asia

Botanical Name Uses/Indications Country


Abrus precatorius Stomatitis Indonesia
Conjunctivitis, colic, flu, fever, cold Philippines
Expectorant, anti-inflammatory, antiallergenic Vietnam
Acacia arabica Astringent, in diarrhea Myanmar
Acorus calamus Sedative Indonesia
Analgesic, in toothache, headache Vietnam
Acorus gramineus Arrhythmia, asthma, as stomachic, cardiotonic Lao PDR
Adina cordifolia Tonic, febrifuge, antiseptic Myanmar
Ageratum conyzoides In bleeding disorders Lao PDR
As homeostatic, in scabies, colic Vietnam
Allium cepa In asthenia, fatigue Cambodia
As diuretic, emmenagogue Philippines
Allium odorum Digestive, carminative, in cough Cambodia
In wounds, bruises Philippines
Allium sativum As antivenomous agent, in hypertension Cambodia
In candidiasis, as hypolipidemic Indonesia
In blood pressure Philippines
Alocasia macrorrhiza In malaria, asthma Lao PDR
Aloe barbadensis For hair care, as facial cleanser Malaysia
Aloe vera In falling hair, baldness Philippines
Alpinia galanga As aromatic Myanmar
Alpinia officinarum In cholic, as stomachic Lao PDR
Alstonia scholaris In malaria, gastric disorders Lao PDR
In fever, diarrhea, diabetes; as anthelmintic Philippines
Amaranthus spinosus As amenorrheic Vietnam
Amomum aromaticum Spice, medicine Vietnam
Amomum krevanh As carminative, expectorant Cambodia
Amomum sp. For digestion Lao PDR
Amomum xanthioides In flatulence Lao PDR
Amorphophallus riviera In malaria Lao PDR
Anacardium occidentale As analgesic Indonesia
Andrographis paniculata As anti-inflammatory to sore throat, for relief of cold Thailand
In diabetes, high blood pressure, skin irritation, and insect bites Brunei
In infections, dysentery, as antiseptic, tonic Lao PDR
As antiseptic, antidiabetic Indonesia
As herbal tea Malaysia
Angiopteris evecta In piles, boils, difficulty in urination, headaches, skin Brunei
eczema, irritation

(continued)
188 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Botanical Name Uses/Indications Country


Apium graveolens As hypotensive Indonesia
Aquilaria agallocha As aromatic, stimulant, aphrodisiac, tonic, diuretic Myanmar
Aquilaria crassna In colitis, nausea, hiccup Lao PDR
As incense, in cosmetics Vietnam
Areca catechu In tapeworm, roundworm infestation Malaysia
Aristolochia tagala As tonic, carminative Myanmar
Artabotrys As diuretic, carminative Cambodia
odoratissimus
Artemisia annua In malaria, fever Lao PDR
In skin diseases, jaundice Vietnam
Artemisia vulgaris In headache, menstrual disorder Lao PDR
As expectorant, antispasmodic, carminative, emmenagogue Philippines
As digestive tonic, antiseptic Vietnam
Artocarpus lakoocha For tapeworm infestation Lao PDR
Asparagus As diuretic, in cough Lao PDR
cochinchinensis
Atalantia monophylla As digestive, in cough Cambodia
Azadirachta indica In malaria Lao PDR
As antibiotic, organic pesticide and fungicide Vietnam
Baeckea frutescens As fragrance Malaysia
Bidens pilosa In headache, caries, hiccough Lao PDR
Blumea balamifera As analgesic, antipyretic Indonesia
In cold, coryza Lao PDR
As health tonic, lotion Malaysia
As antispasmodic, astringent, expectorant Philippines
As laxative, febrifuge Cambodia
Butea frondosa As astringent Myanmar
Butea monosperma As febrifuge, aphrodisiac, purgative Vietnam
Caesalpinia sappan As tonic, in dysentery Lao PDR
Cananga odorata For hair care, in perfumery Malaysia
As fragrance for soap Vietnam
Canangium odorata In hypertension Lao PDR
Carica papaya As antimalarial, male contraceptive Indonesia
Carmona retusa In colic, as antidiarrheal Philippines
Carthamus tinctorius As carminative Philippines
Cassia acutifolia As laxative Philippines
Cassia alata For eczema Lao PDR
In skin diseases, athlete’s foot Philippines
As antiseptic Malaysia
Cassia angustifolia As laxative Myanmar
Cassia fistula As laxative Philippines
Cassia occidentalis In eye disorders, constipation Lao PDR
Catharanthus roseus In leukemia Lao PDR
As antidiabetic, vermifuge, purgative Philippines
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic 189

Botanical Name Uses/Indications Country


Centella asiatica In urinary tract infection, stones Brunei
As diuretic, antiseptic, hypotensive Indonesia
As diuretic, in wounds Philippines
As health tonic Malaysia
In cancer, diabetes Lao PDR
Chenopodium Anthelmintic Lao PDR
ambrosioides
Chrysanthemum In stomach pain, colic, cervix infection Philippines
indicum
Cinchona ledgeriana In malaria, as tonic Lao PDR
Cinnamomum As carminative, digestive Cambodia
cambodianum
Cinnamomum camphora In colic, chest pain, as cardiostimulant Lao PDR
In various drugs Vietnam
Cinnamomum cassia As tonic, balm ingredient, in coryza Lao PDR
In bakery products, as flavoring Vietnam
Cinnamomum cortechinii In influenza Lao PDR
Cinnamomum iners In influenza Lao PDR
Cinnamomum sintoc In cosmetics Malaysia
Cinnamomum As spice, fragrance Malaysia
zeylanicum
In urinary, kidney, and stomach troubles Philippines
Citrus aurantiifolia As antitussive Indonesia
Citrus aurantium Digestive, in cough Cambodia
Citrus hystrix In influenza Cambodia
Citrus medica Digestive, antispasmodic, in cough Cambodia
In scurvy Myanmar
Citrus nobilis Digestive, in cough Cambodia
Citrus sinensis Digestive, in cough Cambodia
Citrus spp. In perfumery, cleanser Malaysia
Clausena anisum-olens In headache, dizziness, cough, asthma, bronchitis Philippines
Coleus amboinicus In cough Cambodia
Coleus blumei In bruises and contusions Philippines
Coptis chinensis As antibacterial, emollient Vietnam
Coriandrum sativum As digestive Cambodia
In chicken pox Philippines
Coscinium fenestratum In colic, stomachache Vietnam
Coscinium usitatum In dysentery, as cholagogue Lao PDR
Costus speciosus In arthritis Lao PDR
Crataegus pinnatifidus As stomachic, cardiotonic Lao PDR
Crinum asiaticum A poultice for aches, in sores and chaps, wounds, Singapore
abscesses, piles
Cucurbita moschata In taeniasis Indonesia
Curcuma comosa In gynecological diseases Thailand

(continued)
190 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Botanical Name Uses/Indications Country


Curcuma domestica In chronic hepatitis, as antiarthritic, antiseptic Indonesia
As cosmetic, food additive Malaysia
Curcuma longa For hemostasis, in pneumonia, gastritis, flatulence Cambodia
As anti-inflammatory Myanmar
In wounds, bruises Philippines
As antiflatulent, in peptic ulcers Thailand
Curcuma xanthorrhiza In chronic hepatitis Indonesia
Curcuma zedoaria In abdominal cramps, pains, amenorrhea Philippines
Cymbopogon citratus As diuretic, diaphoretic Philippines
As digestive, tonic, carminative, febrifuge, antifungal Vietnam
Cymbopogon nadrus As febrifuge, carminative Cambodia
In cosmetics, insect repellent Malaysia
In fever Philippines
In flu, influenza, cold Lao PDR
Cyperus rotundus As emmenagogue, in colic, diuretic Cambodia
As liver tonic, digestive tonic Myanmar
Datura metel In asthma, as narcotic, anodyne, antispasmodic Philippines
As antiasthmatic, febrifuge Vietnam
Dichroa febrifuga In malaria Lao PDR
Dioscorea deltoidea For producing steroid drugs Vietnam
Dracaena angustifolia As adaptogen Vietnam
Drosera rotundifolia In cough, as antispasmodic Vietnam
Drynaria fortunei In rheumatism Lao PDR
Eclipta alba In bleeding disorders Lao PDR
As antihepatotoxic Myanmar
Eclipta prostrata As liver tonic, styptic, in gynecologic disorders Vietnam
Elephantopus In allergy, diarrhea, fever, as diuretic Lao PDR
Elsholtzia cristata In cold, headache Lao PDR
Embelia ribes For tapeworm infestation Lao PDR
Emblica officinalis As antioxidant, tonic Myanmar
Eryngium foetidum As febrifuge, digestive Cambodia
Eucalyptus globulus As febrifuge, antiseptic Cambodia
Eucalyptus In cough, as anesthetic, antiseptic Philippines
In influenza Lao PDR
Eugenia aromatica In toothache Malaysia
Eugenia caryophyllus As local anesthetic Cambodia
Eugenia zeylanica As analgesic, in sprain Cambodia
Eupatorium odoratum In bleeding disorders, appendicitis Lao PDR
Euphorbia hirta In cataract, dermatitis Philippines
As antispasmodic, sedative Vietnam
Eurycoma longifolia As aphrodisiac, tonic, in fever Malaysia
In high blood pressure, fever, diarrhea, jaundice, Singapore
tuberculosis, dysentery, as aphrodisiac, tonic
Evodia lepta In asthma Lao PDR
Feroniella lucida In influenza, as digestive Cambodia
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic 191

Botanical Name Uses/Indications Country


Ficus carica As laxative, emollient, expectorant Vietnam
Ficus religiosa As astringent, laxative, antifungal Vietnam
Foeniculum vulgare In gaseous distention Philippines
Fokienia hodginsii In cosmetics Vietnam
Garcinia mangostana In diarrhea Philippines
Glycosmis citrifolia In asthma Lao PDR
Gnaphalium indicum In cough, bronchitis Lao PDR
Graptophyllum pictum In hemorrhoids Indonesia
Guazuma ulmitolia As hypolipidemic Indonesia
Heliotropium indicum In back pain Lao PDR
Hibiscus abelmoschus As diuretic, in constipation Lao PDR
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis As poultice for boils, in cancerous swelling, mumps Philippines
Holarrhena In dysentery Lao PDR
antidysenterica
Homalomena aromatica In perfume Vietnam
Homalomena occulta In rheumatism Lao PDR
Illicium verum Hook As carminative, antispasmodic Cambodia
In alcohol beverages, as carminative Vietnam
Isotoma longiflora In wound healing Philippines
Jasminum sambac As antispasmodic Cambodia
As fragrance Malaysia
As antipyretic, decongestant, in diarrhea Philippines
Flavoring tea Vietnam
Jasminum subtriplinerve For recovery after giving birth Vietnam
Jatropha curcas As poultice for sprains and dislocation Philippines
Justicia adhatoda In bone fractures Lao PDR
Kaempferia galanga In aching joints, flavoring, tonic Brunei
As spice Malaysia
In sore throat, rheumatism, swelling, as tonic Philippines
As expectorant, carminative Vietnam
Kaempferia parviflora As tonic, for men Thailand
Labisia pumila In postpartum preparation Malaysia
Lactuca indica In chest ache, sore eyes Vietnam
Lagerstroemia speciosa In fever, diabetes, diarrhea, as diuretic Philippines
Lantana camara As an antidote, as poultice for sprains Philippines
Lasia spinosa In angina, edema Lao PDR
Lawsonia alba As emmenagogue, anthelmintic Philippines
Lawsonia inermis In cosmetics Malaysia
Leea sambusina As tonic, in rheumatism Lao PDR
Leptospermum As health tonic Malaysia
flavescens
Leucosyke capitellata In cough, headache, tuberculosis Philippines
Litsea cubeba As stomachic Lao PDR
As source of citral Vietnam

(continued)
192 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Botanical Name Uses/Indications Country


Litsea glutinosa In gastrointestinal disorders Myanmar
Lonicera japonica As diuretic, liver tonic, astringent, hypotensive Vietnam
Loranthus sp. As anticancer agent Indonesia
Lygodium flexuosum In skin problems Philippines
Mahonia bealei In conjunctivitis Lao PDR
Mangifera indica As diuretic, in sore throat, cough, colds Philippines
Melaleuca cajuputi As analgesic Malaysia
Melaleuca leucadendron As febrifuge, in sprain, cough Cambodia
Melastoma decemfidum In intestinal measles Malaysia
Melia azedarach As anthelmintic Lao PDR
Mentha arvensis In toothpaste Malaysia
As antispasmodic, carminative Philippines
Mentha cordifolia In headache, toothache, stomachache Philippines
Mentha spicata In colds, gaseous distention Philippines
Michelia champaca As carminative, febrifuge Cambodia
In cosmetics Malaysia
Micromelum falcatum In asthma Lao PDR
Momordica charantia As antidiabetic Indonesia
In chronic colitis, bacillary dysentery, cough, as colic astringent Philippines
Momordica spp. For flavoring drugs Vietnam
Morinda citrifolia In arterial hypertension, constipation, pain, diabetes Lao PDR
As health tonic Malaysia
As antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, analgesic, Singapore
hypotensive, immune-enhancing effects,
anti-inflammatory
Morinda officinalis As kidney tonic, impotence remedy Vietnam
Murraya paniculata As diuretic, carminative Cambodia
Myristica fragrans As sedative Indonesia
In diarrhea, vomiting, indigestion, abdominal pain Malaysia
As carminative, antispasmodic Vietnam
Nigella sativa As anthelmintic, carminative Myanmar
Nopalea cochenillifera In rheumatism, earache, toothache Philippines
Ocimum basilicum As antispasmodic, carminative, digestive Cambodia
In nausea, fever, kidney diseases Lao PDR
In cosmetics Malaysia
Ocimum gratissimum In influenza Cambodia
In cold, caries Lao PDR
Ocimum sanctum As antispasmodic, carminative Cambodia
In malaria Lao PDR
As aromatic, stimulant, in paralysis, cough, colds Philippines
Oldenlandia diffusa In dysentery, snakebite Malaysia
Orthosiphon stamineus As diuretic Indonesia
Pandanus odoratissimus As purgative, cardiotonic, in smallpox Philippines
Passiflora foetida As tranquilizer, in anxiety Lao PDR
The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic 193

Botanical Name Uses/Indications Country


Phyllanthus amarus In jaundice, gonorrhea. diabetes Myanmar
Pinus khesya In cough, as antiseptic Lao PDR
Piper betel As antiseptic, poultice for boils Myanmar
To relieve stomachache, as antibacterial Brunei
As carminative, in cough Cambodia
As antiseptic Indonesia
Piper cubeba In migraine, rheumatism, boils Cambodia
Piper lolot As carminative, in diarrhea Cambodia
Piper nigrum As digestive, carminative Cambodia
As flavor Malaysia
Piper sarmentosum In coughs, flu, rheumatism, pleurisy, toothache, lumbago, Singapore
as antioxidant
Plantago major As expectorant, decongestant, irritable bowel relief Vietnam
Polygonum kingianum As tonic Lao PDR
Polygonum multiflorum In cholera Vietnam
Polygonum odoratum In alimentary infections Cambodia
Portulaca oleracea In wounds, ulcers, cough, colds Philippines
Premna odorata In fever, as expectorant Philippines
Psidium guajava As antidiarrheal Indonesia
Pterocarpus santalinus As astringent, in diarrhea Myanmar
Punica granatum As antiseptic Indonesia
Quisqualis indica In ascariasis Indonesia
As antihelmintic Philippines
Rauvolfia canescens In hypertension Lao PDR
Rauvolfia serpentina In hypertension Lao PDR
As hypotensive, sedative Myanmar
Rauvolfia verticillata In hypertension Lao PDR
Ricinus communis As purgative, antirheumatic, arthritis, in paralysis, epilepsy Philippines
Ruta graveolens As antiseptic, antipyretic Indonesia
Santalum album As antiseptic Myanmar
Sauropus androgynus As breast milk stimulator Indonesia
Schefflera elliptica As tonic, in rheumatism Lao PDR
Smilax glabra As tonic Lao PDR
In backache Vietnam
Smilax myosotiflora As health tonic Malaysia
Solanum surattense In boils Philippines
Solanum trilobatum As antitussive and expectorant Thailand
Sonchus arvensis In nephrolitiasis, as diuretic Indonesia
Spilanthes acmella In caries Lao PDR
As analgesic, febrifuge Cambodia
Stephania glabra As tranquilizer Lao PDR
Sterculia lychnophora In constipation Lao PDR
Streptocaulon extensus As anthelmintic Lao PDR
Streptocaulon juventas As tonic Lao PDR

(continued)
194 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Botanical Name Uses/Indications Country


Strychnos nux vomica In neurasthenia, as tonic Lao PDR
As muscle relaxant, drug-flavoring agent Vietnam
Styrax tonkinesis In cough, bronchitis Lao PDR
Tagetes erecta Detoxicant, in cough Cambodia
As tonic, in dysmenorrhea Philippines
Terminalia chebula As laxative, astringent Vietnam
Tetrapanax papyrifer As diuretic Lao PDR
Tinospora crispa As antimalarial, antidiabetic Indonesia
As bitter tonic, in joint pain Lao PDR
Triphasia trifolia In colic, diarrhea, skin diseases Philippines
Uncaria sp. In hypertension, rheumatism, fever convulsion Lao PDR
Verbena officinalis As nerve tonic, tonic, sedative Vietnam
Vitex negundo In colds, cough, fever, muscular pain Philippines
Vitex trifolia As antiseptic Indonesia
As analgesic, diuretic, emmenagogue, Philippines
Wedelia calendulacea As antibiotic Lao PDR
Woodflordia floribunda As antiseptic, diuretic Indonesia
Xanthium strumarium In allergy, goiter Lao PDR
Zanthoxylum rhetsa As antibacterial, in gastrointestinal disorders Vietnam
Zanthoxylum spp. In flatulence Lao PDR
Zingiber officinale As hypocholesterolemiac, tonic, in rheumatism Cambodia
As analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory Indonesia
In influenza, as stimulant, carminative Lao PDR
In rheumatism, sore throat, cough Philippines
Zingiber zerumbet In Jamu preparations Malaysia

Source: After Handa, S.S., Rakesh, D.D. and Vasisht, K. (2006). Compendium of medicinal and aro-
matic plants Asia. United Nations Industrial Development Organization and the International
Centre for Science and High Technology (ICS-UNIDO), Trieste, Italy.
8 Evidence-Based
Botanicals in
North America
Wendy Pearson and Michael I. Lindinger

Contents
8.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 195
8.2 Native American Herbs for Treating Respiratory Ailments.......................... 196
8.3 Native American Herbs as Anti-inflammatory Agents................................197
8.4 Native American Herbs for Controlling Endoparasites.................................200
8.6 Conclusions....................................................................................................204
References...............................................................................................................204

8.1 Introduction
North America has rich historical resources from which to draw information on
ethnoveterinary medicine. The relationship that Native Americans wrought between
themselves and the plants and animals around them was unique and seamless and
existed within the mantra that all—humans, animals, and plants—were part of
the natural world without divisions of hierarchy or ownership. Native Americans
embraced animals as their equals within the natural world and believed that animals,
like humans, held their own spiritual power.1 Similarly, plants were an important and
integral coefficient in the equation of natural life. Plants offered food for families
and livestock, medicines for the sick, smoking for social and spiritual enlightenment,
and poisons for hunting wild game. This inherent, spiritual harmony within which
Native Americans, plants, and animals existed provided for medicine systems for
humans and animals that were virtually indistinct from each other. The knowledge
that Native Americans had of the uses of plants around them was applied without
prejudice to the animals in their care.
Native Americans did not usually regard physical problems in themselves or in
their animals as separate from spiritual problems, and even when a physical remedy
was applied, the cause of the ailment might still be ascribed to evil spirits. Treatment
was generally applied by the shaman, who was most often also an herbalist. In
excess of 220 natural remedies of the Native Americans have been listed in the U.S.
Pharmacopeia or the National Formulary since 1820, a testament to the efficacy of
their ancient art of healing.

195
196 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Rather than providing a glossary of herbs used by North American Indians in


treating animal ailments,* in this chapter we instead try to selectively associate popu-
lar Native American herbs with supporting evidence for their use catalogued in the
PubMed and ToxNet databases under headings of important veterinary issues. Many
of the herbs discussed are not in themselves native to North America but were intro-
duced between the 17th and 19th centuries. These nonetheless were readily adopted
by the Native Americans, who recognized and valued their medicinal qualities.

8.2 Native American Herbs for Treating


Respiratory Ailments
Great mullein (Verbascum thapsus) was introduced to North America from Europe
and was highly regarded as a demulcent and expectorant. Native tribes, includ-
ing Menominees, Forest Potawatomis, Creeks, and Chochtaws, referred to the
plant as “wild tobacco” and, ironically, smoked the leaves to relieve respiratory
ailments2 or boiled them to produce a decoction that treated cough in their children.
Contemporary scientific literature on the respiratory effects of the plant is substan-
tial and has been reviewed.2 The plant contains saponins,3 polysaccharide mucilage,4
iridoid glycosides,5 and flavonoids,6 all of which jointly or severally contribute to
antibacterial,7 emollient,8 and anti-inflammatory9 properties that are of importance
when managing cases of respiratory disease or dysfunction.
There is mounting experimental and clinical evidence for the application of
Verbascum sp. to respiratory disease, and the plant is recognized as an effective
respiratory tonic in contemporary ethnoveterinary medicine.10 An aqueous extract
of the plant strongly inhibited replication and virulence of the influenza virus6,11,12
and herpesvirus 16,13,14 in vitro. Research on Verbascum sp. in animals is limited to
those demonstrating effective antiulcerogenic properties in rats15 and antispasmodic
effects in rabbits.16 The only adverse effect associated with the herb is occupational
dermal irritation from the hairy leaves.17 There are no reports of LD50 or minimum
lethal dose (MLD) for Verbascum sp.
Based on available scientific evidence, veterinary applications of mullein appear
to be warranted in cases of viral respiratory disease. Influenza virus and herpesvirus
are major contributing pathogens to respiratory disease in horses,18,19 cattle,20 dogs,21
and cats.22 As the growing herb is unpalatable to grazing livestock due in large part
to the irritating hairs on the leaves,23 it is recommended that the herb be administered
as an aqueous extract of the flower. A standardized dose of mullein that is efficacious
in respiratory disease has not been reported. However, lyophilized aqueous extract of
Verbascum sp. of 1,227 mg/kg significantly improved ulcer score in gastrically chal-
lenged rats15 and can be considered a reasonable starting point for dosage.
Garlic (Allium sativum) is one of the oldest medications used in human culture.24
The Allium species encompasses more than 600 varieties, including garlic, onions,
shallots, leeks, and scallions. Its place of origin is considered to be Central Asia,
and the earliest report of medicinal applications of garlic has been dated to circa

* A good discussion of general principles of North American Indian medicine can be found online at
http://www.healing-arts.org/mehl-madrona/mmtraditionalpaper.htm
Evidence-Based Botanicals in North America 197

2600 BC.25 It was cultivated by the Choctaw Indians in gardens prior to 1775 and was
used for such varied applications as treating skin diseases, increasing fertility, stimu-
lating appetite, suppressing coughs, and treating rheumatism, abdominal diseases,
hemorrhoids, and spleen enlargement.26 An ostensible panacea, garlic has also been
one of the most highly studied plants in contemporary pharmacology and ethnobo-
tanical science. It is now well accepted that fresh garlic, or garlic processed as an
extract or dried powder, can be an effective antibiotic and anti-inflammatory agent,
with application to the treatment and prevention of respiratory disease. Aqueous gar-
lic extract strongly promotes clearance of pathogenic pulmonary bacteria in mice27
and is among the most potent herbal inhibitors of a wide range of pathogenic organ-
isms in vitro, including Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, Candida
albicans, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and
Salmonella spp.28,29 Furthermore, dietary garlic supplementation is associated with
significant protection of children against acute respiratory tract infection,30 perhaps
in part by inhibiting expression of cell adhesion molecules on endothelial cells31 and
limiting migration of neutrophils into pulmonary tissues.32,33 These data indicate the
important prophylactic potential of garlic in animals. Indeed, oral garlic supplemen-
tation can prevent the onset of the common cold in people.34
Although the evidence is strong for prophylactic and treatment roles of garlic and
its derivates in respiratory disease of animals, it is prudent to note the potential toxic-
ity of garlic in excess. High dietary inclusion rates of garlic, and its various deriva-
tives, has been associated with hemolytic anemia in rodents,35 horses,36 dogs,37–39 and
sheep.40 When administering large amounts of garlic products to animals, it is impor-
tant to monitor the oxidation status of red blood cells to preempt inadvertent anemia.
Furthermore, garlic may alter foregut microflora in ruminants,41 which may affect
digestibility of other feed ingredients. The oral LD50 of aqueous garlic (Allium sati-
vum) extract is 174 mL/kg in rabbits, and the oral LD50 of allicin (the primary bioactive
precursor) is 204 µg/kg.42 An alkaloidal extract of Eqyptian garlic (Allium ampelopra-
sum) has a subcutaneous injection LD50 of 128 mg/kg and MLD of 100 mg/kg.43
North American natives also commonly utilized bark from native trees to treat
respiratory ailments.44 But, despite occasional reports of efficacy,45 there is little sci-
entific evidence to support this practice. Bark of the choke cherry (Prunus serotina)
was considered a particularly important cough suppressant by Native Americans,
but its use is not advisable due to association of Prunus sp. ingestion with cyanide
poisoning of goats46 and cows47 and congenital defects in pigs.48

8.3 Native American Herbs as


Anti-inflammatory Agents
Musculoskeletal inflammation—particularly lameness—is among the most impor-
tant veterinary conditions affecting domesticated animals. It is associated with poor
racing performance in racehorses49 and adversely affects the economics of com-
mercial swine50 and dairy51 industries. Similarly, inflammatory diseases—especially
arthritic diseases—played a particularly destructive role in indigenous populations
from ancient times52 to the present.53,54 As such, Native Americans commonly used
198 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

plants to counter the pain associated with arthritis, and this practice continues even
in contemporary ethnoveterinary medicine.10
Cayenne (Capsicum annum) has a 9,000-year history of use by Central and
South American Indians.55 The plant was a specific treatment of pain and inflam-
mation and is today the most widely consumed herb worldwide.55 Cayenne is native
to Central and South America and became naturalized in North America during the
16th century. Capsicum species were cultivated in the Tehucan Valley in Mexico as
early as 4000 BC, during the Coxcatlan era.56 Capsicum is currently approved by the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the topical relief of pain due to rheumatoid
arthritis, osteoarthritis, and various neuralgias.
The majority of published efficacy research relating to cayenne is on a class of
its putative bioactive principles, the capsaicinoids, which are found in the fruit.
The capsaicinoid content of whole powdered fruit varies from 0.1% to 1.5%.57,58
Capsaicin, a phenolic vanillyl amide of isodecenoic acid, accounts for 40–50% of
the total capsaicinoid content. Capsaicin can be administered orally59,60 or injected
subcutaneously,61 resulting in stimulation of catecholamine (adrenaline) secretion
from the adrenal medulla.61 This causes stimulatory, sympathomimetic effects simi-
lar to those associated with ingestion of coffee and tea. The most common mode of
administration of capsaicin, however, is percutaneously. Absorption across the skin
has been demonstrated in humans, rats, mice, rabbits, and pigs,59 supporting its use
in topical tinctures and creams. Clinical reports on treatment of knee62 and hand63
osteoarthritis with topical capsaicin have revealed significant improvement in pain
scores after 2 weeks of treatment. These results are confirmed by a meta-analysis
of studies using topical creams containing capsaicin64 and in a randomized, double-
blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial.65 A comprehensive review of the medical
literature has concluded that the pain-relieving effect of topical capsaicin was compa-
rable to acetaminophen, intra-articular steroids and hyaluronic acid, and nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in patients with knee osteoarthritis.66 However, a
subsequent review evaluating effectiveness of capsaicin on chronic musculoskeletal
or neuropathic pain concluded its effectiveness was only moderate to poor.67
Much has been published on potential mechanisms by which capsaicin exerts its
anti-inflammatory activity in arthritis. In general, two primary mechanisms have been
proposed: (1) Capsaicin depletes stores of substance P from capsaicin-sensitive nerve
endings within the synovial membrane,68 which may be responsible for the inhibitory
action of capsaicin on neuron-dependent progression of osteoarthritis,70,71 and (2) cap-
saicin stimulates metabolic activity of synoviocytes, as evidenced by dose-dependent
increase DNA and collagen synthesis by the cells when exposed to capsaicin.72
Capsicum is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration, and capsaicin is considered to be safe and effective as an external anal-
gesic counterirritant.73 Capsaicinoids at moderate to high concentrations are irritant to
mucosal surfaces lining the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems,73 and contact der-
matitis may result from the direct handling of chili peppers containing capsaicin.74 The
oral LD50 for capsaicin in rats is between 160 and 190 mg/kg and in mice as low as 118
mg/kg, with hemorrhage of the gastric fundus observed in some of the animals.58,73
White willow (Salix alba) is native to Europe and introduced to temperate areas
of North America. In Native American culture, willow has a long history of use
Evidence-Based Botanicals in North America 199

as an anti-inflammatory, and its bark, leaves and catkins have been used to treat a
wide array of health conditions.75 There are over 500 species of Salix, of which the
main ones in North America are S. nigra (black willow), S. hookeriana, S. lucida,
S. scouleriana, S. sitchenis, and S. barclayi. The glycoside salicilin was isolated
from willow bark in 1838 by the Italian chemist Rafaele Piria and developed into
acetylsalicyclic acid (ASA; aspirin) by Bayer in the late 1930s. The salicin content
of S. alba bark is only about 0.5% compared to 1–10% in other species. Other phe-
nolic glycosides also found in willow include salicortin, salireposide, picein, tran-
drin, the acetylated forms of salicin, and esters of salicylic acid and salicyl alcohol.
Flavonol glycosides include narigenin, isolaipurpouroside, and isoquercitin in leaves
and bark.58,76–78
In contrast to many ethnobotanical therapies, there have been a number of clini-
cal trials assessing the safety and efficacy of willow bark extracts. Such extracts are
recommended for treatment of fever, rheumatism, and general pain by the European
Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP). Research assessing efficacy of
willow bark extract in reducing pain has produced equivocal results, although
largely supportive of its use. On the positive side, clinical trials have demonstrated
that willow bark extract is significantly better than placebo for treating patients
with chronic low back pain after about 1 month of treatment79,80 and not signifi-
cantly different from rofecoxib (Cox-2 inhibitor) after 6 months of treating arthri-
tis patients.81 Similarly, a standardized willow bark extract (240 mg salicin/day)
was provided to osteoarthritis patients, who observed a significant improvement in
pain after 2 weeks.81 Extract of white willow containing less than one-sixth of the
amount of salicin as an ASA product showed at least equivalent efficacy as ASA in
inhibiting leukocytic infiltration, preventing elevation of the rise in cytokines, and
suppressing prostaglandin production, and was even more effective than ASA in
inhibiting leukotriene formation and Cox-2 production.82 These results suggest that
the anti-inflammatory activity arises from more than just salicylin and raises the
importance of further research characterizing white willow with respect to other
bioactive compounds.83
However, other authors have reported poor analgesic effect of white willow.
Using white willow extract standardized to the same dose of salicin as reported by
Chrubasik et al.,79 Bierget et al.84 reported no significant improvement in pain scores
of patients with osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. The lack of improvement
observed in these patients may result from other bioactive constituents present in
white willow that were not standardized in the same way as salicin.
There is a dearth of safety information available on white willow extract. Most adverse
effects are associated with the content of salicin, which are significantly less in incidence
and magnitude than those of ASA.85–87 Salicin is poorly absorbed by the gastrointestinal
tract,85 which probably contributes to its very high LD50 in rats, which is 1,890 mg/kg.76
Generally, white willow extract is considered safe and well tolerated.80,81
Contemporary North American ethnoveterinary medicine continues to use Salix
sp. as a remedy for pain, arthritis, and muscle soreness in horses10 and ruminants.88
There is currently no research reporting effects of Salix sp. in companion animals or
livestock. However, research in laboratory animals and humans supported its use as
a moderate analgesic and anti-inflammatory in veterinary medicine.
200 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), like cayenne and willow, has a long history of
use as a native anti-inflammatory, particularly for the treatment of inflammatory
joint diseases and urinary tract infections.89 Nettles, despite their perfect adaptation
to North America, are not native but were brought from England by John Josselyn
in the mid-17th century. This hardy little plant thrives throughout temperate regions
across the globe.
The phytochemistry of nettle has been reasonably well characterized58,90 and con-
sists predominantly of flavonoids (glucosides and rutinosides of quercetin, kaemp-
ferol, and isorhamnetin), acids, β-sitosterol (-3-O-glucoside), polysaccharides, fatty
acids, and minerals.
A detailed review of clinical anti-inflammatory literature on nettle has been pub-
lished.90 Of eight in vivo studies performed on humans with osteoarthritis, rheuma-
toid arthritis, or other rheumatic diseases, all studies showed significant improvement
in pain score over time, with some studies showing significant improvement com-
pared to placebo. In vitro, treatment of various cell cultures with nettle extract has
resulted in reduced release of the inflammatory mediators tumor necrosis factor α
(TNF-α) and interleukin 1β.91,92 An extract of nettle has also demonstrated a signifi-
cant capacity for inhibiting expression of chondrocyte matrix metalloproteinases,93
the enzymes responsible for the destruction of articular cartilage in arthritic condi-
tions. The precise mechanisms are not known but may be associated with inhibition
of nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) activation.94
The toxicity literature for stinging nettle has also been summarized by Chrubasik
et al.90 The intraperitoneal LD50 of aqueous extract in mice is 3,625 mg/kg. Higher
doses were associated with a decrease in spontaneous activity, loss of muscle tone,
and hypothermia. Low toxicity was observed after oral and intraperitoneal adminis-
tration of up to 2 g/kg. Intravenous doses of 4,500 mg/kg caused transient hypoten-
sion and cardiac arrhythmias. The LD50 for intravenous injection in mice is 1.9 g/kg,
and for chronic oral application in rats is 1,310 mg/kg. Chronic subcutaneous admin-
istration is associated with diarrhea. There is a report95 of three horses with an appar-
ent transient (resolved within 4 h) neurological disorder resulting from nettle rash
that showed signs of ataxia, distress, and muscle weakness, and two of them had
urticaria. In general, nettle is considered safe and may be an effective treatment for
inflammatory disorders.90

8.4 Native American Herbs for


Controlling Endoparasites
As a people whose diet consisted of browsing their environment, the North American
natives were highly susceptible to internal parasites, a problem that persists even
today in some native American cultures.96–98 Endoparasites in livestock were, and
continue to be, treated by Native Americans with many different herbs,10 including
the ubiquitous garlic. In addition to garlic’s inhibitory effect on respiratory patho-
gens (see Section 8.2), garlic is an effective antiparasitic agent in poultry,99,100 and a
hexane extract of the bulb is a reasonably effective anthelmintic for fish.101 Others
have found that a wide range of human and animal parasitic pathogens are strongly
inhibited by a metabolite of garlic (diallyl trisulfide) in vitro.102 One study, however,
Evidence-Based Botanicals in North America 201

reported that garlic was totally ineffective in treating parasitic infections in don-
keys.103 This result was most likely due to the fact that the garlic used in the study
was cooked and crushed, a process that probably inactivated the bioactive principles
(allyl sulfides).104,105 There are no reports on the efficacy of garlic to treat parasitic
load in companion animals. Also, although use of garlic as an antiparasitic in ani-
mals may be warranted, it is important to monitor potential development of anemia
in animals fed diets with high garlic inclusion rates (see respiratory health).
Elecampane (Inula helenium) is an herb that found initial popularity not as
a medicine for people but as a veterinary medicine. It was used in the European
Middle Ages as an ostensible panacea in horses, hence one of its common names
“horseheal.” 75 It came to the New World with the early American colonists and
was adopted by Native Americans as a treatment for bronchitis and chronic lung
diseases* and to dispel intestinal parasites. There is a small body of contempo-
rary literature supporting the use of I. helenium as an anthelmintic. An aqueous
extract of I. helenium effectively caused atrophy, degeneration, and necrosis of
the viscera of liver flukes, while reducing their recovery to about 2% in exper-
imentally infected rabbits.106 This extract also reduced egg-laying capacity of
liver flukes in rabbits.107 Intestinal roundworms are also susceptible to elecam-
pane. Infective larvae of roundworms exposed to an extract of I. helenium in
vitro were killed in about 40 days, and the eggs of exposed adult worms were
killed in about 20 days.108 There are no scientific reports of elecampane being
used as a general anthelmintic in livestock or companion animals. The main
adverse effect associated with elecampane is hypersensitivity.109,110 Development
of parasitic resistance to conventional anthelmintics is an important problem
across the full spectrum of domesticated animals.108,112 It would be of value to
determine the chronic effectiveness of elecampane in animals with respect to the
development of parasite resistance and to identify any species-specific charac-
teristics of the herb.
Other common herbs used by North American natives to combat endoparasites
include juniper branches (Juniperus communis), parsley (Petroselinum crispum),
stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), celery (Apium graveolens), carrots (Daucus carota),
and sunflower (Helianthus annuus) seeds.10 Evidence for efficacy of these plants for
managing parasite load is sparse. One article described the ability of sunflower meal
combined with lucerne to reduce the need for anthelmintic drenching of grazing
sheep and to improve their productivity without directly affecting wormload.113 It
is unclear whether the effect resulted from the sunflower meal, the lucerne, or the
combination of the two. In contrast, significant direct cidal effect of a purified extract
of carrot on roundworms (Caenorhabditis elegans) and microworms (Panagrellus
redivivus) has been reported,114 and the essential oil of celery is toxic to cercariae of
Schistosoma mansoni.115
Gastric ulceration is another critically important disease in livestock and veteri-
nary practice, with clinically and economically important morbidity and mortality

* Significant relaxant effect of elecampane volatile oils has been demonstrated on tracheal smooth
muscle in guinea pigs (Reiter and Brandt 1985), providing a scientific basis for its use as a respiratory
tonic.
202 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

in most major livestock species, including as many as 93% of racehorses,116 75% of


veal and beef calves fed milk replacers,117,118 and in the swine industry, up to 90% of
necropsied pigs showed lesions of esophago-gastric ulcer syndrome.119,120
Over the centuries, a number of North American plants have been used to treat
gastrointestinal complaints. Some, including marshmallow, American licorice, yar-
row, and meadowsweet, have shown antiulcer properties under scientific investiga-
tion. In general, the antiulcer properties of these plants are thought to be due to
their high content of flavonoids. Flavonoids function within plants as antioxidants
and enzyme inhibitors and are involved with photosensitization, photosynthesis,
and defense against infection.121 Extensive literature describes beneficial effects of
plant flavonoids in the prevention or treatment of gastric ulceration in mammals. The
mechanisms of gastroprotective action of flavonoids are not well understood and are
likely acting through multiple pathways. Hypotheses include an ability of flavonoids
to reduce leukocyte activation, which reduces their adherence to the endothelial
surface.122 Increased leukocyte adherence is associated with reduced perfusion of
the mucosa, which predisposes to injury. Activation of these cells (by inflammatory
mediators such as LTB4) leads to release of oxygen-derived free radicals, which dam-
age the endothelium and mucosa.123 In pylorus-ligated pigs, the flavonoid 3-methoxy-
5,7,3′,4′-tetrahydroxyflavan was as effective as omeprazole in reducing free and total
acids in gastric secretions and appears to function as a specific histidine decarboxy-
lase inhibitor, thus reducing gastric mucosal histamine.124
Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis L.) is native to southern and western Europe
and western Asia and was long ago introduced to the northeastern region of North
America, where it grows well in salt marshes, damp low-lying land, river banks,
and coastal regions. It has been used for centuries as both a food and a medicine,
and its medicinal uses date back to ancient Greeks, who used it for the treatment of
bruises and blood loss. Medieval European herbalists used marshmallow for treating
coughs in cats,124 sore throats, indigestion, and diarrhea. Currently, herbalists use it
for asthma, bronchitis, common cold with sore throat, cough, inflammatory bowel
diseases, stomach ulcers, weight loss, and wound healing.
The primary class of bioactive phytochemical constituents within marshmallow
root is mucilage (18–35% by weight), consisting of a number of polysaccharides, apec-
tin, asparagine, and tannins. Marshmallow also contains large amounts of vitamin
A, calcium, and zinc and significant amounts of iron, sodium, iodine, and B-complex
vitamins.
A primary use of the marshmallow root is to relieve digestive problems, and
it is recommended for gastric and duodenal ulcers, ulcerative colitis, and Crohn’s
disease.58 The mucilage acts as an excellent demulcent that coats the gastrointestinal
mucosa, including the mouth and pharynx, providing protection against local irri-
tation.125 It also counters excess stomach acid and is mildly laxative. Marshmallow
root has flavonoids that possess antiulcer activity (see discussion in this section).126
American licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota) is native to central Canada south
to California, Texas, and Virginia but is absent from the southeastern states. It is
also known as “wild licorice” to distinguish it from the related European liquorice
(Glycyrrhiza glabra). The plant grows 40–100 cm (16–40 inches) in height; has long,
tough brown roots, which are sweet; and has long been used as food and for medicinal
Evidence-Based Botanicals in North America 203

purposes by Native Americans. American licorice is grazed by cattle and is consid-


ered an important ethnoveterinary medicine for gastric ulceration in Canada.10,88
The sweetness of American licorice is from glycyrrhizin, the acid ammonium salt
of the triterpenoid glycyrrhizic acid. Licorice extracts and its principal component,
glycyrrhizin, have extensive use in foods and tobacco and in both allopathic and
herbal medicine.58 As a result, licorice and glycyrrhizin are immensely popular in
the United States, with an estimated consumption of 0.027 to 3.6 mg glycyrrhizin/
kg/day.127 Both products have been approved for use in foods by most national and
international regulatory agencies. Glycyrrhizin is believed to contribute to the herb’s
healing properties. Laboratory studies have reported that glycyrrhizin reduces
inflammation, promotes secretion of mucus (usually through coughing), soothes irri-
tation, protects the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and stimulates the activity of
the adrenal glands (regulates cortisol, the stress hormone).128 The roots also contain
coumarins, flavonoids, volatile oils, and plant sterols.128,129
Licorice root is often used to prevent and treat stomach ulcers by health care
practitioners in Europe, Japan, and North America, and a “deglycyrrhizinated”
product is increasing in popularity due to putative hypertensive effects of glycyr-
rhizin.130 Deglycyrrhizinated licorice (DGL) has been used to treat gastric ulcers
with positive results.131 DGL reduces inflammation and is as effective as some
prescription drugs for gastric ulcers.132–134 DGL may offer protection against
ulcer formation when taken with aspirin and enhance the effectiveness of anti­
ulcer medications such as cimetidine or ranitidine.131,133 The observed effective-
ness of DGL has led to the search for another bioactive constituent; a strong
candidate for the antiulcer efficacy of DGL is coumarin.135 One animal study
showed that aspirin coated with licorice reduced the number of ulcers in rats by
50%.131 Prior studies in humans have found that preparations containing glycyr-
rhizin (an active compound in licorice) may be as effective as leading antiulcer
medications in relieving pain associated with stomach ulcers and preventing the
ulcers from recurring.136
North American yarrow (Achillea millefolium) is a popular native American
herb for treatment of gastrointestinal complaints as well as respiratory diseases,
bleeding, and wound healing.136,137 The main constituents of yarrow are volatile oils
(sabinene, β-pinene, 1,8-cineole, artemisia ketone, linalool, α-thujone, β-thujone,
camphor, borneol, fenchyl acetate, bornyl acetate, (E)-beta-caryophyllene, germa-
crene D, caryophyllene oxide, beta-bisabolol, delta-cadinol, chamazulene)139; fla-
vonoids (apigenin- and luteolin-7-glycosides, and rutin); and alkaloids.58
There is a scarcity of scientific evaluation of yarrow as an antiulcer medicine.
An isolated report described the safety and gastroprotective efficacy of an aqueous
extract of the aerial portions of yarrow in gastrically challenged rats.137 Ulcer forma-
tion induced by ethanol and indomethacin was prevented by the extract, and existing
chronic ulcers induced by acetic acid healed significantly faster when rats were fed
the extract. Over the 90-day experimental period, there were also no signs of toxic-
ity. The mechanism of gastroprotection is not known but may be associated with the
flavonoid content of yarrow (see discussion of flavonoids). It is possible also that the
anti-inflammatory effect of yarrow140,141 may contribute to the healing properties of
the plant.
204 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

8.6 Conclusions
Ethnoveterinary medicine in North America persists as an important health care
strategy for livestock and companion animals. A rich and colorful history sur-
rounds the use of a wide range of native and naturalized plants across the con-
tinent, and contemporary scientific investigation is providing new information
on how well these plants are altering pathophysiological processes of important
veterinary diseases. There is substantial evidence for willow and cayenne to treat
inflammation and pain in animals, and there is good scientific rationale for the
use of mullein and garlic in respiratory disease. Garlic also holds potential as
an anthelmintic, as does elecampane, but further research is needed to confirm
the anthelmintic action of these plants in a number of veterinary species. The
safety profile of the majority of the plants discussed appears to be acceptable,
but species-specific research is greatly lacking, and it is possible that toxici-
ties may appear in some species that are not identifiable in others. The safety
of garlic is guarded, with significant risk of anemia existing at higher doses.
Veterinarians are cautioned to conduct regular hematological assessments of
those animals chronically consuming garlic or those consuming garlic in high
acute quantities.

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9 The Medicinal Use
of Native North
American Plants in
Domestic Animals
Ronette Gehring and Kelly Kindscher

Contents
9.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 213
9.2 Echinacea Species......................................................................................... 214
9.2.1 Botany and Chemical Constituents................................................... 214
9.2.2 Use in Human Medicine.................................................................... 215
9.2.3 In Vitro Studies and Animal Models................................................. 215
9.2.4 Documented Uses in Veterinary Medicine....................................... 216
9.2.4.1 Swine.................................................................................. 216
9.2.4.2 Cattle................................................................................... 219
9.2.4.3 Poultry................................................................................. 219
9.2.4.4 Horses................................................................................. 220
9.2.4.5 Dogs.................................................................................... 220
9.3 Other Plants................................................................................................... 221
9.3.1 Eupatorium Species L. (Asteraceae)................................................. 221
9.3.2 Rumex patientia L. (Polygonaceae)................................................... 222
9.3.3 Rhus aromatica and Rhus trilobata.................................................. 222
9.3.4 Lepidium virginicum L. (Brassicaceae)............................................. 223
9.3.5 Clematis hirsutissima Pursh (Ranunculaceae).................................. 223
9.4 Contemporary Uses.......................................................................................224
9.5 Conclusion.....................................................................................................224
References............................................................................................................... 227

9.1 Introduction
More than 250 plant species have been documented as being used by native North
Americans for the treatment of animals (UKCropNet, 2008; Moerman, 2003).
Research investigating the safety and efficacy of these remedies is relatively scarce,
however, especially when compared with the data available for ethnoveterinary sys-
tems from other parts of the world. Reasons for this may include the comparatively

213
214 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

minor socioeconomic role of domestic livestock in most native North American


cultures (with the exception of horses and sheep in some societies, especially in
central and western regions, following contact with Europeans from the 17th cen-
tury onward), the predominant use of European herbal remedies by immigrants to
the North American continent, and the market leadership of commercial pharma-
ceutical companies focusing on synthetically produced medicinal products. Many
ethnoveterinary treatments used by native North Americans are likely to have been
learned relatively recently, since the European introduction of domesticated chick-
ens, horses, and sheep to the North American continent. This knowledge may have
been gleaned from experiences with the treatment of humans.
This chapter discusses indigenous North American plants with documented eth-
noveterinary uses for which supporting research has been reported in the scientific
literature. The focus is on Echinacea species, which is the only plant for which clini-
cal veterinary studies have been conducted. Other plants for which in vitro data
or studies in experimental animal models are available to support the documented
veterinary uses are also discussed.

9.2 Echinacea Species
Echinacea angustifolia has been the most widely used medicinal plant of native
American cultures in the Great Plains region of North America, where it is com-
monly found in grassland habitats. (Although these peoples have often been grouped
together and collectively referred to as Plains Indians, they include a variety of for-
merly independent nations with distinct languages and cultures.) Echinacea species
were used to treat many different conditions, including colds, infections, bee and
insect stings, snakebite, headache, toothache, and wounds (Kindscher, 1992). These
uses may be attributable to immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, local anesthetic,
or anti-infective properties of the plant. Scientific research in both humans and
domestic animals has focused on the immunostimulatory characteristics of the plant
and its chemical constituents.

9.2.1 Botany and Chemical Constituents


Echinacea is a genus of perennial herbs that is native to North America and a mem-
ber of the daisy family (Compositae or Asteraceae) (Kindscher, 1992). The three
most widely distributed species, which also have a long tradition of medicinal use,
are Echinacea angustifolia, which occurs throughout much of the western Great
Plains; E. purpurea, which grows sporadically throughout much of eastern North
America; and E. pallida, which occurs in the Midwest (Foster, 2008). Echinacea
purpurea is the species that is most easily cultivated and most commonly used
commercially. The whole plant of this species is used in herbal remedies (root,
leaf, flower, and seed), whereas only the root of E. angustifolia and E. pallida is
used (Mills and Bone, 2000; Pierce, 1999). The importance of correctly identify-
ing the species used for experimental and clinical trials is highlighted by the fact
that some earlier studies have been invalidated due to misidentification and adul-
teration of the preparations that were used (Pierce, 1999; Kindscher, 1992).
The Medicinal Use of Native North American Plants in Domestic Animals 215

Several potentially active constituents have been isolated from Echinacea. These
include (1) caffeic acid derivatives (echinacoside, cichoric and chlorogenic acids,
and cynarin), which may play a role in stimulating phagocytosis; (2) alkylamides
(echinacein and several isobutylamides), which may be responsible for local anes-
thetic and anti-inflammatory activity; (3) inulin and other high-molecular-weight
polysaccharides, which stimulate macrophages and may possess anti-inflammatory
activity; and (4) essential oil components (humulene, echolone, vanillin, germac-
rene, and borneol), several of which have insecticidal properties. Echinacea also
contains polyacetylenes, nontoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids, and flavonoids, of which
the biological effects, if any, are presently unknown (Combest and Nemecz, 2002;
Mills and Bone, 2000). Cichoric acid and the isobutylamides have been used as
quality markers for echinacea products, but there is as yet no consensus about which
phytochemicals should serve as the definitive standardization markers (Letchamo
et al., 1999; Osowski et al., 2000). Variability in active phytochemical composition
due to growth conditions, time of harvest, milling, and storage conditions have been
postulated as the cause of variable activity of echinacea-containing preparations.

9.2.2 Use in Human Medicine


Medicinal use of echinacea by the Plains Indians long pre-dates European contact.
It is also one of the few native North American plants to be popularized by Western
folk practitioners at the turn of the 20th century. Early European settlers and doctors
used this plant as a blood purifier, wound healer, and anti-infective (Kindscher, 1992).
Today, preparations containing echinacea are primarily used as immunostimulants
for the prophylaxis and treatment of infections (Melchart et al., 1994). Preparations
containing echinacea ranked sixth on the list of best-selling herbal medicines in the
United States (Blumenthal et al., 2008; Ernst, 2005). These are also very popular
medications in Europe, particularly Germany.
Authors of a comprehensive and rigorous review of clinical trials investigating the
efficacy of echinacea preparations for the treatment and prevention of the common
cold in humans concluded that there is some evidence that preparations based on the
aerial parts of Echinacea purpurea might be effective for the early treatment of colds
in adults (Linde et al., 2006).
Echinacea is generally regarded as safe for use in humans, based on its wide-
spread use and the low incidence of reports of adverse reactions. Its toxicity has not
been studied in long-term clinical trials. Allergic reactions have been documented,
and it is suggested that individuals with known allergies to plants in the daisy family
should exercise caution in using echinacea products (Mills and Bone, 2000; Pierce,
1999; Myers and Wohlmuth, 1998).

9.2.3 In Vitro Studies and Animal Models


The results of in vitro studies and animal models to test the pharmacological effects
of echinacea have been extensively reviewed (Barrett, 2003). The most widely
reported activity is activation of macrophage and polymorphonuclear immune cells,
which has been shown for various different extracts (hydrophilic, lipophilic, and
216 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

ethanol) of all three medicinal species. Experiments used to demonstrate these


effects included yeast-particle ingestion and carbon clearance. There are also reports
of simultaneous enhanced cytokine production (nitric oxide [NO], interleukins [IL]
1 and 6, and tumor necrosis factor [TNF]). Claims of anti-inflammatory effects and
wound-healing activity were supported by studies showing inhibition of hyaluroni-
dase, cyclo-oxygenase, and 5-lipoxygenase activity in vitro (Wagner et al., 1989;
Busing, 1952). Topical application of an extract of E. angustifolia inhibited edema in
the croton oil mouse ear test, and application of an ointment made from expressed
juice of E. purpurea (aerial parts) significantly improved wound healing in an exper-
imental model (Tragni et al., 1985; Kinkel, Plate, and Tullner, 1984). Antiviral and
antimicrobial effects are most likely secondary to immunomodulation.

9.2.4 Documented Uses in Veterinary Medicine


The majority of documented uses of Echinacea species by Native Americans are
for conditions in humans, but there is specific mention of the use of a smoke fumi-
gant of Echinacea angustifolia by Great Plains tribes to treat distemper in horses
(Gilmore, 1977). Also known as strangles, this condition is caused by a bacterial
(Streptococcus equi) infection of the upper respiratory tract. Interestingly, the first
use of Echinacea to be mentioned in the literature was for the treatment of sores
in horses (Gronovius, 1762/1946). Echinacea purpurea is also mentioned in the
Materia Medica Americana as being used to treat saddle sores on a horse’s back
(Schopf, 1787/1903). In his Treatise on Echinacea, the pharmacist J. U. Lloyd told of
the following statement by Dr. J. S. Leachman of Sharon, Oklahoma, in the October
1914 issue of The Gleaner: “Old settlers all believe firmly in the virtues of Echinacea
root, and use it as an aid in nearly every sickness. If a cow or horse does not eat well,
the people administer Echinacea, cut up and put in feed. I have noticed that puny
stock treated in this manner soon begin to thrive” (Lloyd, 1924a, p. 20).
More recently, there has been a growing interest in investigating the potential
benefits of echinacea in food-producing animals as an alternative to production-
enhancing antimicrobials. This has been stimulated by concerns about the selection
for antibiotic-resistant organisms and their spread through the food chain as a result
of chronic oral exposure to subtherapeutic doses of antimicrobial drugs (van den
Bogaard and Stobberingh, 2000; Holden, McKean, and Franzenburg, 1999).
Although echinacea has been well studied in laboratory animals to support its
use in humans, there are relatively few species-specific data supporting its use in
livestock and other domestic animals.

9.2.4.1 Swine
The species for which the most information on echinacea is available is swine. The
earliest research suggesting that echinacea may be effective in stimulating immune
responses in this species is an in vitro study of the effect of a commercially avail-
able combination product (Influex™) on the function of porcine polymorphonuclear
neutrophils (PMNs) (Stahl et al., 1990). Influex, which is an alcoholic extract of
Echinacea, Aconitum, Apis, and Lachesis containing 2.4 × 10 −2% ethanol, was diluted
with 0.9% NaCl to obtain a standardized echinacoside concentration of 0.03 µg/mL.
The Medicinal Use of Native North American Plants in Domestic Animals 217

This was then added to PMN preparations and experiments conducted to measure
adherence, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, and chemiluminescence. A positive control
(2.4 × 10 −2% ethanol in 0.9% NaCl) and a negative control (0.9% NaCl solution)
were included in each experiment. The Influex drops significantly increased PMN
adherence, chemotaxis, and phagocytosis compared with both the positive and nega-
tive controls. Interestingly, the ethanol alone (positive control) inhibited all these
activities compared to the 0.9% NaCl alone (negative control). Chemiluminescence
was inhibited to a greater extent by ethanol alone than by Influex, but both these
groups showed lower spontaneous and elicited chemiluminescence compared with
the negative control. The authors suggested that the Influex drops may act inde-
pendently and in a contrary manner on the oxidative metabolism (inhibitory) and
contractile apparatus (stimulatory) of porcine PMNs. Another explanation offered
for the observations was that the inhibitory effect on oxidative metabolism reduces
exposure of the contractile apparatus to breakdown by reactive oxygen species,
thereby indirectly stimulating the reactive oxygen species. The authors concluded
that Influex is a potentially effective remedy to strengthen nonspecific immune
defense mechanisms in pigs. A disadvantage of this study is that a combination
product was used, making it impossible to distinguish between effects of echinacea
and the other constituents.
The first in vivo experiments in pigs were conducted by researchers at Iowa
State University, who investigated whether adding echinacea to pig rations could
improve performance under intensive production conditions (Holden, McKean, and
Franzenburg, 1999). Five groups of 20 pigs each were fed rations to which echinacea
was added at different levels (0%, 0.1%, 0.5%, and 2.0%). For the fifth ration, 50 g/ton
Mecadox® (carbadox) was added as a positive control. The echinacea used in this
study contained 0.08% echinacoside on a weight/weight basis. The pigs were fed for
5 weeks, and production parameters, including average daily gain (ADG), average
daily feed intake (ADFI), and weight gain-to-feed ratio (G:F) were measured. In the
0- to 2-week period, there was a significant decrease in feed conversion efficiency in
the group fed 0% echinacea compared to all the other groups. In the periods 0–3 and
0–4 weeks, the groups that were fed rations with the two higher levels of echinacea
(0.5% and 2.0%) were significantly more efficient at feed conversion than the groups
fed the lower levels (0.0% and 0.1%). Total performance for the entire experiment,
weeks 0–5, was not statistically different between any of the groups, including the
positive control. This suggests that subclinical stress was minimal for the duration of
the experiment, and further research would be needed to determine whether echina-
cea affords an advantage to pigs that are stressed by disease and population pressure.
Another finding from this study was that the meat from a single animal that was fed
the highest level of echinacea (2.0%) had a higher off-flavor score than the others that
were slaughtered. The off flavor was, however, not objectionable.
Researchers in Germany also investigated the effect of supplementing feed with
aerial parts of Echinacea purpurea on weight gain in piglets (Ahrens, Lang, and
Erhard, 2003). At weaning, animals (n = 52) were divided into treatment and control
groups, and the diet of the treatment groups was supplemented with either 1% or 5%
echinacea. Standardization of the supplement by a specific chemical constituent was
not mentioned in the publication. The weight of animals in the group fed echinacea
218 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

at 5% was significantly lower compared to the other two groups on days 63 and
77 postweaning (the last 2 days measured). The authors attributed this to lower
feed intake due to the bitter taste of the ration. Serum and salivary samples were
also analyzed for immunoglobulins. Immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels were found to
be significantly higher on day 35 postweaning in the group fed 5% echinacea, but
salivary IgA levels were significantly lower in the group fed 1% echinacea on day
77 postweaning. The authors concluded that these results suggest that echinacea
should be supplemented at a high level for a short period.
The potential for echinacea to provide resistance against swine viral diseases has
also been investigated (Hermann et al., 2003). The authors looked at the effect of
dietary Echinacea purpurea on growth performance, level of viremia, and ontogeny
of antibody response in nursery-age pigs challenged with porcine reproductive and
respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). Weaned pigs (25 ± 1 day of age; n = 120) from
a PRRSV-naïve herd were randomly allotted to one of eight pens (n = 5) in two sepa-
rate rooms (four pens/room). The pigs were fed one of four isocaloric and isolysinic
diets: (1) basal diet; (2) basal diet plus carabdox (0.055 g/kg of diet on an as-fed
basis); (3) basal diet plus echinacea (2% of total diet); and (4) basal diet plus echi-
nacea (4% of total diet). The echinacea used in this study contained 1.35% cichoric
acid. Seven days after starting the diets, all pigs in one room were inoculated intra-
nasally with PRRSV. Body weight and serum samples were collected weekly from
all the animals, and serum samples were analyzed for the presence of PRRSV and
PRRSV-specific antibodies. All challenged pigs became infected with PRRSV, and
all unchallenged pigs remained free of infection. Feeding echinacea at either 2%
or 4% of the diet did not significantly increase ADG, ADFI, or G:F in PRRSV-
challenged animals, and it did not affect the rate or level of antibody response detect-
able by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or the level and duration of
PRRSV in serum. However, there were also no statistically significant differences
in ADG, ADFI, or G:F ratio between PRRSV-challenged and unchallenged ani-
mals, regardless of the diet. It is therefore possible that, like in the study by Holden,
McKean, and Franzenburg (1999), the conditions of this study were not sufficient to
elicit measurable responses in the PRRSV-challenged pigs that could be significantly
mitigated by the echinacea.
Most recently, researchers in Germany studied the influence of administering
Echinacea purpurea to pregnant and nursing sows on the immune system, health
status, growth performance, and carcass quality of their offspring (Kuhn et al.,
2005). Expressed juice of the aerial plant parts (a standardized human prepara-
tion made from 4.2% dry matter diluted in 22.5% ethanol) was supplemented in the
feed of pregnant and suckling sows at a dose of 0.125 mL/kg body weight divided
into two daily doses in six intervals (5 days of treatment followed by 2 weeks of
break, respectively). Treatment started 30 days postinsemination and continued until
21 days postpartum. Blood samples were taken from sows and piglets at various
times during treatment and analyzed for immunoglobulin content (IgG and IgA)
as well as C-reactive protein (CRP). In the piglets from echinacea-treated sows, the
greatest increase in IgA, IgG, and CRP was observed on the first day postpartum
(p = .0004, p < .0001 and p = .05, respectively). This difference became less as the
The Medicinal Use of Native North American Plants in Domestic Animals 219

piglets grew older. In contrast, the sows did not show significant differences in IgA,
IgG, or CRP until 21 days postpartum, when IgA levels were significantly higher
in the control (untreated) group (p = .002). There was a trend toward lower rates of
therapeutic treatment of piglets from echinacea-treated sows up to day 70 of age (p =
.08). There were no significant differences in growth performance and carcass qual-
ity of the offspring from echinacea-treated and untreated sows.
In summary, results of studies in swine suggested that echinacea may potentially
be useful for stimulating nonspecific immunity and protecting animals from disease
as well as enhancing production. However, the differences between treated and con-
trol groups or the sample sizes used in the studies were not large enough to demon-
strate significant effects in vivo.

9.2.4.2 Cattle
The potential of echinacea to modulate immune function in cattle was supported
by two studies, one in vitro and the other in vivo. In the in vitro study, flow cyto-
metric methods were used to evaluate the effects of culturing bovine leukocytes for
44 h in the presence of echinacea, either alone or as a combination product together
with Thuja occidentalis and elemental phosphorus (EquiMun®) (Schuberth, Riedel-
Caspari, and Leibold, 2002). The authors found that both EquiMun and echinacea
reduced the size and enhanced the viability of polymorphonuclear cells but had no
effect on mononuclear cells.
The in vivo study evaluated the effects of echinacea on the immune function of
transitional dairy calves using a single, small (n = 10), placebo-controlled design (Gill
et al., 2002). The treatment group received a dose of 2.5 g echinacea supplemented
daily for 17 days in the normal calf ration. Formulation and concentration of marker
compounds in the supplement were not mentioned in the article. Findings of the study
included significant decreases in the percentage of monocytes and B cells. CD4+
T-cell levels were significantly increased. No significant effects on neutrophil func-
tion, packed cell volume, serum protein concentrations, or body weight were found
in this study.

9.2.4.3 Poultry
Echinacea has been shown to significantly increase weight gain in broiler chickens
following live vaccination and subsequent challenge with multiple coccidia species
(Allen, 2003). Birds were supplemented for 2 weeks with a ground root preparation
of Echinacea purpurea mixed into a broiler starter ration at 0% (control), 0.1%, and
0.5% (wt/wt). Half the birds in each treatment group were immunized orally with
a half-dose of a live vaccine containing a proprietary mixture of a small number
of live oocysts of four coccidia species (Immucox®, Vetech Laboratories, Ontario,
Canada). After 2 weeks, the birds were switched to an unsupplemented ration and
then challenged by oral administration of 1,000 times the dose of Immucox after
another 2 weeks. The higher weight gain in the supplemented animals persisted
through the 2-week supplement of withdrawal and subsequent challenge infec-
tion. Supplementation also significantly lowered total gut lesions scores at 6 days
postchallenge.
220 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

The influence of echinacea on nonspecific immunity in turkey-hens was studied


using a commercially available product containing echinacea and synthetic vitamin C
(Echinovit C®, P. W. Mikita, Poland) (Truchlinski et al., 2006). The Echinovit C was
administered continuously at increasing doses (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 mL/L water) in the
water provided to the birds from the 7th to the 16th week of age. Blood samples were
taken three times during the study to determine the hematocrit, hemoglobin volume,
number of red and white blood cells, as well as percentage of white blood cells.
Leukocyte phagocytic activity, the ability of peripheral neutrophils to kill phagocy-
tosed microorganisms, and lysozyme activity of peripheral blood serum were also
determined using standard laboratory methods. Administration of Echinovit C sig-
nificantly increased the number of white blood cells, leukocyte phagocytic activity,
and ability of neutrophils to kill phagocytosed microorganisms at some, but not all,
sampling times.
The effects of echinacea on the humoral immunity of chickens have also been
studied (Schranner et al., 1989). These authors showed that administration of 0.1 mL
of an ethanolic extract (unknown concentration) increased immunoglobulin concen-
trations (IgA, IgG, and IgM in decreasing amounts) compared to controls injected
with ethanol alone.

9.2.4.4 Horses
In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial with eight healthy horses, it
was found that echinacea increased the phagocytic ability of isolated neutrophils
and boosted peripheral lymphocyte counts but decreased the number of neutrophils
at certain sample times over the course of a 42-day treatment regimen (O’Neill,
McKee, and Clarke, 2002). The authors attributed the last observation to neutrophil
migration from the peripheral circulation into the tissues. An increase in the size and
concentration of peripheral red blood cells and the concentration of hemoglobin and
packed cell volume were also observed.
This study (O’Neill, McKee, and Clarke, 2002) used a powdered extract of
Echinacea angustifolia root, standardized to 4% echinacoside, administered twice
daily for 42 days as a top-dress on the feed given to the horses. There was a 14-day
washout period between treatments. The strength of this study is its rigorous experi-
mental design. However, the statistical analysis (paired difference t tests comparing
treated vs. untreated at each sample time) did not account for possible period effects;
therefore, differences in conditions between the two periods cannot be excluded.
Also, the clinical significance of the observations is unknown in horses.

9.2.4.5 Dogs
Researchers in Germany and Switzerland conducted an open multicenter clinical
trial to assess the efficacy of echinacea powder for the treatment of chronic and
seasonal upper respiratory tract infections in dogs (Reichling et al., 2003). A total
of 41 dogs were enrolled in the study, and subjects varied widely with regard to age,
breed, and weight. Criteria for inclusion in the study were nonspecific and included
“kennel cough,” “nonthriving young animals,” and inflammation of the upper respi-
ratory tract. Chronic disease was defined as a condition expected, in the opinion
The Medicinal Use of Native North American Plants in Domestic Animals 221

of the investigator, to continue for more than 8 weeks if left untreated. Animals
receiving concurrent treatment were excluded from the study.
Echinacea powder (standardized to between 0.6% and 2.1% chicoric acid) was
administered daily by mixing it in moist food at a dose of 0.3 g echinacea per 10 kg
body weight. Overall efficacy of the treatment was indicated by comparing the sever-
ity and resolution of clinical symptoms that existed before and after 4 and 8 weeks
of treatment in each individual. The scale for this parameter was very good, good,
moderate, or insufficient. In addition, the severity of 12 different clinical symptoms
was scored on a scale of 1 to 4 at examinations after 4 and 8 weeks of treatment.
Body weight and temperature were also recorded.
Improvement in the disease condition was assessed as either “good” or “very
good” in 92% of dogs after 4 weeks of treatment and in 95% of dogs after 8 weeks
of treatment. Small, but statistically significant, decreases in body temperature were
observed. There were also significant reductions in the severity of clear nasal secre-
tions, enlarged lymph nodes, dry cough, dyspnea, and dry lung sounds after both 4
and 8 weeks of treatment.
The authors concluded that echinacea is an acceptable alternative for the treat-
ment of chronic and seasonal respiratory tract infections in dogs. However, several
weaknesses in the study design preclude a definitive conclusion regarding its effi-
cacy. These weaknesses include lack of a control group and specific diagnosis prior
to inclusion in the study, as well as the subjective nature of the outcome measures.

9.3 Other Plants
9.3.1 Eupatorium Species L. (Asteraceae)
Eupatorium perfoliatum, which occurs throughout the eastern half of the United
States, is documented to have been used by the Iroquois for the treatment of fever
in horses (Herrick, 1977). This is consistent with its use as a febrifuge in humans.
American Indians and early settlers used this plant to treat a wide range of condi-
tions, ranging from colds and influenza to dengue fever, malaria, and typhoid. It
was also used, apparently successfully, for the treatment and prevention of influenza
in the “Spanish flu” epidemic of 1918, as well as flu epidemics of the 19th century
(Lloyd, 1 AD, 1924b). The remedy was taken as a hot tea to induce sweating.
The plant’s common name, boneset, alludes to the term breakbone fever, or a
fever that is so severe “it feels like one’s bones have broken.” Breakbone fever is
also the old name for dengue fever (Foster and Tyler, 1999). Although boneset does
not have documented antipyretic or anti-inflammatory properties, xyloglucurans
from the polysaccharide fractions of aqueous extracts have been shown to increase
phagocytosis (Wagner et al., 1985). This suggests that at least some of this remedy’s
efficacy in the treatment of a wide range of infectious conditions could be attrib-
uted to immunostimulatory activity. Eupatorium species are a source of sesquiter-
pene lactones, which have been shown to have antitumor activity (Kupchan et al.,
1969; Herz, Kalyanaraman, and Ramakrishnan, 1977) as well as flavonoid glyco-
sides (Ramachandran Nair et al., 1995). Arabino-(glucurono)xylans isolated from
222 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

E. perfoliatum have been shown to have antimicrobial (Christakopoulos et al., 2003)


and immunomodulatory activity (Ebringerovb et al., 2002).
Herrick (1977) also documented the Iroquois as using Eupatorium rugosum
(Ageratina altissima, white snakeroot) to “stop sweating” in horses. There are, how-
ever, serious safety concerns regarding this remedy. White snakeroot is known to
cause fatal toxicity in both humans and animals. The toxic principle has been identi-
fied as tremetone, an unstable alcohol that requires microsomal activation to cause
toxicity in the animal (Beier et al., 1993). Horses are considered to be particularly
sensitive to poisoning, and clinical symptoms in this species include muscle tremors,
ataxia, reluctance to walk, heavy sweating, and myoglobinuria (Olson et al., 1984).
Poisoning in humans is usually secondary to the consumption of milk or tissues from
exposed animals.

9.3.2 Rumex patientia L. (Polygonaceae)


Rumex patientia (patience dock) is an herbaceous weed that occurs widely through-
out the United States. The beaten roots of this plant are documented to have been
fed by the Cherokee to horses “with a sick stomach” (Hamel and Chiltoskey, 1975).
There are no clinical studies in horses to support this use. However, experimen-
tal studies have demonstrated gastroprotective and antiulcerogenic activity follow-
ing oral administration of aqueous extracts of Rumex patientia roots (500 mg/kg)
and fruits (Gurbuz et al., 2005; Suleyman et al., 2002; Suleyman, Demirezer, and
Kuruuzum-Uz, 2004). Indomethacin ethanol-induced gastric ulcer models in rats
were used for these studies. The effects have been attributed to antioxidant effects
of the plant extracts.
Anthraquinones (some naturally halogenated) and tannins with antioxidant
and anti-inflammatory properties have been isolated from this species (Demirezer
et al., 2001; Dembitsky and Tolstikov, 2003). Emodin, which is one of the identi-
fied anthraquinones, has been shown to occur in several other plant taxa, includ-
ing Aloe ferox. It has a multitude of actions, including vasorelaxant (Huang et al.,
1991), proapoptotic (Su et al., 2005), hepatoprotective (Lin et al., 1996), and
anti-inflammatory (Chang et al., 1996).

9.3.3 Rhus aromatica and Rhus trilobata


Rhus species (sumac) are shrubs and small trees that grow in subtropical and warm
temperate regions throughout the world. The Cheyenne are documented to have
used the fruits of a species from this genus, Rhus aromatica, for the treatment of
urinary disorders and “to prevent tiredness” in horses (Hart, 1981). This ethnovet-
erinary use is, at least partially, supported by results from a study by researchers in
Germany, who investigated using in vitro studies of Rhus aromatica for the treat-
ment of overactive bladder syndrome in humans (Borchert et al., 2004). However,
recent changes in nomenclature make it uncertain whether the species used in
the German studies was indeed the same as the species used by the Cheyenne.
This is because Rhus aromatica was split into two species, Rhus aromatica and
Rhus trilobata. The Cheyenne are more likely to have used Rhus trilobata since
The Medicinal Use of Native North American Plants in Domestic Animals 223

its range stretches from the Midwest through the western United States. Following
the change in nomenclature, the range of Rhus aromatica is limited to the Eastern
United States.
Borchert et al. (2004) showed that an aqueous extract of the root cortex of Rhus
aromatica inhibited carbachol- and KCl-induced contraction of human bladder mus-
cle strips and whole rat bladders in a dose-dependent manner (range 0.01–0.1%).
Interactions with the muscarinic receptors were also demonstrated using radioligand
and inositol phosphate accumulation studies. The authors concluded that the inhi-
bition of muscarinic-mediated contraction of bladder muscle by extracts of Rhus
aromatica could be beneficial to patients with bladder dysfunction, but its clinical
efficacy would need to be demonstrated in controlled clinical trials. Likewise, the
benefit in horses must still be investigated. Rhus spp. are a rich source of condensed
tannins (Min et al., 2007).

9.3.4 Lepidium virginicum L. (Brassicaceae)


Cherokees used infusions of Lepidium virginicum (Virginia pepperweed) to treat
sick chickens. The plant was also mixed into chicken feed to increase egg pro-
duction (Hamel and Chiltoskey, 1975). The plant grows throughout the United
States as an annual or biennial weed in disturbed soil. Antiprotozoal activity has
been demonstrated for a crude extract from the roots. Specifically, a benzyl glu-
cosinolate was identified, through bioassay-guided fractionation, that showed in
vitro activity against Entamoeba histolytica (median inhibitory concentration =
20.4 µg/mL) (Calzada, Barbosa, and Cedillo-Rivera, 2003). Efficacy of this docu-
mented ethnoveterinary use could be attributed to control of protozoal diseases,
such as coccidiosis, histomoniasis, or trichominiasis, in chickens. In humans, L.
virginicum roots are used in the control of diarrhea and dysentery in the highlands
of Chiapas, Mexico.
There is no literature that we could find on the chemistry of L. virginicum,
although its location in the family Brassicaraceae may point to shared chemistry
with the common brassicas.

9.3.5 Clematis hirsutissima Pursh (Ranunculaceae)


Native Americans from the western and central regions of North America used
a variety of plants as “stimulants” for horses to improve their performance in
warfare, hunting, and horse racing. One of these, for which some scientific evi-
dence is available, is the hairy clematis (Clematis hirsutissima). This herbaceous
plant occurs in the western United States and was used by the Nez Perces and
Teton Sioux as a stimulant and restorative for horses (Morgan, 1981). Blankinship
(1905) documented that the scraped root was held to the nostril of a fallen horse.
Anemonin, a dilactone of cyclobutane-1,2-diol-1,2-diacrylic acid derived from the
cyclodimerization of protoanemonin, has been isolated from this plant (Kern and
Cardellina, 1983). Anemonin is a known blistering agent, and vapors of this sub-
stance are reported to cause irritation of the nasal passages, nausea, and headache
(Kern and Cardellina, 1983).
224 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Clematis hirsutissima is related to the European pulsatillas Amemone pulsatilla


and Anemone pratensis (Kern and Cardellina, 1983). These herbs were traditionally
used for the treatment of hysteria in women and “affected powerfully not only the
nerve centers but the heart itself” (Remington et al., 1918, p. 79). The use of Clematis
hirsutissima as a stimulant in horses may therefore be related to its activity on the
central nervous system. However, Remington also expresses skepticism as to the
efficacy of pulsatillas on the central nervous system, since the herb is administered
at infinitesimally small doses to prevent adverse reactions.

9.4 Contemporary Uses
Native North American medicinal plants are rarely mentioned in contemporary texts
on veterinary herbal medicine. Echinacea is a notable exception. Topical formula-
tions of Echinacea spp. are listed as treatments for wounds, skin infections, snake-
bites, and insect bites. Administered systemically, this herb is used in animals as an
immune stimulant, specifically for the treatment and prevention of upper respiratory
tract infections. It may also have benefit in the prevention of cancer (Wynn and
Fougere, 2007).
Another native North American plant that is listed in modern veterinary herbal
Materia Medica is Eupatorium perfoliatum. Potential veterinary indications for this
herb are listed as fever, upper respiratory infection, bone or muscular pain, and fever
in horses (Wynn and Fougere, 2007).

9.5 Conclusion
Native North American plants offer a rich resource of medicinally active compounds
that remains largely untapped. Historically, herbal remedies were not considered a
priority by funding agencies and the pharmaceutical industry. In addition, the use
of indigenous plants was largely surpassed by European herbs as a Westernized
culture came to predominate in North American societies. More recently, however,
there has been resurgence in interest in natural remedies and products that are pro-
duced locally from indigenous resources. This offers considerable opportunities to
contribute to the knowledge base on these plants through basic and applied veteri-
nary research.
The Medicinal Use of Native North American Plants in Domestic Animals 225

Healthy population of Echinacea angustifolia stand in native rangeland near Miles


City, Montana.

Flowers of Echinacea Pallida from a wild stand in east-central Kansas.


226 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Flowers of the cultivated Echinacea purpurea.

The flowering plants of white snakeroot, Ageratina altissima (Eupatorium rugosum).


The Medicinal Use of Native North American Plants in Domestic Animals 227

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10 Plants Used in Animal
Health Care in South
and Latin America
An Overview
Rômulo Romeu da Nóbrega Alves,
Raynner Rilke Duarte Barboza, and
Wedson de Medeiros Silva Souto

Contents
10.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 231
10.2 Methodology.................................................................................................. 233
10.3 Medicinal Plant Usage................................................................................... 233
10.4 Scientific Studies........................................................................................... 250
10.5 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 251
References............................................................................................................... 252

10.1 Introduction
Medicinal plants have a long history of use in the treatment of both human illnesses and
animal diseases.1–6 However, research into ethnoveterinary medicine has been largely
neglected in favor of human ethnomedicine. Although numerous ethnobotanical inven-
tories of medicinal plant use in humans have been created, ethnoveterinary medicine
remains poorly described. This scarce description of ethnoveterinary resources belies the
important role they play for small-scale farmers, whose lack of regular access to essen-
tial medicines for their livestock greatly hampers productivity. According to the United
Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the lack of drugs to treat diseases
and infections causes losses of 30–35% in the breeding sector of many developing coun-
tries, where poor animal health remains the major constraint to increased production.7
In many of these countries, there has been a decline in funding for veterinary
services and for animal health care in general.8 Traditional medicine based on phy-
totherapy may complement and offer alternatives for animal disease control, in par-
ticular for resource-poor breeders. However, more studies are needed to investigate
the efficacy of these ethnobotanicals. The first step in this direction is to record and
describe the plants used and to identify them correctly on a taxonomic level.9

231
232 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Farmers and pastoralists in several countries use medicinal plants in the mainte-
nance and management of livestock wellness. It is an established fact that medicinal
plants, for several centuries, have been widely used as a primary source of preven-
tion and control of livestock diseases. In fact, interest in such uses in the veterinary
sector has resulted primarily from the increasing cost of animal health care and the
search for new veterinary medicines and vaccines.10
Latin America is a vast region spanning parts of North America, almost all of
South America, and much of the West Indies. It encompasses 19 countries as well
as Puerto Rico, a commonwealth territory of the United States, and, arguably, even
parts of the southwestern United States.11 In Latin America and the Caribbean, the
population stood at 577 million in 2008 and is projected to increase to 778 million
by 2050.12 It is the most urbanized region in the developing world, with around three-
quarters of the population living in urban areas.13 The population of Latin America
is a composite of ancestries, ethnic groups, and races, making the region one of the
most—if not the most—racially and ethnically diverse in the world. The specific
composition varies from country to country: Some countries have a predominance
of a mixed population, in others people of Amerindian origin are a majority, some
are dominated by inhabitants of European ancestry, while others are primarily of
African descent. Most Latin American countries also have large Asian minorities.
Europeans are the largest single group, and they and people of part-European ances-
try combine to make up approximately 80% of the population of the subcontinent.14
Besides being one of the world’s principal culture regions, Latin America is dis-
tinguished from other world regions by a set of common cultural traits that include
language, religion, social values, and civic institutions deriving principally from the
Iberian Peninsula. Spanish and Portuguese are predominant languages. Catholicism
is practiced by the vast majority of the region’s inhabitants, and social customs and
civic institutions bear many similarities to those of Spain. Nevertheless, the region is
not culturally monolithic. Indigenous cultures and peoples have influenced national
and subnational cultures, affecting language, religion, music, food habits, social
customs, and civic institutions. African immigrants originally brought as slaves
also have influenced the region’s culture, although their effects have been most pro-
nounced in Brazil, the Caribbean, and coastal areas of Central and northern South
America. The cultural impact of other immigrants, including those from Italy, Asia,
the Middle East, and even a few from North America, has been minor.11
Agriculture and rural economic activities are major sources of employment in
Latin America.15 In particular, livestock raising is an economic activity linked to
local consumption or export. In this region, there are areas in which livestock pro-
duction is the mainstay of the economy, second only to mining and timber.16
The total territory of Latin America, supracontinental in scale, contains the great-
est ecological and biological diversity of the planet, mainly concentrated in the vast
intertropical regions.17 Together, the Latin American countries are home to a large
part of the world’s biodiversity. Brazil alone possesses about 20–22% of all existing
plants and microorganisms. However, it is estimated that no more than 25,000 plant
species have been the subject of any sort of scientific investigation. Latin American
countries have thousands of plant species, and they are also very rich in animals,
microorganisms, and marine resources.18
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America 233

The adaptation of the various human groups to the rich biological resources has
generated invaluable local knowledge systems that include extensive information on
plant uses in general and medicinally useful species in particular. It is not surprising,
therefore, that a vast majority of the world’s biological diversity, as well as the rich-
est sources of traditional knowledge of plant uses, are found in the less-developed
countries where people live close to nature.19 In spite of the very rich natural
resources, these countries have never properly used their great biodiversity to the
benefit of their own economic development. Furthermore, due to the uncontrolled
exploitation, the biological diversity in these countries is being lost year by year, and
important animal and plant species are disappearing.18
The medicinal flora of Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands has
been the focus of much ethnobotanical research and bioprospecting over the last two
decades. The current and potential value of medicinal plants as traditional remedies
and commercial pharmaceuticals is widely acknowledged. A search of the literature
clearly shows that over the last 25 years, few, if any, of the fields in Latin American
science have progressed as rapidly as the research on natural products.18 However,
studies on the therapeutic use of plants for veterinary purposes have been neglected
when compared to plants used for human medicine; little attention has been paid to
the cultural, medical, or ecological significance of ethnoveterinary practices.
Latin and South America’s rich biological and cultural diversity make them excep-
tional locations for examining and increasing our knowledge of floristic resources for
veterinary use and to draw attention to the need to protect traditional knowledge and
biodiversity. In that context, the aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the
use of plants in ethnoveterinary medicine in Latin and South America, identify those
species used as folk remedies, and discuss the implications of their use. This study rep-
resents the first review of ethnoveterinary traditions in this region, and we hope to stim-
ulate further discussions about this use of plants and its implications for conservation.

10.2 Methodology
To examine the diversity of plants used in traditional medicine in Latin America,
all available references or reports of relevant folk remedies were examined. Only
taxa that could be identified to species level are included in this review. Scientific
names provided in publications were updated according to Tropicos of the Missouri
Botanical Garden (http://www.tropicos.org/). The sources analyzed were Agra et
al.,20 Almeida et al.,21,22 Barboza et al.,23 Bussmann and Sharon,24 Carretero,25 De-la-
Cruz,26 Faria et al.,27 Lans and Brown,28,29 Lans et al.,30–32 López,33 Lucena et al.,34
Marinho et al.,35 Scarpa,36 and Sikarwar.37

10.3 Medicinal Plant Usage


Early hominids were hunters and gatherers who relied on naturally occurring vegeta-
tion, fruits, nuts, carrion, and game for subsistence. Therefore, the use of flora and
fauna by humans arises from prehistorical times, and the process of domestication of
useful species can be linked to the dawn of civilization.38 Once humans started tam-
ing certain animals for domestic utilization, therapeutic practices were developed
234 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

to treat diseases that usually affected the target animals. In Latin America, as else-
where in the world, humans use the fauna in several ways, for instance, as food and
for fur, leather, pets, ceremonial rituals, medicines, and finally the controlled use of
animal traction in production techniques and work.2,39–46 Throughout the world, and
in all production systems, livestock diseases lead to mortality and reduced produc-
tivity. Prevention, control, and eradication of diseases among domesticated animals
are major concerns as such diseases lead to economic losses and possible transmis-
sion of the causative agents to humans, with possible public health implications. The
use of plants to re-treat animal disease and improve production therefore naturally
arose as a response to the problems that domestic fauna faced.
The obvious observation that we made was that this area is underresearched, as
can be seen from the small number of studies available in the scientific literature. It
is self-evident that there is an urgent need for more studies into ethnoveterinary prac-
tices in the region. The available literature revealed that at least 203 plants belong-
ing to 66 families have been used in folk veterinary medicine in Latin America
(Table 10.1). The number is certainly underestimated since the number of studies
on the theme are limited and have only been done in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,
Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Trinidad and Tobago. The family with the most medici-
nal plants utilized was Fabaceae (14%), followed by Asteraceae (6%), Euphorbiaceae
(6%), and Solanaceae (4%). Other species recorded are distributed in 62 different
families. Species of those families are also used frequently in Africa, Europe, and
Asia. In Italy, for example, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Euphorbiaceae appear among
the popularly used families.47 In Ethiopia, Yineger et al.48 reported that the fami-
lies Asteraceae, Solanaceae, Fabaceae, and Lamiaceae were the most popular, while
in studies in the African and European Mediterranean, Pieroni et al.49 found that
Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Euphorbiaceae were the most widely used taxa in eth-
noveterinary medicine. It therefore appears that the botanical families used in Latin
America are also utilized broadly in the other parts of the world.
Analysis of the published information showed that some ethnoveterinary prac-
tices were common to various countries; that is, the same plant species or different
parts of it can be used for treating animal diseases, although not necessarily for the
same disease. Chenopodium ambrosioides L., for instance, is used as an antipara-
sitic in Argentina and Brazil.23,36 Also in these countries it is a useful cicatrizant of
wounds.35,36 In Brazil and Trinidad and Tobago, Momordica charantia L. is used to
treat ectoparasites in livestock.30,35 The use of different herbal remedies for the same
ailment is popularly practiced in the region,50 and this may be due to the flexibility
it allows when there are seasonal changes in the availability of certain plant species.
Therefore, substitution is possible and quite common in the use of plants.
It was also observed that certain medicinal plants were recorded in just one country.
For instance, Funastrum gracile (Decne.) Schltdl. is used as a galactagogue in cows
in Argentina,36 Ziziphus joazeiro Mart. bark is used as a vermifuge and cicatrizant
in Brazil,35 while Staelia scabra (C. Presl) Standl is popular in Mexican veterinary
medicine.33 This may be due to the availability of, and access to, the species, floral
endemicity, and the unique cultural knowledge specific to certain areas. Some eth-
nobotanic studies have demonstrated that the diversity of plants known and used by
human populations could be influenced by the plant diversity in the environment.50–54
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America
Table 10.1
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America
Family/Plant Name Parts Used Veterinary Uses Country Author
Acanthaceae
Barleria lupulina Lindl. L Snakebites Trinidad and Tobago 30
Justicia secunda Vahl L Rashes Trinidad and Tobago 30
Ruellia tuberosa L. R Anthelmintic, estrus induction Trinidad and Tobago 28
Amaranthaceae
Achyranthes indica (L.) Mill. L, R To induce estrus Trinidad and Tobago 28
Amaranthus quitensis Kunth AP Horse hematuria Argentina 36
Amaranthus viridis L. AP Horse hematuria Argentina 36
Anacardiaceae
Anacardium occidentale L. BK Antidiarrheal, anti-inflammatory, antiparasitical Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago 21, 28,
(endoparasites), cicatrizant 35
Astronium urundeuva (Allemão) Engl. L Cicatrizant, for treating myiasis Brazil 21
Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão BK, L Cicatrizant Brazil 35
Schinus fasciculata (Griseb.) I.M. Johnst. AP Uterine atony in goats and cow, retained placenta Argentina 36
Spondias mombin L. Not mentioned Retained placenta Trinidad and Tobago 28
Annonaceae
Annona squamosa L. L Scabies treatment Brazil 35
Apiaceae
Cicuta virosa L. AP To treat animal wounds Ecuador 24
Apocynaceae
Aspidosperma pyrifolium Mart. AP, BK External parasiticide Brazil 21, 35
Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco Schltdl. ST Injuries, vulnerary Argentina 36

(continued)

235
236
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Family/Plant Name Parts Used Veterinary Uses Country Author
Hancornia speciosa B.A. Gomes BK Cicatrizant Brazil 35
Vallesia glabra (Cav.) Link L, ST Vulnerary; after the previous operation, the myiasis is bathed Argentina 36
Aquifoliaceae
Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil. AP Purgative; infusion with oil and salt for acute constipation Argentina 36
in horses
Araceae
Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent. L External cattle festers caused by worms Brazil 37
Monstera dubia (Kunth) Engl. & K. L Combine with leaves of the plants below to bathe dogs; Trinidad and Tobago 30
Krause “steam” to catch quenks
Synandrospadix vermitoxicus (Griseb.) TU Injuries, vulnerary, and for skin myasis Argentina 36
Engl.
Syngonium podophyllum Schott L Combine with leaves of the plants below to bathe dogs; Trinidad and Tobago 30
“steam” to catch quenks
Araliaceae
Dendropanax arboreus (L.) Decne. & Combine with leaves of the plants above to bathe dogs; Trinidad and Tobago 30
Planch. “steam” to catch quenks
Arecaceae
Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) Lodd. ex R, SE Not mentioned (R), makes cocks’ skin greasy (SE) Trinidad and Tobago 30, 32
Mart.
Cocos nucifera L. FR To prevent dehydration, for reduced appetite in chickens Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago 21, 29
Aristolochiaceae
Aristolochia rugosa Lam. AP Snakebites Trinidad and Tobago 30
Aristolochia trilobata L. L Snakebites Trinidad and Tobago 30
Asclepiadaceae
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America
Asclepias curassavica L. FL, L Wounds Trinidad and Tobago 28
Funastrum gracile (Decne.) Schltr. AP Treatment of galactagogue in cows Argentina 36
Asteraceae
Acanthospermum hispidum DC. R Cough Brazil 35
Ageratum conyzoides L. BK Inflamations Brazil 21
Ambrosia tenuifolia Spreng. AP For horses’ insolation, internal parasiticide for horses Argentina 36
Arnica montana L. L Cicatrizant, infections, inflammation in general, Brazil 21
traumatism
Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. AP Diuretic, expectorant, vulnerary Argentina 36
Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. L Used for scorpion stings Trinidad and Tobago 30
Egletes viscosa (L.) Less. SE Intestinal disorders Brazil 35
Neurolaena lobata (L.) Cass. L For reduced appetite in chickens Trinidad and Tobago 29
Pectis odorata Griseb. AP Oxytocic, for uterine atony in goats and cows, retained Argentina 36
placenta
Pluchea microcephala R.K. Godfrey AP Antidiarrheal, for bathing wounds, vulnerary, Argentina 36
Pluchea sagittalis (Lam.) Cabrera AP Antidiarrheal, for bathing wounds, vulnerary Argentina 36
Tessaria integrifolia Ruiz & Pav. ST Stick used to stop up the inside of goats’ horns after Argentina 36
treatment against tick fever
Vernonia scorpioides (Lam.) Pers. To stop bleeding, relieve inflammation; treatment of Trinidad and Tobago 30
stomach aches, asthma, intestinal parasites and
protection against snakebites
Bignoniaceae
Crescentia cujete L. FR Abortifacient Mexico 37
Bixaceae
Bixa orellana L. SE The pulp of the seeds is given to bulls before fights to Brazil 37
make them more active and ferocious
Bombacaceae
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Not mentioned Not mentioned Not mentioned 37

237
(continued)
238
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Family/Plant Name Parts Used Veterinary Uses Country Author
Pseudobombax marginatum (A. St.-Hil., BS Renal problems Brazil 35
Juss. & Cambess.) A. Robyns
Boraginaceae
Cordia curassavica (Jacq.) Roem. & L To repel ectoparasites from chickens and ducks, grooming Trinidad and Tobago 29, 31
Schult.
Heliotropium indicum L. L For weakness and retained placenta Brazil 35
Brassicaceae
Nasturtium officinale R. Br. L Increase blood count Trinidad and Tobago 31
Cactaceae
Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck AP Used as diaphoretic, for tendon problems, and for wounds Trinidad and Tobago 28, 31
Opuntia quimilo K. Schum. ST To remove thorns from horses Argentina 36
Capparaceae
Capparis flexuosa (L.) L. BK, L Intoxication Brazil 35
Capparis speciosa Griseb. BK Vulnerary and for skin myiasis Argentina 36
Capparis tweediana Eichler L Antidiarrheal Argentina 36
Caricaceae
Carica papaya L. FL, L Vermifuge in pigs Trinidad and Tobago 32
Cecropiaceae
Cecropia peltata L. L, R Used for snakebites (R), anhydrosis, kidney problems (L), to Trinidad and Tobago 30, 31,
ease labor pains in pigs or fed as a postpartum cleanser (L) 32
Chenopodiaceae
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. AP Antidiarrheal, for internal parasiticide, oxytocic—for Argentina, Brazil, Trinidad 21, 23,
uterine atony in goats and cows and retained placenta, and Tobago 32,
fractures, infections in general, inflammations, 35, 36
traumatism, and pneumonia
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America
Clusiaceae
Mammea americana L. BK Used against exoparasites Mexico, Trinidad and Tobago 37, 62
Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea asarifolia (Desr.) Roem. & BK, FR, L For scabies treatment Brazil 21, 35
Schult.
Ipomoea carnea Jacq. L Vulnerary: leaves are boiled and left to cool, then applied Argentina 36
directly on the wounds
Operculina alata Urb. TU Vermifuge Brazil 35
Operculina hamiltonii (G. Don) D.F. TU Vermifuge Brazil 22, 27
Austin & Staples
Operculina macrocarpa (Linn) Urb. Cicatrizant, vermifuge Brazil 21
Crassulaceae
Kalanchoe brasiliensis Cambess. L Inflammation Brazil 35
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. L Used as emollient on burns and inflamed tissues Trinidad and Tobago 28, 29
Cucurbitaceae
Cucumis anguria L. FR For kidney stone treatment Brazil 35
Cucurbita pepo L. SE Vermifuge Brazil 22, 27,
35
Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. FR Unripe fruit is used against bowel disease of domestic fowl Brazil 37
Luffa aegyptiaca Mill. FR Unripe fruit is used against bowel disease of domestic Brazil 37
fowl
Luffa operculata (L.) Cogn. FR Fever, bovine tick fever, and colic Brazil 35
Momordica charantia L. FR, L, ST For pruritus treatment, vermifuge, used for sick chickens, Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago 22, 27,
used as tonic, for blood purifier and skin rashes 29, 30,
31, 35
Erythroxylaceae
Erythroxylum coca Lam. L Oxytocic, for uterine atony in goats and cows, retained Argentina 36
placenta

239
(continued)
240
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Family/Plant Name Parts Used Veterinary Uses Country Author
Euphorbiaceae
Cnidoscolus phyllacanthus (Müll. Arg.) L Not mentioned Brazil 35
Pax & L. Hoffm.
Croton blanchetianus Baill. BK Not mentioned Brazil 34
Croton gossypiifolius Vahl L Used in dogs for successful hunting Trinidad and Tobago 30
Croton sonderianus Müll. Arg. BK For colics Brazil 35
Jatropha curcas L. L Used in dogs for successful hunting Trinidad and Tobago 30
Jatropha gossypiifolia L. BK, L For blindness treatment (BK), used in dogs for successful Trinidad and Tobago, Brazil 30, 35
hunting (L)
Jatropha hieronymi Kuntze FR Purgative, for acute constipation in horse Argentina 36
Jatropha mollissima (Pohl) Baill. LA To treat snakebites Brazil 20
Phyllanthus niruri L. L, ST, R Against renal problems, used in dogs for successful Trinidad and Tobago, Brazil 30, 35
hunting
Phyllanthus urinaria L. L Used in dogs for successful hunting Trinidad and Tobago 30
Ricinus communis L. L, SE To eliminate catarrh in equines (SE), tendon problems (L) Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago 31, 35
Sapium haematospermum Müll. Arg. L, ST Stick used to stop up the inside of goats’ horns after Argentina 36
treatment for tick fever, wounds
Fabaceae
Acacia albicorticata Burkart L Vulnerary Argentina 36
Acacia aroma Gillies ex Hook. & Arn. L, BK Vulnerary, for bathing wounds Argentina, Bolivia 25, 36
Amburana cearensis (Allemão) A.C. Sm. L Antidiarrheal, antiparasitical (endoparasites) Brazil 21
Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan BK For inflammation in general Bolivia, Brazil 25, 35
Bauhinia cumanensis Kunth AP Used for snakebites Trinidad and Tobago 30
Bauhinia guianensis Aubl. AP Used for snakebites Trinidad and Tobago 30
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America
Caesalpinia ferrea Mart. L Cicatrizant, for inflammation in general, to treat renal Brazil 21, 35
problems
Caesalpinia pyramidalis Tul. L Antidiarrheal, to treat intestinal infections Brazil 35
Cassia angustifolia Vahl L Inflammations in general Brazil 21
Cassia occidentalis L. BK Retained placenta Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago 21, 28
Cassia tora L. L Antiparasitical (for ticks) Brazil 37
Erythrina micropteryx Poepp. ex Urb. L Used to remove dead piglets from the uterus Trinidad and Tobago 32
Erythrina pallida Britton L Used to remove dead piglets from the uterus Trinidad and Tobago 32
Myroxylon peruiferum L. f. Not mentioned Not mentioned Bolivia 25
Geoffroea decorticans (Gillies ex Hook. BK, NU Oxytocic; for uterine atony in goats and cows; retained Argentina 36
& Arn.) Burkart placenta; the nutgalls employed are those that have an
echinulate surface
Leucaena glauca Benth. AP There is a prevalent belief that if horses, mules, or pigs eat Mexico 37
any part of the plant, their hairs will fall out
Mimosa albida Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. R For vision problems Mexico 33
Mimosa pudica L. R Used to induce estrus Trinidad and Tobago 28
Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd.) Poir. L Antibiotic, cicatrizant, for general inflammation Brazil 21, 35
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. L Used in for enhanced performance Trinidad and Tobago 31
Pithecellobium unguis-cati (L.) Benth. Not mentioned Not mentioned Trinidad and Tobago 30
Prosopis alba Griseb. FR, L Galactagogue for cows; purgative; against acute Argentina 36
constipation in horses
Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. FR To treat heart problems Brazil 35
Prosopis ruscifolia Griseb. FR, L Galactagogue for cows, vulnerary Argentina 36
Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth. L High protein feed Trinidad and Tobago 31
Senna alexandrina Mill. BK, whole To treat foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) Brazil 35
plant
Senna morongii (Britton) H.S. Irwin & L Vulnerary; for bathing all kinds of wounds Argentina 36
Barneby

241
(continued)
242
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Family/Plant Name Parts Used Veterinary Uses Country Author
Tamarindus indica L. FR Used as laxative and anti-inflammatory Brazil 35
Tipuana tipu (Benth.) Kuntze Not mentioned Not mentioned Bolivia 25
Haemodoraceae
Xiphidium caeruleum Aubl. L Used to help hunting dogs in Trinidad run fast and Trinidad and Tobago 30
“brighten them up”
Lamiaceae
Calamintha officinalis Moench AP For colic and indigestion Brazil 35
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. FL, L Antidiarrhetic Brazil 35
Mentha villosa Huds. L To treat amoeba and giardia infections Brazil 35
Ocimum basilicum L. SE For keratitis in cows; the seeds are placed directly in the Argentina 36
animal’s eyes
Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. L Cough Brazil 35
Rosmarinus officinalis L. Not mentioned For stomach problems Mexico 33
Lauraceae
Laurus nobilis L. L Preventive; used to fumigate the stock pens together with Argentina 36
lemon peel when the cattle die for no known reason
Liliaceae
Allium cepa L. BU To treat cataract Brazil 35
Allium sativum L. BU Expectorant; against acute adenitis in horses, snakebites Argentina, Brazil, Trinidad 21, 29,
and insect bites; against canine distemper; for and Tobago 35, 36
hypothermia caused by spider bites or malaria; against
endoparasites; to treat mastitis and pneumonia; for
reduced appetite in chickens
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. L Febrifuge: for fever caused by spider bites in horses and Argentina, Brazil, Trinidad 21, 28,
dogs; antidiarrheal; cicatrizant; purgative; to treat rabies; and Tobago 29, 31,
used for retained placenta and traumatism; vermifuge 32, 36
Loranthaceae
Struthanthus angustifolius (Griseb.) AP Oxytocic: for uterine atony in goats and cows, for retained Argentina 36
Hauman placenta
Tripodanthus acutifolius (Ruiz & Pav.) AP Oxytocic: for uterine atony in goats and cows, for retained Argentina 36
Tiegh. placenta
Lythraceae
Heimia salicifolia Link R Antidiarrheal Argentina 36
Malvaceae
Malva sylvestris L. L Anti-inflammatory Brazil 35
Meliaceae
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Trinidad and Tobago 28, 29
Cedrela odorata L. BK, L Used for alimentary intoxication (BK), to repel ectoparasites Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago 29, 35
from chickens and ducks and their environments (L)
Monimiaceae
Peumus boldus Molina L Antidiarrheal, antiemetic, and for liver and stomach Brazil 21, 35
disturbances
Myrtaceae
Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm. L Expectorant Argentina 36
Myrcia uniflora Barb. Rodr. L Diabetes Brazil 35
Pimenta racemosa (Mill.) J.W. Moore L Used for respiratory conditions and as diaphoretic Trinidad and Tobago 29, 31
Psidium guajava L. BK, SP Antidiarrhetic Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago 21, 28,
31, 35
Olacaceae
Ximenia americana L. FR Galactagogue for cows Argentina, Brazil 21, 35,
36

243
(continued)
244
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Family/Plant Name Parts Used Veterinary Uses Country Author
Orchidaceae
Sarcoglottis acaulis (Sm.) Schltr. AP Used in dogs for successful hunting Trinidad and Tobago 30
Oxalidaceae
Oxalis corniculata L. Not mentioned Enhanced performance in horses Trinidad and Tobago 31
Papaveraceae
Argemone subfusiformis G.B. Ownbey L, LA, ST Cicatrizant and to control cattle ticks Peru 26
Phytolaccaceae
Petiveria alliacea L. Not mentioned Used to induce estrus and as anthelmintic, make dogs Argentina, Trinidad and 28, 29,
more alert Tobago 30, 36
Piperaceae
Lepianthes peltata (L.) Raf. ex R.A. L Make dogs run faster Trinidad and Tobago 30
Howard
Ottonia ovata (Vahl) Trel. L, ST, R To put it in the dog’s nose or wash the dog’s nose with Trinidad and Tobago 30
decoction
Piper scabrum Sw. L Leaves are used to bathe dogs Trinidad and Tobago 30
Plantaginaceae
Plantago major L. L Ocular injuries in backyard chickens Trinidad and Tobago 32
Poaceae
Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex J.C. Wendl. L For retained placenta and to ease pig labor pains or fed as Trinidad and Tobago 22, 26
a postpartum cleanser
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf L Used as sedative Brazil 35
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. AP Emetic: dogs spontaneously eat its leaves when they suffer Argentina 36
from indigestion
Oryza sativa L. Not mentioned For retained placenta Trinidad and Tobago 28
Panicum maximum Jacq. L Used for grooming Trinidad and Tobago 31
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America
Paspalum conjugatum P.J. Bergius Not mentioned Used with other plants to prepare hunting dogs Brazil 37
Zea mays L. FL, MR, STG Against canine distemper (MR), diuretic for horses (STG), Argentina, Brazil 35, 36
disinfectant of urinary tract (STG), oxytocic for uterine
atony in horses and for retained placenta (FL)
Polygonaceae
Polygonum punctatum Elliott L Vulnerary: to bathe wounds Argentina 36
Ruprechtia triflora Griseb. L Antidiarrheal Argentina 36
Portulacaceae
Portulaca oleracea L. AP Purgative Argentina 36
Punicaceae
Punica granatum L. FR Anti-inflammatory; for gastritis, ulcers Brazil 35
Ranunculaceae
Clematis dioica L. L To treat glanders in horses, donkeys, and mules Mexico 33
Clematis montevidensis Spreng. FR Expectorant Argentina 36
Rhamnaceae
Ziziphus joazeiro Mart. BK Cicatrizant and to treat rabies Brazil 35
Rubiaceae
Coffea arabica L. GR Given to scouring pigs Trinidad and Tobago 32
Coffea robusta Linden GR Given to scouring pigs Trinidad and Tobago 32
Coutarea hexandra (Jacq.) K. Schum. BK Bovine tick fever Brazil 35
Pogonopus tubulosus (A. Rich.) K. Schum. Not mentioned Used to heal castration wounds of small domestic animals Bolivia 25
Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes BK General inflammation, against endoparasites, to treat Brazil 21, 35
bronchitis and catarrh
Staelia scabra (C. Presl) Standl. AP To treat rages Mexico 33
Rutaceae
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle FR For respiratory conditions Trinidad and Tobago 29
Citrus aurantium L. FR For respiratory conditions; juice included in pig diet Trinidad and Tobago 29, 32
before slaughter to reduce fat

245
(continued)
246
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Family/Plant Name Parts Used Veterinary Uses Country Author
Citrus limetta Risso FR For respiratory conditions Trinidad and Tobago 29
Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. FR Preventive; the peel is used to fumigate the stock pens Argentina 36
together with leaves of Laurus nobilis when the cattle die
for no known reason
Citrus medica L. FR Used for upper respiratory problems and as a purgative in Trinidad and Tobago 32
backyard chickens
Citrus x limon (L.) Osbeck FR Against endoparasites, to treat pneumonia Brazil 21
Salicaceae
Salix humboldtiana Willd. ST Oxytocic: for uterine atony in goats and cow and for Argentina 36
retained placenta
Sapotaceae
Bumelia sartorum Mart. BK To treat genital tract infections Brazil 35
Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen Not mentioned Not mentioned Trinidad and Tobago 62
Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H.E. Moore & Not mentioned Not mentioned Trinidad and Tobago 62
Stearn
Sideroxylon obtusifolium (Humb. ex AP, BK, R Oxytocic: for uterine atony in goats and cows (AP, BK, Argentina 36
Roem. & Schult.) T.D. Penn. R); purgative (R )
Scrophulariaceae
Scoparia dulcis L. Not mentioned Used as expectorant Brazil 35
Solanaceae
Capsicum annuum L. L Anhydrosis Trinidad and Tobago 31
Capsicum chacoense Hunz. FR For anuria in horses Argentina 36
Capsicum frutescens L. Not mentioned Not mentioned Brazil 37
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. FR Used to treat tumors Brazil 35
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America
Nicotiana tabacum L. L Hypothermia in horses caused by spider bites or malaria; Argentina, Trinidad and 30, 36
cleans dog’s nose to improve its ability to follow a scent Tobago
Physalis viscosa L. AP Emetic Argentina 36
Solanum aridum Morong AP Purgative for fighting roosters Argentina 36
Solanum melongena L. BK Inflammations in general Brazil 21
Solanum paniculatum L. BK Inflammations in general Brazil 35
Sterculiaceae
Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl. SE Used for snakebites Trinidad and Tobago 30
Theobroma cacao L. FR Used for wounds Trinidad and Tobago 28
Ulmaceae
Celtis chichape (Wedd.) Miq. L Antidiarrheal, emetic Argentina 36
Urticaceae
Laportea aestuans (L.) Chew Trinidad and Tobago 28
Parietaria debilis G. Forst. AP Purgative for fighting roosters Argentina 36
Verbenaceae
Aloysia polystachya (Griseb.) Moldenke AP Digestive Argentina 36
Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Br. AP Antidiarrheal; against vomit, colic; to treat tympany Brazil 21, 35
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl L Used to increase milk production and as anthelmintic Trinidad and Tobago 28, 31
Verbena hispida Ruiz & Pav. Not mentioned Not mentioned Bolivia 25
Viscaceae
Phoradendron hieronymi Trel. AP Oxytocic: for uterine atony in goats and cows and for Argentina 36
retained placenta
Phoradendron liga (Gillies ex Hook. & Oxytocic: for uterine atony in goats and cows and for Argentina 36
Arn.) Eichler retained placenta
Zingiberaceae
Aframomum melegueta K. Schum. SE Dry seeds are ground to a powder and sprinkled on the Trinidad and Tobago 30
dog’s food
Alpinia speciosa (Blume) D. Dietr. FL Cough Brazil 35

247
(continued)
248
Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Table 10.1 (continued)
Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Latin America
Family/Plant Name Parts Used Veterinary Uses Country Author
Costus scaber Ruiz & Pav. ST Used for snakebites Trinidad and Tobago 30
Curcuma longa L. RI For retained placenta, wounds Trinidad and Tobago 28, 31
Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) Maas L To repel ectoparasites from chickens and ducks and their Trinidad and Tobago 29, 30
environments
Zingiber officinale Roscoe R Antiseptic, antiphlogistic Brazil 35
Zygophyllaceae
Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb. DU Expectorant Argentina 36

AP = aerial parts; BK = bark; BU = bulb; DU = duramen; FL = flower; FR = fruit; GR = grounds; LA = latex; L = leaves; MR = cob; NU = nutgalls; R = root; RI = rhizome;
SE = seed; SP = sprouts; ST = stalk; STG = stigma; TU = tuber.
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America 249

Access also exerts a significant role in influencing the type of medicine used. Phillips
and Gentry,51 investigating the useful plants of Tambopata, Peru, reported that easily
accessed plants offer more possibilities for local populations to experiment with their
uses, thus having a greater probability of being introduced into the local culture. As
remarked by Alves and Rosa,55 the use of local, more easily accessible resources is
possibly related to historic aspects (i.e., medicinal knowledge focusing on species
familiar to the locals, reflecting transmission of knowledge through generations) and
to financial constraints that limit access to alloctonous resources.
Common plant uses by distantly located and distinct ethnic groups point to a
similar evolution of indigenous knowledge and may confirm the credibility of the
medicinal value of the plants. The information on popular plant uses in one location
could be useful to other places having the same plants but not using them the same
way. The value of studies comparing the ethnobotany of distant and distinct regions
within a country or of different countries is universally recognized now. Such com-
parative studies yield valuable information on the uses and properties of plants and
the width and depth of indigenous knowledge.37
It is known that the use of medicinal animals is common in several countries in
Latin America,2,56,57 and that often there are overlaps in the medicinal use of both
plants and animals in traditional medicine for humans.2,58 Similarly, in ethnovet-
erinary medicine, these overlaps also occur. In semiarid areas of Brazil, medicinal
plants are used in association with animal parts for ethnoveterinary purposes. This
is not surprising given that the use of animal products is common in traditional
medicine, although scientific studies into these practices are rare. Barboza et al.23
recorded the utilization of animals (zootherapeutics) as sources of medicines in folk
veterinary medicine (ethnoveterinary medicine) in semiarid northeast Brazil and
verified that 15 different animal species are used in the prevention or treatment of
veterinary diseases in that region. There therefore appears to be a close association
between phytotherapeutic and zootherapeutic practices in traditional medicine, both
human and veterinary.
Animal and human medicine have been closely linked throughout history. Some
diseases affect both animals and humans and can be treated with similar remedies.
This way, many plants used in ethnoveterinary medicine are also used for the treat-
ment of human diseases. In Brazil, for instance, São Caetano’s melon (Mormodica
charantia L.), the purga potato (Operculina hamiltonii), and the pumpkin’s seed
(Cucurbita pepo L.) are used as vermifuge in veterinary medicine, probably similar
to the same way they are prepared in human medicine.21,27 A similar trend has been
observed by Lans et al.32 in Canada, where the utilization of a popular medicine
composed of Juglans nigra and Artemisia annua is used for the treatment of dogs
with roundworms based on the usage of this medicine for humans. Studies in the
traditional management of diarrhea in humans59 have shown that Psidium guajava is
widely used in ethnoveterinary medicine.60 In Trinidad and Tobago, the ethnoveteri-
nary uses of Psidium guajava and Anacardium occidentale for diarrhea have trans-
ferred directly from similar use in humans.61 The use of the seeds of Pouteria sapota,
Manilkara zapota, and Mammea americana for ectoparasite control in dogs is pos-
sibly derived from the human folk use against the chiggoe flea (Tunga penetrans
Linn.).62 This practice is also reported for M. americana seeds in Suriname63 and by
250 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

the Chocó Indians.64 In Calabria region, southern Italy, erva lupara (Scrophularia
canina L.) is used in ethnoveterinary medicine and in human ethnomedicine.65 These
results support other studies that have revealed that in most traditional societies there
is no clear division between veterinary and human medicine.66
Scarpa36 reported a strong parallel among the plants used in traditional veteri-
nary medicine by the Chaco nation in the Argentinean northwest, where 60% of the
reports stated as therapeutic correlate to plants used by humans. Such similarities
of uses of plants is evidence of the fact that ethnoveterinary practices and human
ethnomedicine have probably followed two main evolutionary pathways: one based
on the observations of self-medication in animals (zoopharmacognosy) and the other
related to human folk medicine, as reported by Pieroni et al.49 The use of folk rem-
edies in animals to treat diseases or conditions based on similar or identical illnesses
that attack humans has been termed the “human model for diseases in animals” by
Barboza et al.23 The relationships between ethnoveterinary and human ethnomedi-
cine on this perspective can be easily explainable since mammals are the main stock
animals (e.g., cattle, sheeps, goats, pigs, among others). Regarding this, animals usu-
ally face health problems that also affect humans, being noticed in identical symp-
tomatology by several people or communities. However, this cannot be taken as a
rule for all particular cases.

10.4 Scientific Studies
Many diseases affect livestock and other animals, and causal organisms of disease
include protozoa, viruses, bacteria, fungi, and helminth parasites. Ticks are impor-
tant vectors of several economically important ailments, such as heartwater, ana-
plasmosis, sweating sickness, and babesiosis, and several plant remedies are used
to rid animals of ticks. Ethnoveterinary medicine may play a significant role in the
management of such diseases in a cost-effective and accessible manner, and there
are an increasing number of publications in the scientific literature reporting on the
ethnopharmacological activity of plants used in traditional veterinary medicine. One
example is Aloe species, which have been in use as broad-spectrum therapeutics in
ethnomedicine.67 Their antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities have been
established, as extensively reviewed by Reynolds and Dwecks.68 Aloe vera has been
shown to have antibacterial activity against a wide range of both Gram-positive
and -negative bacteria.67 Aloe-emodin, an anthraquinone from many species of aloe,
was shown to have effect against four strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus69 and showed activity against S. aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Proteus
vulgaris, and Bacillus subtilis.70 Also, high levels of antibacterial efficacy in extracts
of Ziziphus mucronata (Rhamnaceae) were observed.71 Compounds were isolated
from leaves of this species: 2,3-dihydroxyl-up-20-en-28-oic acid and zizyberanalic
acid.72 The first compound demonstrated excellent activity against Staphylococcus
aureus, promoting claims of the efficacy of a Ziziphus mucronata leaf paste in
treating bacterial infections in animals and humans. A promising area of research
involves the investigation of antitick activity of plant extracts, entailing observa-
tion of tick repellent and toxic effects of plants. Allium species were investigated for
repellency and toxicity against Hyalomma marginatum rufipes adults.73 The acetone
Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin America 251

extract of Allium porrum revealed a high repellency index (65–79.48%), and Allium
sativum dichloromethane extract was toxic to 100% of ticks within an hour of expo-
sure. Essential oils from the aerial parts of Lippia javanica and Tagetes minuta were
repellent toward the ticks in a concentration-dependent manner.73 In a growth inhibi-
tion bioassay, it was shown that Tagetes minuta essential oil delayed molting to adult
stage of 60% of engorged nymphs of Hyalomma marginatum rufipes.73
As apparent in the examples above, the chemical constituents and pharmacological
actions of some plant products are already known to some extent, and ethnopharmaco-
logical studies focused on plant remedies could be important in clarifying the eventual
therapeutic usefulness of this class of biological remedies. Unfortunately, relatively
little research has been conducted on the bioactivity of plants used for ethnoveterinary
purposes in particular. As pointed by McGaw and Eloff 74 (see also Chapter 2), it is
essential to evaluate not only the bioactivity but also the safety of such plant treatments
if their use is to be promoted and potentially developed for commercial purposes. It is,
however, expensive and ethically complex to conduct in vivo experiments, and large
quantities of test material and specialized facilities are required.

10.5 Conclusion
Our results have found that a substantial number of plant species (n = 201) are used
in veterinary traditional medicine, and that the vast majority of these species are
collected from the wild. This indicates the very rich ethnomedical knowledge of the
local population in relation to plants used in ethnoveterinary medicine. However,
considering the wealth of biological resources in the subcontinent, this finding is a
gross underestimation of the length and breadth of plants used for ethnoveterinary
purposes. This justifies the call for more and extensive anthropological and scientific
studies on the subject.
Medicinal plants represent an alternative or a complement to conventional medi-
cine in Latin America as they do elsewhere in resource-poor countries, particularly
in Africa and Asia. As pointed by Alves and Rosa,75 the linkages between biodiver-
sity and human health are especially important for developing countries. Biodiversity
is a source of invaluable raw materials and materia medica. Traditional medicine is
widely available and affordable, even in remote areas, and generally is accessible to
most people. In many developing countries, a large part of the population, especially
in rural areas, depends mainly on traditional medicine for their primary health care
because it is cheaper and more accessible than orthodox medicine.76–78
The documentation and conservation of medicinal plants (for humans and ani-
mals) is therefore highly recommended. Many parts of Latin America are rapidly
being altered, both ecologically and culturally. According to Calixto,18 despite the
many individual efforts of the governments to preserve the biological resources for
future generations in Latin America, traditional knowledge, especially that associ-
ated with traditional medicine, is fast disappearing. The protection and revival of
traditional medical knowledge and practice in thousands of ethnic communities is an
important means of providing affordable and sustainable health care. The knowledge
that traditional health practitioners, women, and farmers can bring to identifying,
implementing, and managing environmental conservation and cultivation programs
252 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

is seldom sought or utilized. Consequently, local health traditions, many of which


are oral in nature and therefore largely undocumented, are being lost.
The medicinal use of plants for treating various disorders in humans and in their
animals is a centuries-old tradition in many cultures. The possible benefit of plant-
derived medications constitutes a rewarding area of research, particularly in areas
such as Latin America that have a rich biodiversity of resources. The literature on
ethnoveterinary botanicals from Latin America is sparse, and there is a great neces-
sity for more studies, principally considering the cultural, socioeconomic, and eco-
logical importance associated with plant utilization in ethnoveterinary medicine in
the region. Conservation programs of both biological and cultural diversity in Latin
America should be a priority of governments, researchers, and donors in the region.

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11 Ethnoveterinary Medicine
in Southern Africa
Viola Maphosa, Peter Tshisikhawe,
Kaizer Thembo, and Patrick Masika

Contents
11.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 257
11.2 Medicinal Preparations.................................................................................. 258
11.3 Plants Used in Southern Africa..................................................................... 259
11.3.1 Amaryllidaceae.............................................................................. 259
11.3.2 Anacardiaceae................................................................................ 259
11.3.3 Apocynaceae.................................................................................. 275
11.3.4 Asparagaceae................................................................................. 275
11.3.5 Asphodelaceae............................................................................... 276
11.3.6 Asteraceae...................................................................................... 276
11.3.7 Combretaceae................................................................................. 276
11.3.8 Euphorbiaceae................................................................................ 277
11.3.9 Fabaceae (Leguminosae)............................................................... 278
11.3.10 Geraniaceae.................................................................................... 278
11.3.11 Hyacinthaceae................................................................................ 279
11.3.12 Lamiaceae (Labiatae)..................................................................... 279
11.3.13 Solanaceae......................................................................................280
11.3.14 Vitaceae..........................................................................................280
11.4 The Way Forward.......................................................................................... 281
11.5 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 281
References............................................................................................................... 282

11.1 Introduction
Ethnoveterinary medicines (EVMs) have been in use since time immemorial.
The era of treating EVM and any other ethnic knowledge system with suspi-
cion and labeling it as myth, superstition, and witchcraft is long gone (Wanzala
et al., 2005). The role of EVM in livestock development in resource-poor settings
is beyond dispute (Martin, Mathias, and McCorkle, 2001), and a great number
of professionals have since the 1970s recognized, documented, and studied the
potential effectiveness of the traditional animal health care practices embodied in
native and local communities. Part of this work has also extended to attempts to
validate traditional use in laboratory in vitro assays. It is, however, important to

257
258 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

keep in mind that lack of activity in a laboratory—based on an in vitro screening


system—does not automatically correspond to lack of in vivo or clinical efficacy
(McGaw and Eloff, 2008).
Traditional knowledge is usually passed on from generation to generation orally,
and this poses the danger of it being distorted or totally lost. Masika, van Averbeeke,
and Sonandi (2000) reported the urgent need for documentation of rapidly disap-
pearing local EVM knowledge and conservation of medicinal plant resources.
Diseases of livestock potentially have severe economic impacts, ranging from pro-
duction losses to mortality and morbidity, particularly in cultures in which animals
are equated with wealth and are central to livelihoods (McGaw and Eloff, 2008).
The search for effective and affordable remedies to combat diseases in animals is
therefore inevitable and is ongoing. In southern Africa, livestock keepers have used
traditional veterinary methods to treat livestock diseases for generations. This is
socially and culturally accepted because the treatment is easily accessible and rea-
sonably cheap (Githiori, Athanasiadou, and Thamsborg, 2006). Plants comprise the
largest component of the diverse therapeutic armamentarium of traditional livestock
health management practices (Sori et al., 2004).
In southern Africa, EVM continues to play an important part in animal health.
Southern Africa consists of 11 countries, stretches from South Africa to Tanzania,
and has a population of just over 165 million people. Cattle, goats, sheep, and chick-
ens are of economic and cultural importance to people of this region. This chap-
ter discusses different methods of traditional medicine preparations by farmers and
herbalists.

11.2 Medicinal Preparations
Many aspects of EVM need to be taken into account, for example, methods of prepa-
ration and administration of the remedy, as well as management practices to limit the
impact of the disease (McGaw and Eloff, 2008). Medicinal plants are prepared and
administered in several ways; they may be prepared and used either individually or in
combinations for therapeutic purposes. These will be in different formulations, such as
powder, paste, decoction, infusion, and so on, and are usually administered either orally
or topically.
A decoction is prepared by boiling herbs or plant materials such as leaves, roots,
or barks. The decoction is then cooled, after which the water extract is strained and
administered to animals either orally or topically. This differs from an infusion,
which is prepared by soaking the plant material (maceration) (e.g., leaves, roots, or
barks) in cold water for some time.
A paste is prepared by pounding or crushing fresh plant material, which can then
be topically applied to affected areas, especially when treating wounds in animals.
A small quantity of water may be added, especially when the paste is being prepared
from woody plant species, whereas water may not be required for paste prepared
from succulent species. Water may again be added if plant material was dried first.
The medicinal materials are first dried and then pounded into powder. The pow-
der may be either dissolved in water for animals to be given orally or placed on
affected areas, especially wounds, thereby covering the wounds.
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa 259

11.3 Plants Used in Southern Africa


Several plant species are used for animal health care in southern Africa (Table 11.1
and Table 11.2). Some of them are discussed in greater depth here. What is imme-
diately interesting is the fact that many of the plant species used are known to be
toxic (e.g., those of the families Amaryllidaceae, Hyacinthaceae, and Solanaceae).
It is difficult to document fatalities among animals due to administration of these
products, but they are likely to be negligible because the users are knowledge-
able about dose and methods of preparation, which limit toxicity while optimizing
the therapeutic benefits. This is similar to the use of herbals in humans or pharma-
ceuticals, which can only be done safely when dispensed by trained professionals.
In this case, these “professionals” would be experienced farmers, herbalists, or
traditional healers.

11.3.1 Amaryllidaceae
The Amaryllidaceae occur largely in the Southern Hemisphere with the distribution
centered mainly in South America and southern Africa (Arroyo and Cutler, 1984).
Of the 64 genera, there are those that are endemic and unique to the two regions.
Amaryllidaceae species are used widely for treating cattle, with the bulbs being
the most commonly used, despite fatalities due to the toxic alkaloids that are known
to occur in this taxa (Hutchings et al., 1996). Toxicity symptoms include excessive
salivation, nausea, dizziness, dysrhythmias, visual disturbances, and dermatitis.
Apart from the alkaloids, flavonoids have also been reported (Louw, Regnier, and
Korsten, 2002).
Boophane disticha is used to treat redwater and constipation in cattle and
to facilitate the healing of broken limbs (Dold and Cocks, 2001) as well as to
induce abortion (Van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001). It is also used to treat
wounds and has some antibacterial activity (Shale, Stirk, and Van Staden, 1999).
It contains toxic and apparently hallucinogenic alkaloids (De Smet, 1996). Of
the 130 species of Crinum worldwide, 30 are endemic to southern Africa and
widely used in traditional medicine (Nair et al., 2000; Hutchings et al., 1996). In
cattle, it is used to treat scabies (Begum and Nath, 2000). Crinum species con-
tain phenanthridine alkaloids (Fennell and van Staden, 2001), which are used as
analgesics and possess antitumor, antiviral, and anticholinergic activity (Lewis,
1990; Pham et al., 1998). In Zimbabwe, the bulbs of Crinum macowanii are used
as emetics and to improve lactation in both animals and humans (Mavi, 1994).

11.3.2 Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae Lindl., more widely known as the cashew family, is economically
important because of its widely cultivated edible fruits and nuts (e.g., mangoes and
pistachio and cashew nuts; Pell, 2004). It has over 700 species distributed in 82 gen-
era in the tropics.
In southern Africa, Ozoroa, Rhus, and Sclerocarya are the important medicinal
taxa and are widely used in treating both humans and animals. Ozoroa paniculosa is
260
Table 11.1
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Family Species Indication Plant Part Used Chemical Constituents Activity Screened for

Amaryllidaceae Ammocharis Used medicinally for cattle Unspecified Alkaloids, organic acid, and
coranica (Gerstner, 1938) parts hemolytic saponin (Watt and
(Ker-Gawl.) Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
Herb.
Amaryllidaceae Crinum moorei Used medicinally for cattle Unspecified Lycorine, cherylline,
Hook. F. (Gerstner, 1938) parts crinamidine, crinidine,
dihycrinidine, powelline, and
phenols (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962)
Anacardiaceae Ozoroa Abdominal problems in animals Bark, root bark Volatile oil (Watt and Breyer-
paniculosa (Hutchings et al., 1996); diarrhea, Brandwijk, 1962)
(Sond.) R. & A. red water, sweating sickness (Van
Fernandes der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001)
Anacardiaceae Rhus lancea L.f. Diarrhea, gall sickness (Van der Roots, bark Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001) shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
Anacardiaceae Sclerocarya birrea Diarrhea, fractures (Van der Merwe, Bark Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
(A. Rich.) Swan, and Botha, 2001) shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
Hochst. Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
Apiaceae Heteromorpha Zulus use bark for colic, scrofula, Bark, roots Falcarindiola and sarisan
trifoliate and vermifuge for horses (Gerstner, (antifungal) (Villegas et al.,
(Wendl.) Eckl. & 1938); Xhosa use roots for 1988)
Zeyh. threadworm in horses (Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962); red
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa
water, gall sickness (Masika, van
Averbeeke, and Sonandi, 2000)
Apocynaceae Secamone Infectious diseases in cattle (L.J. Aerial parts Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
filiformis (L.f.) McGaw, personal communication, shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
J.H. Ross 2009) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
Apocynaceae Strophanthus Given to cattle for snakebite Unspecified Cardiac glycosides stropeside and
speciosus (Ward (Hutchings et al., 1996) christyoside (Watt and
& Harv.) Reber Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
Araliaceae Cossonia spicata Leaves applied in hot fomentations Leaves, bark Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
Thunb. to goats paralyzed in their hind shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
quarters (Palmer and Pitman, Merwe, and Eloff, 2007);
1972); bark used for retained antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
placenta in stock, leaves used to mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
treat endometritis and vaginitis in
cows, bark decoction for gall
sickness in cattle (Dold and Cocks,
2001; Masika, van Averbeeke, and
Sonandi, 2000)
Asclepiadaceae Sacrostemma Stem used to encourage lactation in Stems, aerial Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
viminale (L.) R. cows, galactogue in cows (Dold parts mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
Br. and Cocks, 2001); wounds and
maggots (Luseba and van der
Merwe, 2006)
Asphodelaceae Aloe arborescens Used to drench sick calves Leaf decoctions Aloin, barbaloin, aloes emodin,
Mill. (Hutchings et al., 1996) aloenin, polysaccharides,
lectins, and other compounds
(Hutchings et al., 1996)

261
(continued)
262
Table 11.1 (Continued)
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Family Species Indication Plant Part Used Chemical Constituents Activity Screened for

Asphodelaceae Aloe marlothii Newcastle disease in chickens Leaves Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,


Berger (Luseba and van der Merwe, 2006); mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007);
gall sickness, parasites, diarrhea, antirickettsial (Naidoo, Zweygarth,
constipation, retained placenta, and Swan, 2006); antibabesial
dystocia, maggots (Van der Merwe, (Naidoo et al., 2005)
Swan, and Botha, 2001)
Asteraceae Bidens pilosa L. Equine anthelmintics (Hutchings Unspecified The polyacetylene
et al., 1996) phenylheptatrine and
chalcomenes (Graham, Graham,
and Towers, 1980; Hoffman and
Hoelzl, 1988)
Asteraceae Brachylaena Anthelmintics for calves, sheep, and Dried leaf milk Onopordopicrin (Zdero and
discolor DC. goats (Hutchings et al., 1996) infusions Bohlmann, 1987)
Asteraceae Callilepis laureola Used to kill maggots in cattle (Watt Root paste Atractyloside and its aglycone
DC. and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) atractyligenin (Candy et al.,
1977)
Asteraceae Dicoma anomala Gall sickness in stock animals; Root decoctions Germacranolides (Hutchings
Sond. powdered plants used for sores and et al., 1996)
wounds on horses (Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
Asteraceae Microglossa Tonics for stock animals (Hutchings Infusions from Epi-friedelinol and C17 acetylenic
mespilifolia et al., 1996) leaves and compounds (Bohlmann and
(Less.) B.L. stems Fritz, 1979)
Robinson
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa
Asteraceae Printzia pyrifolia Used for treating calves (Gerstner, Roots Matricaria ester and p-coumarate
Less. 1939) (Bohlmann and Zdero, 1978a)
Asteraceae Schkuhria pinnata Eye infections, pneumonia, diarrhea, Aerial parts Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
(Lam.) Thell. heartwater (Van der Merwe, Swan, shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
and Botha, 2001) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007);
antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
Asteraceae Senecio Swellings in animals (Hutchings Leaves A tricyclic sesquiterpenoid,
oxyriifolius DC. et al., 1996) angelogyl, and bisabolenes
(Bohlmann and Zdero, 1978b)
Asteraceae Vernonia Used by Zulus to treat calves Root, leaves Squalene, vernolide, and
neocorymbosa (Gerstner, 1939); root decoctions vernodalin from aerial parts and
Hilliard administered by Lobedu as 13-hydroxybisabol-2,
anthelmintics to donkeys 10-dien-1-one and small
(Hutchings et al., 1996); pounded amounts of onopordopicrin in
leaf and root infusions administered roots (Bohlmann, Ates,
by VhaVenda as anthelmintics to Jakupovic, 1983)
domestic animals (Mabogo, 1990)
Capparaceae Capparis Root ash paste applied to sore teats Paste made from The alkaloids stachydrine
tomentosa Lam. in cows; root infusions used for root ashes, root (Dictionary of Natural Products,
stomach ailments in animals, infusions, and 1996) and 3-hydroxy-4-
particularly diarrhea in cattle (Watt decoctions methoxy-3-methyl-oxyndole
and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Pujol, (Dekker et al., 1987)
1990); root decoction for gall
sickness in stock (Dold and Cocks,
2001)

(continued)

263
264
Table 11.1 (Continued)
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Family Species Indication Plant Part Used Chemical Constituents Activity Screened for

Celastraceae Maytenus Administered by Zulus to stock Bark and leaf Dulcitol, a spermidine alkaloid,
heterophylla animals for diarrhea (Watt and infusions celacinnine, triterpenoids,
(Eckl. & Zeyh. ) Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962 ) maytansine (Hutchings et al.,
N.K.B. Robson 1996)
Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium Decoctions made from plants mixed Unspecified Hydrocyanic acid, potassium
album L. with Chenopodiun ambrosioides oxalate, ascorbic acid,
administered to goats and sheep for sitosterol, oleanic acid (Watt
anemia (Hutchings et al., 1996) and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962;
Hutchings et al., 1996)
Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium Decoctions made from plants mixed Unspecified Saponins (Watt and Breyer-
ambrosioides L. with Chenopodium album Brandwijk, 1962); flavonoids
administered to goats and sheep for quercetin and oxalic, malic, and
anemia (Hutchings et al., 1996) succinic acids; triterpenoid
glycosides, chenopodoside
A and B, amino acids, ascaridole
(Hutchings et al., 1996)
Colchicaceae Gloriosa Used to kill lice, for skin eruptions, Corms Colchicine, chelidinic acid, various
superba L. tick infestations, and screw-worm on alkaloids, and other constituents
cattle (Gerstner, 1939; Roberts, 1990) (Hutchings et al., 1996)
Combretaceae Combretum Conjunctivitis (Masika, van Drops from Antibacterial, antifungal (Masika and
caffrum (Eckl. & Averbeeke, and Sonandi, 2000) squeezed Afolayan, 2002)
Zeyh.) Kuntze leaves
Cucurbitaceae Cucumis africanus Used as animal medicines by the Unspecified Toxic cucurbitacins (Hutchings
L.f. Xhosa (Hutchings et al., 1996) et al., 1996)
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa
Dioscroreaceae Dioscorea Sores and wounds in animals and Water heated in An alkaloid and organic acids
dregeana (Kunth) humans by Xhosa (Watt and scooped out (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,
Dur. & Schinz Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) tuber 1962)
Dioscroreaceae Dioscorea Swollen udders and uterine problems Lotions from Diosgenin (Watt and Breyer-
sylvatica (Kunth) in cows (Watt and Breyer- boiled crushed Brandwijk, 1962)
Eckl. Brandwijk, 1962) inner parts of
tubers
Euphorbiaceae Jatropha zeyheri General ailments, diarrhea (Luseba Roots Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
Sond. and van der Merwe, 2006) mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
Euphorbiaceae Ricinus Administered as purgative to calves Powdered seed Seeds contain a fixed oil, ricin, Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
communis L. refusing to suckle (Hutchings et al., lipases, and ricinine (Trease and shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
1996); constipation, internal Evans, 1983) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007);
parasites (Van der Merwe, Swan, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
and Botha, 2001) mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
Euphorbiaceae Synadenium Eye infection, blackquarter (Luseba Milky latex Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
cupulare (Boiss.) and van der Merwe, 2006) shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
L.C. Wheeler Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
Fabaceae Adenopodia Powdered roots used by Zulus to Roots, bark Saponins (Watt and Breyer-
spicata (E. Mey.) fatten goats (Hutchings et al., Brandwijk, 1962)
Presl 1996); Mfengu use bark for colds
in horses (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962)
Fabaceae Calpurnia aurea Zulus use plant to destroy maggots Unspecified Alkaloids (Hutchings et al.,
(Ait.) Benth. in sores (Bryant, 1966) parts 1996)
Fabaceae Calpurnia villossa Unspecified The alkaloid oroboidine
Harv. parts (Hutchings et al., 1996)

265
(continued)
266
Table 11.1 (Continued)
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Family Species Indication Plant Part Used Chemical Constituents Activity Screened for
Fabaceae Elephantorrhiza The Xhosa use roots for diarrhea and Roots, aerial Tannin (Watt and Breyer- Antirickettsial (Naidoo, Zweygarth,
elephantina dysentery in cattle, horses, and parts, and bulb Brandwijk, 1962) and Swan, 2006); antibabesial
(Burch) Skeels humans (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, (Naidoo et al., 2005)
1962); root given to cows for mange
(Dold and Cocks, 2001); heartwater,
blackquarter, appetite stimulant, or
tonic (Luseba and van der Merwe,
2006); diarrhea, heartwater,
coughing, pneumonia (Van der
Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001)
Fabaceae Erythrophleum Lung sickness in cattle and abortions Bark Seed and bark contain
lasianthum in dogs (Hutchings et al., 1996) erythrophleine (Watt and
Corbishley Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
Fabaceae Peltophorum Tonic, diarrhea (Van der Merwe, Bark, root bark Antibacterial, antioxidant (Bizimenyera
africanum Sond. Swan, and Botha, 2001) et al., 2005; Bizimenyera, Githiori,
Eloff, et al., 2006; Bizimenyera,
Githiori, Swann, et al., 2006)
Fabaceae Pterocarpus General illness, gall sicknes, Bark Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
angolensis DC. intestinal worms, blackquarter shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
(Luseba and van der Merwe, 2006) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007);
antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
Fabaceae Schotia Infectious diseases in cattle (L. J. Unspecified Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
brachypetala McGaw, personal communication, shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
Sond. 2009) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa
Fabaceae Schotia latifolia Red water in cattle (Dold and Cocks, Bark decoction Antibacterial, antifungal (Masika and
Jacq. 2001) Afolayan, 2002)
Fabaceae Tephrosia Plants used by Zulus for protecting Unspecified Roots may contain saponin (Watt
kraussiana cattle against quarter-evil and other parts and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
Meisn. diseases (Doke and Vilakazi, 1972)
Fabaceae Tephrosia Roots and seeds used for killing vermin Root, seeds, Roots contain toxicarol and
macropoda on animals and humans (Gerstner, leaves deguelin (Watt and Breyer-
(E. Mey.) Harv. 1941); leaf extracts used as Brandwijk, 1962)
anthelmintics for cattle (Bryant, 1966)
Geraniaceae Monsonia Stomach ailments in calves, lambs, Unspecified Phloroglucin tannin (Watt and
emarginata (L.f.) and humans (Watt and Breyer- parts Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
L’ Hérit. Brandwijk, 1962)
Geraniaceae Pelargonium Administered to sick calves Leaf infusions Coumarins in roots (Wagner and
luridum (Andr.) (Hutchings et al., 1996) Baldt, 1975)
Sweet
Geraniaceae Pelargonium Used as anthelmintics with Ziziphus Decoctions of Coumarins in roots (Wagner and
sidoides DC. zeyyheriana Sond. (Watt and unspecified Baldt, 1975)
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) parts
Gunneraceae Gunnera Used to facilitate expulsion of Roots Bitter principle, celastrin (Watt
perpensa L. afterbirth in animals and women and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
(Gerstner, 1939)
Hyacinthaceae Urginea physodes “Itch” in goats (Gerstner, 1941) Unspecified Antibabesial (Naidoo et al., 2005)
(Jacq.) Bak
Lamiaceae Leonotis leonurus Pounded roots and leaves are added Roots, leaves, Volatile oil diterpenoids
(L.) R. Br. to drinking water to prevent drops from (labdane-type lactones), for

(continued)

267
268
Table 11.1 (Continued)
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Family Species Indication Plant Part Used Chemical Constituents Activity Screened for
sickness in poultry and are used for squeezed leaf example, marrubin (Dictionary
gall sickness in cattle (Hulme, used for eyes of Natural Products, 1996)
1954); eye inflammation (Masika,
van Averbeeke, and Sonandi, 2000)
Lamiaceae Tetradenia ripara Used for gall sickness and fevers in Leaves A diterpene diol, ibozol, and related
cattle (Hutchings et al., 1996) diterpenoids, large amounts of
α-pyrones (Dictionary of Natural
Products, 1996)
Moraceae Ficus ingens Administered by Zulus to cows to Bark decoctions Tannin animals (Watt and Breyer-
(Miq.) Miq increase milk production (Watt and Brandwijk, 1962)
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) and
VhaVenda (Mabogo, 1990)
Moraceae Ficus sur Forssk. Zulus use leaf and bark infusions as Leaves, bark, Bark may contain tannin
bovine galactagogues (Hutchings roots (Hutchings et al., 1996)
et al., 1996); VhaVenda use root
decoctions for retained placenta in
cows (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,
1962)
Myrtaceae Heteropyxis Drench for stock animals (Watt and Powdered leaves Essential oils from ground dried
natalensis Harv. Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) leaves contain many constituents
(Hutchings et al., 1996)
Pedaliaceae Dicerocaryum Dystocia, drench for retained Aerial parts, Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
eriocarpum placenta (Luseba and van der roots, whole shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
(Dcne.) J. Abels Merwe, 2006; Van der Merwe, plant Merwe, and Eloff, 2007);
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa
[and Dicerocaryum Swan, and Botha, 2001) antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
senecioides mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
(Kltzsch.) J. Abels]
Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca Lung sickness in cattle (Watt and Root infusions Triterpenoid saponins, known as
octandra L. Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) yiamoloside B (Moreno and
Rodriguez, 1981)
Polygonaceae Emex australis Threadworm in horses (Hutchings Leaf decoctions Anthraquinones (Watt and
Steinh. et al., 1996) Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
Polygonaceae Rumex Used with Euclea coriacea A. DC. Unspecified Chrysophanic acid, emodin, and
lanceolatus to treat gall sickness in stock parts volatile (Watt and Breyer-
Thunb. animals (Guillarmod, 1971) Brandwijk, 1962)
Ptaeroxylaceae Ptaeroxylon Anthrax remedy, for ticks in cattle Wood Powdered wood is irritating and
obliquum (Hutchings et al., 1996) includes sneezing (Hutchings et
(Thunb.) Radlk. al., 1996); timber has high oil
and resin content (Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
Ranuncluaceae Clematis Vermifuge and for bots in horses Infusions from Contains anemonol (Watt and
brachiata Thunb. (Hutchings et al., 1996) shoots and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
leaves
Rhamnaceae Berchemia zeyheri Infectious diseases in cattle (L. J. Bark Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
(Sond.) Grubov McGaw, personal communication, shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
2009) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
Rhamnaceae Ziziphus Fertility enhancement, sores, burns Roots, leaves Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
mucronata Willd. (Van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
2001)

(continued)

269
270
Table 11.1 (Continued)
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Family Species Indication Plant Part Used Chemical Constituents Activity Screened for

Rutaceae Clausena anisata Dysentery in cattle (Hutchings et al., Bark infusions Terpenoid hydrocarbons,
(Willd.) Hook. f. 1996) alkaloids, coumarins, and many
ex Benth. other compounds (Hutchings
et al., 1996)

Salicaceae Salix L. spp Retained placenta (Masika, van Decoction or Antibacterial, antifungal (Masika and
Averbeeke, and Sonandi, 2000) infusion of Afolayan, 2002)
unspecified parts
Sapindaceae Hippobromus Leaf and root infusions used to clear Resinous and oily substances in Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
pauciflorus (L.f.) mucus from noses of sheep and goats wood and leaves (Watt and shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
Radlk. (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962); Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
root infusions given to stock animals
with cough (Hutchings et al., 1996);
leaf sap used for inflamed eyes in
animals and humans (Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Masika,
van Averbeeke, and Sonandi, 2000);
bark used for heartwater and diarrhea
in cattle (Dold and Cocks, 2001)
Sapotaceae Sideroxylone Preparations administered by Zulus Unspecified Cinnamic acid, kaempferol, and
inerme L. as tonics to calves and goats parts, bark leucanthocyanidins from bark
(Hutchings et al., 1996); Xhosa use (Hutchings et al., 1996)
bark for gall sickness in stock (Watt
and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962); bark
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa
decoction for red water in cattle
(Dold and Cocks, 2001)
Solanaceae Datura Powdered leaves are applied by Zulus to Powdered leaves Alkaloids, including
stramonium L. animal and human bruise and wounds hyoscyamine and hyoscine
to draw out inflammation and pus (Oliver-Bever, 1986)
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)
Solanaceae Solanun Ringworm in cattle and horses, also Fruit Solanine (Watt and Breyer-
aculeastrum Dun. for anthrax (Hutchings et al., 1996) Brandwijk, 1962)
Solanaceae Solanum Fruit sap and leaf paste used for Fruit, leaves Solanin, solanidine, azosolanidin,
hermannii Dun. sores on sheep and horses by Xhosa quinhydrone solasonine,
and Sotho (Watt and Breyer- solasodine, solasodamine from
Brandwijk, 1962) fruit (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962)
Solanaceae Withania Used to stimulate milk production in Unspecified Many compounds, including
somnifera (L.) cows (Gerstner, 1941); roots used parts, roots choline, tropanol,
Dun. for black gall sickness in cattle glycowithanolides, withanolides,
(Luseba and Van der Merwe 2006) withaferine, and withasomnine
diarrhea (L.J. McGaw, personal (Hutchings et al., 1996 and
communication, 2009) references therein)
Sterculiaceae Dombeya Newcastle disease in chicken (Luseba Leaves and Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
rotundifolia and Van der Merwe 2006); infectious flowers shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
(Hochst.) Planch. diseases in cattle (L.J. McGaw, Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
personal communication, 2009)
Thymelaeaceae Gnidia capitata Heartwater in cows, anthrax (Dold Root decoction Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
L.f. and Cocks, 2001) shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)

(continued)

271
272
Table 11.1 (Continued)
Some of the Plants Used in South Africa for Ethnoveterinary Purposes

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Family Species Indication Plant Part Used Chemical Constituents Activity Screened for

Thymelaeaceae Gnidia kraussiana Preparations injected near the site of Unspecified Flavone heteroside from roots,
Meisn. the fractured limbs of stock animals parts toxic diterpenoid fraction,
by the Sotho (Guillarmod, 1971) polysaccharides, daphnane
orthoesters (Hutchings et al.,
1996)

Typhaceae Typha capensis Decoctions taken or applied Unspecified Quercetin 3′-dimethyl ether
(Rohrb.) N.E. Br. externally to aid expulsion of parts 4′-glucoside from leaf
afterbirth in animals and humans (Hutchings et al., 1996)
(Roberts, 1990)

Urticaceae Poulzozia mixta Retained placenta, bloat, vaginal Roots, leaves, Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
Solms discharge (Van der Merwe, Swan, stems shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
and Botha, 2001) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007)
Verbenaceae Lantana rugosa Pastes or infusions used for animal Leaves Volatile oil and the alkaloid
Thunb. and human eye complaints (Watt lantanin (Watt and Breyer-
and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) Brandwijk, 1962)
Vitaceae Cissus Used by Zulus as a drench for sick Aerial parts A steroidal mixture and Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine
quadrangularis L. horses (Watt and Breyer- triterpenoids (Hutchings et al., shrimp toxicity (McGaw, Van der
Brandwijk, 1962), aerial parts 1996) Merwe, and Eloff, 2007);
used as poultice for wounds, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
lumpy skin disease, and as tick mutagenic (Luseba et al., 2007)
repellent (Luseba and Van der
Merwe, 2006)
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa
Vitaceae Rhoicissus Cattle diseases (Pujol, 1990); Tubers Antibabesial (Naidoo et al., 2005)
tridentata (L.f.) diarrhea in goats and sheep (Dold
(Lam.) Willd and and Cocks. 2001); heartwater,
Drum. redewater, internal parasites,
general ailments, abortion (Van
der Merwe, Swan, and Botha,
2001)
Zingiberaceae Siphonochilus Administered to horses as Rhizome Volatile oil with a characteristic
aethiopicus prophylactics against horse infusions sesquiterpenoid, α-terpineol and
(Schweinf.) B. L. sickness (Watt and Breyer- other monoterpenoids (Van
Burtt Brandwijk, 1962) Wyk, Van Oudtshoorn, and
Gericke, 1997)

273
274
Table 11.2
Traditional Medicinal Plants Used in Treatment of Commonly Encountered Disease Conditions in Farm Animals

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


in Zimbabwe
Animal Condition Remedy Method of Application
Septic wounds Canthium spp. (Muvengahonye) Fresh leaves are ground and applied to the wound.
Kigelia africana (Muvheva) The inner core of dried fruit is applied as a powder on the wound.
Cissus quadrangularis (Murenja) Fruit is crushed, and the fluid is applied to the wound.
Aloe spp. (Gavakava) Dry leaves are crushed, and the powder is applied to the wound.
Eye problem Solanum indicum (Nhundurwa) Fruit is crushed, and the fluid is applied to the eye.
Bloat Pauzolzia mixta (Munhanzva) Leaves are crushed and water added; animal is made to swallow mixture.
Coccidiosis Aloe spp. (Gavakava) Grind fresh leaves and add to drinking water.
Worms Vernonia amygdalina (Muzhozho) Add water to ground fresh leaves; animal made to swallow mixture.
Musa paradisiacal (Banana) Add water to ground fresh roots; animal made to swallow mixture.
Gavakava (Aloe spp.) Add water to ground fresh leaves; animal made to swallow mixture.
Newcastle disease Gusha (Sesanum angustifolius) Crush fresh fruit and add to drinking water in poultry.
Retained afterbirth/placenta Munhanzva (Pouzolzia mixta) Fresh leaves are crushed and the slippery paste inserted into vagina.
Fertility Gomarara (Loranthus spp.) Feeding fresh leaves to rabbits improves kidding rate.
Snakebite Munyoka (Amaranthus gneizaus) Add water to crushed fresh roots; animal made to swallow mixture.
Banana (Musa paradisiacal) Add water to crushed dried roots; animal made to swallow mixture.
Delayed parturition Murenja (Cissus quadrangularis) Crush fresh stem and leaves, place in the vagina to hasten parturition.
Poor milk flow Boabab (Adansonia digitata) Inner core of dried fruit is removed, added to water; animal made to swallow mixture.
Fracture Batanai (Bulbophylum spp.) Bark is tied around fracture as supporting pad.
Fleas Rutapatsikidzi (Aneilema hockii) Branches of plant are placed near sleeping animals. Fleas are attracted by the herb and
leave the animal.
Diarrhea Murumanyama (Xeroiderris stuhlmannii) Fresh leaves are crushed, water added; animal made to swallow mixture.

Source: From McGaw and Eloff (2008). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 119 (3): 329–330. With permission of Elsevier.
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa 275

used for abdominal problems, diarrhea and red water in livestock (Hutchings et al.,
1996; Van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001), while Rhus species are popular for
diarrhea and gall sickness (Van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001).
Little chemistry has been done on O. paniculosa. Anacardic acids and ginkgoic
acid, both compounds that showed in vitro anticancer activity, were isolated from the
related O. insignis (Rea et al., 2003). The anacardic acids have been isolated from
other members of the Anacardiaceae family as well as several tirucallane triterpenes
(Liu and Abreu, 2006).
Rhus species are widely recognized to possess a host of biological activities,
among them antifibrogenic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antimicro-
bial, and antimutagenic ones (Rayne and Mazza, 2007). They possess flavonoids and
tannins (Ahmed, Galal, and Ross, 2001). The Morula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) is
held in high esteem in the cultures of many Bantu people, especially the VhaVenda
in Zimbabwe and South Africa. It is rich in flavonol and epicatechin derivatives
(Galvez et al., 1992; Braca et al., 2003). It is probably the high tannin content in
S. birrea and Rhus spp. that explains their popular use in treating diarrhea in both
humans and animals. Ethanol extracts of S. birrea showed good activity against
Haemonchus contortus, a pathogenic nematode in small ruminants (Mamidou et al.,
2005). An infusion of Protorhus longifolia is used to treat heartwater and para­
typhoid in cattle (Cocks, 2006).

11.3.3 Apocynaceae
There are about 90 genera and 700 species of Apocynaceae in southern Africa,
with remarkable endemism, particularly in South Africa’s KwaZulu Natal Province
(Ollerton et al., 2003).
Powdered root decoctions of Acokanthera oppositifolia are used to treat pain, snake-
bite, anthrax, and tapeworm (Adedapo et al., 2008). In addition, polyphenolics occur
that naturally have antioxidant activity. Powdered roots are administered orally or as
snuff to treat pain and snakebite, and root decoctions are used against anthrax and tape-
worm (Adedapo et al., 2008). However due to the occurrence of cardiac glycosides, this
genus is also considered to be toxic to animals (Kellerman, Coetzer, and Naude, 1988).

11.3.4 Asparagaceae
Asparagaceae is a monogeneric family previously included under Liliaceae, and it has
100 perennials arising from tubers and rhizomes (Dinan, Savchenko, and Whiting,
2001). It is widely distributed in Africa, Europe, western Asia, and Australia.
In Zambia, root decoction of Asparagus spp. has been used for blackwater fever
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) and to treat fevers in Malawi, Zambia, and
Tanzania (Morris, 1996).
Norlignans, carotenoids, alkaloids, flavonoids, and steroidal saponins have been
isolated from various Asparagus species (Sharma, Sati, and Chand, 1982; Shao et al.,
1997; Debella et al., 1999; Yang et al., 2004; Saxena and Chourasia, 2001). The phyto­
ecdysteroids, which are typical of this Asparagaceae, have been shown to disrupt ste-
roidal hormone action in pest species (Dinan, Savchenko, and Whiting, 2001). Some
276 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

of the ethnoveterinary uses of the Asparagaceae can be attributed to the biological


activity of the saponins and alkaloids, which have been shown to be antimicrobial,
anti-inflammatory (Sparg, Light, and van Staden, 2004), and antiprotozoal (Francis
et al., 2002) and widely recognized to be antifertility and uterotonic.

11.3.5 Asphodelaceae
Worldwide, there are some 800 species in the Asphodelaceae family, mostly herbs
with rhizomes or tubers. There are 360 Aloe species described so far, and these
are known to occur mainly in Africa and Arabia (Dagne and Yenesew, 1994). The
African-Arabian succulent genus Aloe L. (Aloaceae/Asphodelaceae) is represented
by approximately 120 infrageneric taxa in southern Africa, including A. ferox Mill.,
a species long used in commercial natural products (Glen and Hardy, 2000). Aloe
has over the years proved to be one of the most important sources of biologically
active compounds. Over 130 compounds belonging to different classes, includ-
ing anthrones, chromones, pyrones, coumarins, alkaloids, glycoproteins, naphtha-
lenes, and flavonoids, have been isolated from various species (Dagne et al., 2000;
Reynolds, 2004). Aloin A is the most important commercial product of aloe, and it is
used in the culinary and pharmaceutical industries (Abegaz et al., 1999)
The most frequently used species in southern Africa are Aloe ferox and A. marlothii
because of their wide distribution (Grace et al., 2008). In South Africa, Aloe ferox
has been reported in the ethnoveterinary control of ticks (Moyo and Masika, 2008),
whereas in Tanzania, the extract of Aloe secundiflora was useful in the control of
fowl typhoid in chickens (Waihenya et al., 2002). Leaf exudates of Aloe species are
used to treat the drinking water of chicken as a bird flu prophylactic and tonic in most
of rural southern Africa (personal observation).

11.3.6 Asteraceae
The Asteraceae (= Compositae) is the largest family of vascular plants, with over
23,000 species and wide distribution on all continents except Antarctica (Panero and
Funk, 2008).
Plants from this family have been reported to possess polyacetylene phenylhepta-
trine and chalcomenes (Graham, Graham, and Towers, 1980; Hoffman and Hoelzl,
1988). Bidens pilosa and Brachylaemia discolour are used to control helminths in
equines and in calves, sheep, and goats (Hutchings et al., 1996). Some plants from
this family have been used to treat heartwater in goats, diarrhea in lambs, and gall
sickness in livestock (Dold and Cocks, 2001).

11.3.7 Combretaceae
The Combretaceae occur in both tropical and subtropical climes and consist of
20 genera in about 300 species with Combretum, Terminalia, and Quisqualis the
largest and most important (Eloff, Katerere, and McGaw, 2008).
Combretum caffrum is used to treat conjunctivitis (Masika, van Averbeeke, and
Sonandi, 2000), and C. paniculatum is used for fertility problems in animals (Luseba
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa 277

and Van der Merwe, 2006). Terminalia sericea is used to treat wounds in animals
(Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006) as well as diarrhea (Van der Merwe, Swan, and
Botha, 2001). In Kenya, combretums are used as anthelmentics for small ruminants
(Githiori, Athanasiadou, and Thamsborg, 2006). Aqueous and organic leaf extracts
of C. apiculatum, C. hereroense, and C. mossambicense showed good activity in
in vitro assays against the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (McGaw
et al., 2001).
Members of the Combretaceae have been extensively studied and shown to have
broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity (Katerere et al., 2003; Martini, Katerere, and
Eloff, 2001; Eloff, Katerere, and McGaw, 2008). Several flavonoids, triterpenoids,
and stilbenoids have been isolated and shown to be biologically active.

11.3.8 Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae occur in different habitats of the tropics, and as result of their cos-
mopolitan nature, they have developed various life-forms, including herbs, shrubs,
stunted succulents, and tall canopy trees (Balakrishnan and Chakrabarty, 2007).
Phytochemical studies have shown the presence of flavonoids, saponins, diterpenes,
phorbol esters (Bagalkotkar et al., 2006), and triterpenoids (Uzabakiliho, Largeau,
and Casadevall, 1987).
Different species are used for diseases such as blackquarter, constipation in cattle
and goats, and diarrhea (Luseba and van der Merwe, 2006), as well as eye infections,
pneumonia, as a tonic, and for fertility enhancement in livestock (Van der Merwe,
Swan, and Botha, 2001).
Luseba and van der Merwe (2006) reported that Synadenium (= Euphorbia) cup-
ulare is used for eye infection and blackquarter. East Coast fever (ECF) is treated by
topical application of the sap of Synadenium grantii (Synadenium umbellatum [SU]
Pax [synonym: Euphorbia umbellate]) (Tabuti, Dhillion, and Lye, 2003).
Jatropha is a multipurpose plant that has become of particular interest in the
burgeoning biodiesel industry (Openshaw, 2000). Although originally a tropical
American plant (Mujumdar, Upadhye, and Misar, 2000), Jatropha curcas has now
spread to Africa and Asia. It has been cited for use in gastrointestinal problems in
cattle for both constipation and diarrhea (Luseba and van der Merwe, 2006). The
antidiarrheal activity is thought to be effected via inhibition of elevated prostaglan-
din biosynthesis and reduced gut motility (Mujumdar, Upadhye, and Misar, 2000).
Petroleum ether extracts of J. curcas were found to be active against the dengue
vector Aedes aegypti and the lymphatic filariasis vector Culex quinquefasciatus
(Rahuman et al., 2008). The oil of J. curcas showed good effect in the treatment of
sarcoptic mange in sheep in a field trial (Dimri and Sharma, 2004). A toxalbumin,
curcin, which occurs in J. curcas and J. multifida, makes these species, particularly
the seeds, like those of Ricinus communis, highly toxic (Botha and Penrith, 2008).
Ricinus communis is administered as a purgative to calves refusing to suckle
(Hutchings et al., 1996) and for constipation and internal parasites (Van der Merwe,
Swan, and Botha, 2001). Methanolic extracts of R. communis have been shown to
inhibit adult Setaria digitata, the cattle filarial worm (Nisha et al., 2007). The seeds
are the main source of ricin and ricinine, which are toxic but can also be therapeutic
278 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

(Aslani et al., 2007). In spite of the risk of poisoning, of which horses and sheep are
most prone, there are few cases of accidental poisoning in livestock (Aslani et al.,
2007). The leaves contain flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins (Chen, Zhang, and
Chen, 2008).

11.3.9 Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
Fabaceae is a large family consisting of trees, shrubs, vines, and herbs bearing bean
pods. It is made up of 730 genera and more than 19,000 species (Wojciechowski,
Mahn, and Jones, 2006). Many of the trees are an important source of tannins. Species
from this family are used to treat various animal diseases, ranging from bacterial
diseases to diseases and conditions caused by internal and external parasites (see
Table 11.1). For example, Peltophorum africanum has many ethnomedical and ethno­
veterinary uses; rural farmers use the root and bark extracts to treat diarrhea, dys-
entery, and infertility and to promote well-being and resistance to diseases in cattle
(Bizimenyera., Githiori, Swan, et al., 2006). Leaf, root, and bark extracts of P. afri-
canum inhibited egg hatching and larval development of Trichostrongylus colubri-
formis, an important cause of parasitic gastroenteritis in ruminants (Bizimenyera,
Githiori, Eloff, et al., 2006). It contains coumarins (Mebe and Makuhunga, 1992),
flavonoids, and tannins (El Sherbeiny et al., 1977). Calpurnia aurea is used to kill
maggots in wounds (Bryant, 1966) and for the treatment of dysentery and diarrhea in
animals and ticks (Adedapo et al., 2008). Quinolizidine alkaloids have been isolated
from this species (Asres et al., 1986).
A bark decoction of Schotia latifolia is used in the treatment of red water in cattle.
No previously recorded uses were found in the literature (Dold and Cocks, 2001).
Schotia brachypetala, on the other hand, is used to treat infectious diseases in cattle
(McGaw, Van der Merwe, and Eloff, 2007).
Stilbenes and phenolics are reported to be present in S. brachypetala (Drewes,
1971), and antibacterial fatty acids have been isolated from the leaves (McGaw,
Jäger, and van Staden, 2002).

11.3.10 Geraniaceae
The Geraniaceae family consists of 800 species in seven genera. Coumarins and
tannins have been isolated from most plants from this family (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962). Pelargonium, a genus of this family, is one of the most important
traditional medicines in southern Africa for both humans and animals. Pelargonium
reniforme Curtis is used to treat diarrhea in goats and cows, heartwater in cattle, and
liver disorders in cattle and sheep (Dold and Cocks, 2001). Roots have been used
to prevent purging in horses and to dress wounds (Brendler and van Wyk, 2008).
Pelargonium sidoides, on the other hand, while also cited for use in horses for simi-
lar use, is used to treat dysentery in cattle (Lewu, Grierson, and Afolayan, 2007)
and, when mixed with Ziziphus mucronata, is employed as a dewormer in calves
(Smith, 1966).
Anthocyanins (pelargonidin, cyanidin, and delphinidin, among them), various
coumarin derivatives, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, phenylpropanoid derivatives,
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa 279

and a diterpene have been isolated from both P. sidiodes and P. reniforme (Mitchell,
Markham, and Boase, 1998; Kolodziej, 2007).

11.3.11 Hyacinthaceae
The Hyacinthaceae family consists of 700 genera and 1,000 species of herbaceous
perennials (Pfosser and Septa, 1999). Saponins, homoisoflavanones, steroids, car-
diac glycosides, and alkaloids have been reported from the Hyacinthaceae (Louw,
Regnier, and Korsten, 2002), some of which confer toxicity on members of the
family (Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000). Homoisoflavanones have anti-inflammatory,
antibacterial, antihistaminic, antimutagenic, and angioprotective properties as well
as being potent phosphodiesterase inhibitors (Heller and Tamm, 1981; Della et al.,
1989). Species from this family have been used to treat diseases such as gall sick-
ness in animals (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962), diarrhea in goats, and intestinal
parasites and retained afterbirth in cattle (Dold and Cocks, 2001)
Scilla natalensis (= Merwilla natalensis) is reported for use in cattle against “lung
sickness” (Hutchings et al., 1996), while S. nervosa has been used as a purgative for calves
(Gerstner, 1941). Organic extracts of S. natalensis showed high lethality against nema-
todes in anthelmintic assays (Sparg, van Staden, and Jäger, 2002). Homoisoflavanones
have been isolated from the bulbs of S. kraussii, S. dracomontana, and S. natalensis
(Crouch, Bangani, and Mulholland, 1999). Scilla nervosa has yielded homoisoflavanones
and stilbenoids, including resveratrol (Bangani, Crouch, and Mulholland, 1999).
Ledebouria cooperi was reported by Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) to be
used in cows to ensure that calves were of the same gender, while Ledebouria revo-
lute is used to treat gall sickness and diarrhea. Homoisoflavanones and chalcones
have been isolated from these species (Pohl et al., 2001).
Bulb decoctions of Urginea (Drimia) species are used for intestinal dis-
eases and endoparasites and for retained placenta (Dold and Cocks, 2001; Van
der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001). In vitro antibabesial activity of extracts of
U. sanguinea was negative (Naidoo et al., 2005). They, like Scilla spp., are also
well-known poisonous plants that are an important component of materia medica
in southern Africa. Toxicity is due to the presence of cardiac glycosides (one of
which has been called transvaalin), and ingestion by cattle leads to respiratory
problems, muscular tremors, and finally death (Kellerman, Coetzer, and Naude,
1988; Mulholland and Drewes, 2004). Fresh bulbs of U. sanguinea have yielded
phloroglucinol and phenolic acids, in particular salicylic acid (Mulholland and
Drewes, 2004). Several bufadienolides have been isolated from the bulbs of
Urginea maritime (Kopp et al., 1996).

11.3.12 Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
Lamiaceae (commonly known as the mint family) contains over 200 genera and
7,000 species of most aromatic plants that are important culinary herbs (e.g., basil,
mint, rosemary, and sage) (Heywood et al., 2007).
Many plants from this family are used to treat gall sickness (Dold and Cocks,
2001; Hutchings et al., 1996), heartwater and anthrax (Dold and Cocks, 2001), and
280 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

eye inflammation (Masika, van Averbeeke, and Sonandi, 2000). A diterpene diol,
ibozol and related diterpenoids, and large amounts of α-pyrones have been isolated
from some plants of this family (Zelnik et al., 1978).
Leonotis is used in the drinking water of poultry to prevent disease and for gall
sickness in cattle (Hulme, 1954). In Ethiopia, the Bale people use it to treat anthrax
(Yineger et al., 2007). Diterpenes have been isolated from the Asian species Leonotis
nepetaefolia (Govindasamy et al., 2002). Little work has been done on the southern
Africa species despite their widespread occurrence and use.
The powdered aerial parts of Plectranthus laxiflorus Benth (= Plectranthus
albus Gürke) are used as drenches for animals (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
Plectranthus is a large genus containing about 300 species of ornamental and
medicinal value plants found in tropical Africa, Asia, and Australia. In East Africa,
Plectranthus spp. are mostly used as dry season fodder (Lukhoba, Simmonds,
and Paton, 2006). While the chemistry of P. laxiflorus remains unexplored, many
related species have yielded abietane, phyllocladane, kaurane, clerodane, and lab-
dane diterpenoids, triterpenes, and sesquiterpenes (Rijo et al., 2007), many of which
have insect antifeedant and antibacterial activity (Wellsow et al., 2006).

11.3.13 Solanaceae
The Solanaceae contains both important agricultural food plants (e.g., potato and
tomato) and famous toxic plants (e.g., Datura and Belladona [deadly nightshade])
(D’Arcy, 1986).
Many compounds, including glycowithanolides, withanolides, and hyoscyamine
(Hutchings et al., 1996; Oliver-Bever, 1986), have been isolated in some taxa of this
family. Species like Solanum panduriforme are used for the treatment of bacterial
diseases, diarrhea, eye infections (Van der Merwe, Swan, and Botha, 2001), and
respiratory problems (Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006).
The Solanaceae are a source of steroidal saponins and glycoalkaloids that are
pesticidal (Silva et al., 2005). Aqueous extracts of roots and berry of S. aculeastrum
have shown molluscicidal activity due to steroidal alkaloid glycosides (Wanyonyi
et al., 2002). Several species have potent molluscicidal activity (Silva et al., 2005)
and larvicidal activity (Chowdhury, Ghosh, and Goutam, 2008).
Solanum nigrum, S. lichtensteinii, and S. tettense are recognized as poisonous
plants in southern Africa (Botha and Penrith, 2008). The first two cause diarrhea,
while S. tettense poisoning results in neurotoxicosis. Interestingly, of the three spe-
cies, only S. lichtensteinii has been recorded for ethnoveterinary use. However,
S. nigrum is an important plant in traditional medicine worldwide, and sapogenins,
flavonoids, and alkaloids have been isolated from this species and tested in many
different assays (Mallika and Devi, 2006; Ji et al., 2008; Kuo et al., 2000).

11.3.14 Vitaceae
Vitaceae are a family of dicotyledonous flowering plants, including Cissus quadran-
gularis, which is used as a poultice for wounds, for lumpy skin disease, and as a tick
repellent (Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006); Rhoicissus tomentosa, which is used
Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa 281

as an anthelmintics for calves (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962); and Rhoicissus


tridentata, used to treat diarrhea in goats and sheep (Dold and Cocks, 2001), heart-
water, red water, and internal parasites and for abortion (Van der Merwe, Swan, and
Botha, 2001). Extracts of Cissus quadrangularis have been shown to possess in vitro
activity in antibacterial, anthelmintic, and brine shrimp toxicity assays (McGaw,
Van der Merwe, and Eloff, 2007). Iridioids, stilbenes, flavonoids, and triterpenoids
have been isolated from the species (Singh, Rawat, and Maurya, 2007).
Rhoicissus tridentata has uterotonic activity that has been demonstrated on iso-
lated rat uterus (Katsoulis Veale, and Havlik, 2000), which may validate its use in
abortion and for retained placenta (Fennell and van Staden, 2001; Van der Merwe,
Swan, and Botha, 2001). Activity against Babesia caballi in culture was not signifi-
cant (Naidoo et al., 2005).

11.4 The Way Forward


EVMs do have advantages and disadvantages, as is the case with other practices
(Gueye, 1999; Fielding, 2005; Mathias, 2001). The advantages are that they are cultur-
ally acceptable to livestock keepers due to familiarity; access is easy, and availability
is free or affordable; and in general, they appear to be effective. However, EVM
has limitations; for example, most medicinal plants have not been validated under
controlled conditions for their safety and efficacy (Sori et al., 2004), the seasonality
of some plants means that they may be unavailable at certain times of the year, the
herbs used are not likely to treat acute viral diseases in animals, and commercializa-
tion may result in overharvesting and extinction of popular species.
In many developing countries, many veterinarians, development workers, and decision
makers have not yet examined the potential of EVMs in treatment of livestock diseases.
A change of attitude is still needed in this regard. Complex practices require systematic
research to capture synergistic effects of the different aspects of EVM (Kudi, 2003).
Feasibility of promoting safe and effective herbal medicines should be investi-
gated. Some of the aspects that should be addressed before promotion of herbal
medicine include quality control, sustainability or cultivation, local self-sufficiency,
and distribution. Viable alternatives to allopathic medicines that will reduce total
expenditure on animal health should be promoted (Kudi, 2003)

11.5 Conclusion
Although the concept of local knowledge is global in its importance, its practical
application is very much at the local level, where further investments should be con-
centrated on improving, if possible, a range of practices that are appropriate and
sustainable. According to Mathias (2007), animal health care services in rural areas
can be improved by urgently tapping from all available resources, including ethnove-
terinary practices. It therefore requires people to get more information on the effi-
cacy of EVM and more documentation of validated information. With the escalating
costs of medicines for animal health care, as well as resistance to conventional drugs
by some parasites, livestock owners will continue to do what they can to protect the
health of their animals; hence, use of EVMs cannot be ignored.
282 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

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12 Ethnoveterinary Plants
Used in East Africa
John B. Githiori and Peter K. Gathumbi

Contents
12.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 289
12.2 Parasitic Diseases..........................................................................................290
12.2.1 Babesiosis..........................................................................................290
12.2.1.1 Erythrina abyssinica.......................................................... 291
12.2.1.2 Prunus africana.................................................................. 291
12.2.2 Trypanosomosis................................................................................. 291
12.2.2.1 Adenia volkensii Harms, Passifloraceae (Kiliambiti)......... 292
12.2.2.2 Fagara chalybea [Engl.] Engl. Rutaceae
(= Zanthoxylum chalybeum) Engl...................................... 292
12.2.2.3 Salvadora persica L., Salvadoraceae.................................. 293
12.2.3 East Coast Fever (Theileriosis).......................................................... 293
12.2.3.1 Adansonia digitata L., Bombacaceae................................. 293
12.2.3.2 Aerva javanica [Burm. f.] Juss. ex J.A. Schultes,
Amaranthaceae................................................................... 294
12.2.3.3 Euphorbiaceae Species....................................................... 294
12.2.3.4 Other Species...................................................................... 294
12.2.4 Heartwater......................................................................................... 295
12.2.5 Anaplasmosis..................................................................................... 296
12.3 Ectoparasites.................................................................................................. 296
12.4 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 297
References............................................................................................................... 297

12.1 Introduction
Ethnoveterinary medicine has always been a part of traditional medical knowledge
in many parts of Africa. East Africa covers Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Somalia, and Djibouti. In this region, livestock farming is a central part
of the farming activities. For instance, in Kenya, about 69% of the area can only be
used for livestock farming rather than crop agriculture. The farming systems involve
mainly pastoralisms but also include small holder farmers who keep a few animals.
Due to limitation in resources, many of the farmers in these areas rely more or less
on traditional medicine for treatment of their livestock.

289
290 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

For East Africa, several publications are available on anecdotal information


on usage of medicinal plants to combat diseases of livestock.9,49,53–55,95 In addition,
several monographs and studies in selected communities have been carried out to
document the use of ethnoveterinary medicine.14,33,56,58–60,67,81,92,93 The publications
in most cases highlight different conditions affecting livestock as well as symptoms
associated with several disease conditions. The conditions that are covered range
from abscesses to ectoparasites to treatment of conditions caused by protozoan
parasites such as theileriosis (East Coast fever, ECF) and trypanosomosis. In some
instances, symptoms such as diarrhea are treated but not the underlying condition
that may cause the diarrhea. A number of databases and sources such as PRELUDE,
ScienceDirect, and books were searched for information on ethnoveterinary plants
used for different conditions in East Africa.
From the databases, 193 plants were documented. A total of 161 plants were
recorded in Kenya, while 31 were from Uganda. This, however, does not mean
that there was no information available from the other countries in East Africa.
Nonetheless, we concentrated on these two countries where most of the informa-
tion was readily available, and it is likely that the ethnoveterinary practices docu-
mented are similar throughout the subcontinent because of many shared traditions
and customs.
Various conditions were noted with different treatment being offered. A minimum
of 26 conditions have been reportedly treated with ethnoveterinary preparations.
These conditions ranged from abscesses, wounds, and burns to specific treatments
like that for brucellosis. The highest number of different plant treatments available
for a single condition was 19 in Kenya for treatment of wounds, while only one dif-
ferent plant species was available for each of the following conditions: heartwater,
bloat, ephemeral fever, anaplasmosis, mastitis, coccidiosis in chicken, burns, and
brucellosis. Theileriosis and endoparasites had 12 and 13 different plant species used
for their treatment, respectively.
The different treatments used a total of 64 families of plants. These treatments
are addressed as endo- and ectoparasitic conditions, hemoparasitic conditions, and
other diseases.

12.2 Parasitic Diseases
Parasitic diseases have been described to have the highest effect on productivity of
livestock owned by the poor worldwide. These diseases are the major causes of low
productivity of livestock in tropical and subtropical regions, including East Africa.
Various plants are used to treat different hemoparasitic diseases in East Africa; some
are discussed in depth next.

12.2.1 Babesiosis
Babesiosis is caused by intraerythrocytic protozoan parasites of the genus
Babesia. The disease, which is transmitted by ticks, affects a wide range of
domestic and wild animals and occasionally humans. While the major economic
impact of babesiosis is on the cattle industry, infections in other domestic animals,
Ethnoveterinary Plants Used in East Africa 291

including horses, sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs, assume varying degrees of impor-
tance throughout the world. Two important species in cattle, B. bigemina and B.
bovis, are widespread in tropical and subtropical areas worldwide. The main vec-
tors of B. bigemina and B. bovis are one-host Boophilus spp. ticks, in which trans-
mission occurs transovarially. The acute disease generally runs a course of about a
week. Clinical signs include fever, inappetence, increased respiratory rate, muscle
tremors, anemia, jaundice, weight loss, hemoglobinemia, and hemoglobinuria.
Late-term pregnant cows may abort, and bulls may undergo temporary infertility
due to transient fever.
Three plant species are used for treatment of babesiosis in cattle: the stem bark of
Acacia exocephaleia, Mimosaceae, roots of Erythrina abyssinica Lam. Fabaceae,1
and the bark of Prunus africana [Hook. f.) Kalkman, Rosaceae. They have been
used for treatment of babesiosis in cattle,9 and the last species has also been used as
a laxative in livestock.2

12.2.1.1 Erythrina abyssinica
Erythrina abyssinica is a tree, rarely a shrub, 3–10 m tall, with a rounded crown,
and it is found throughout East Africa. This plant has been found to contain mainly
flavonoids.18,19,97,98 The species was found to have antiprotozoal action and showed in
vitro activity against plasmodium as well as against trypanosomosis. This antiproto-
zoal activity could explain its use in traditional treatment against babesiosis.

12.2.1.2 Prunus africana
Prunus (or Pygeum) africana is an endangered medicinal plant endemic to Africa.
It is mainly found on higher-altitude areas, generally from 1,000 m above sea level.
The African cherry [Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalm.] has been used in the treat-
ment of benign prostatic hyperplasia and other disorders in men. The bark, from
which the treatment is derived, is entirely wild collected. The major exporters of
bark include Cameroon, Madagascar, Equatorial Guinea, and Kenya.84 The active
constituents of Pygeum extract that is derived from this tree include phytosterols
(e.g., beta-sitosterol), which exert anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting production
of proinflammatory prostaglandins in the prostate. Pygeum also contains pentacy-
clic triterpenes (ursolic and oleanolic acids)26 that have antiedema properties and
ferulic acid esters (n-docosanol and tetracosanol) that reduce prolactin levels and
block the accumulation of cholesterol in the prostate.8,40,41,63,80 In animals, chloro-
form and aqueous extracts were observed to manifest hepatotoxicity at dosages of
above 3 g/kg body weight.30,31

12.2.2 Trypanosomosis
Trypanosomosis is caused by protozoa of the genus Trypanosoma and affects all
domestic animals. The major species are T. congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei brucei,
and T. simiae. Cattle, sheep, and goats are infected, in order of importance, by
T. congolense, T. vivax, and T. brucei brucei. In pigs, T. simiae is the most important.
In dogs and cats, T. brucei is probably the most important. Trypanosoma vivax may
occur outside tsetse-infested areas of sub-Saharan Africa. The trypanosomes that
292 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

cause tsetse-transmitted trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) in humans, T. brucei


rhodesiense and T. brucei gambiense, closely resemble T. brucei brucei from ani-
mals, and domestic animals act as reservoirs of human infections. Most tsetse trans-
mission is cyclic and begins when blood from a trypanosome-infected animal is
ingested by the fly. Tsetse flies (genus Glossina) are restricted to Africa from about
latitude 15°N to 29°S. Mechanical transmission may also occur through tsetse or
other biting flies. In the case of T. vivax, Tabanus spp. and other biting flies seem to
be the primary mechanical vectors outside the tsetse areas, as in Central and South
America. Mechanical transmission requires only that blood containing infectious
trypanosomes be transferred from one animal to another. The clinical signs include
intermittent fever, anemia, and weight loss, and in cattle the disease may have a
chronic course with high mortality.
Several plant species have been used to treat trypanosomosis in East Africa.
These include Acacia reficiens, Adenia volkensii, Fagara chalybea, Salvadora
persica, and Terminalia brownie, which are used in Kenya. In Uganda, in
vitro studies have been carried out to evaluate the antitrypanosomal activity of
Albizia gummifera, Ehretia amoena, Entada abyssinica, Securinega virosa, and
Vernonia subuligera.29 In Tanzania, of 37 extracts derived from 15 plant species
tested for antitrypanosomal activity, the chloroform extract of the root bark of
Asteranthe asterias and the ethanol extract of the root bark of Annickia kumme-
riae showed the highest activity, with IC50 values of 0.8 and 0.7 µg/mL, respec-
tively. Ten extracts exhibited antitrypanosomal activity, with IC50 values between
1 and 5 µg/mL. Among them are the extracts of Asteranthe asterias, Commiphora
emenii, Diospyros verrucosa, Enantia kummeriae, Hymenocardia ulmoides,
and Zanthoxylum chalybeum. Six extracts showed IC50 values between 5.1 and
20 µg/mL. All other extracts had less or no activity.27,28
Some of these species are discussed briefly next.

12.2.2.1 Adenia volkensii Harms, Passifloraceae (Kiliambiti)


Adenia volkensii Harms, Passifloraceae (Kiliambiti) is a woody shrub or herb that
grows up to 1.5 m and arises from a tuberous rootstock or a succulent stem and is
without tendrils. Roots are used in Kenya to treat trypanosomosis, pneumonia, and
bronchitis in livestock.9 This plant is known for the extreme toxicity of the sap. It
has cyanogenic glycosides and lectins (ribosome-inactivating proteins) that destroy
ribosomes and hence prevent protein synthesis.12,16,17,68,85

12.2.2.2 Fagara chalybea [Engl.] Engl. Rutaceae


(= Zanthoxylum chalybeum) Engl.
Fagara chalybea [Engl.] Engl. Rutaceae (= Zanthoxylum chalybeum) Engl. is a decid-
uous shrub or small tree up to 6 m tall found in eastern and southern Africa. Apart
from the use of stem bark, fruit, and seeds in the treatment of trypanosomosis, it has
ethnoveterinary use as an antifebrile agent and for other livestock conditions, such
as conjunctivitis, diarrhea, pneumonia, respiratory disease, and lymph node disease,
which is the usual layperson’s term used to describe theileriosis.9,15,42,71 Alkaloids
isolated from this plant were found to have mitochondrial inhibitory effects.24,25,45,89
The quinolone alkaloids isolated from this species have been shown to have biocidal
Ethnoveterinary Plants Used in East Africa 293

activity and are described as general growth inhibitors; that is, they can act as anti-
feedants, phytotoxics, and antifungals.89 The quaternary benzophenanthridine alka-
loids (e.g., sanguinarine, chelerythrine, and nitidine) have potent antiplasmodial and
antitopomerase activities.

12.2.2.3 Salvadora persica L., Salvadoraceae


The toothbrush tree Salvadora persica (synonym Galenia asiatica, Salvadora
indica) is a small tree or shrub with a crooked trunk. Its roots and bark are used to
treat livestock of trypanosomosis and abscesses, mange, and retained afterbirth. It is
also used for the treatment of anthrax.67
Various constituents isolated from different parts of Salvadora species have been
described. These include alkaloids, steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, and lignins.44
Some useful activities reported from various parts of the plant and from the iso-
lated chemicals are antiulcer, hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, and anticonvulsant
activities.96 Due to the presence of benzyl isothiocyanate (BIT), it is widely used
for oral hygiene (so-called chewing sticks) in different parts of the world.7,20,61,76,82,96
A phytochemical investigation of stems from Salvadora persica demonstrated the
novel presence of natural benzylamides.48 The addition of Salvadora persica to the
growing and mature BB male rabbit diets was demonstrated to improve growth and
reproductive capabilities by raising plasma testosterone levels.22 In Kenya, the leaves
of the plant are a preferred camel diet.47

12.2.3 East Coast Fever (Theileriosis)


East Coast fever is an acute disease of cattle usually characterized by high fever, swelling
of the lymph nodes, dyspnea, and high mortality. It is caused by Theileria parva and is a
serious problem in east and central Africa. The disease is transmitted by the brown ear
tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus during feeding. Clinical signs vary according to the
level of challenge and range from inapparent or mild to severe and fatal. Typically, fever
occurs 7–10 days after parasites are introduced by feeding ticks, continues throughout
the course of infection, and may be as high as 42°C. Lymph node swelling becomes pro-
nounced and generalized. Anorexia develops, and the animal’s condition deteriorates
rapidly; lacrimation and nasal discharge may occur. Terminally, dyspnea is common.
Just before death, a sharp fall in body temperature is usual, and pulmonary exudate
pours from the nostrils. Death usually occurs 18–24 days after infection. The plant spe-
cies discussed next have been cited for use in ECF in East Africa.

12.2.3.1 Adansonia digitata L., Bombacaceae


Leaves and fruits are used to treat ECF in Kenya.1 The main stem of Adansonia
digitata (baobab tree) may reach enormous proportions, up to 28 m in girth, although
baobab trees seldom exceed a height of 25 m. The species is also used for treatment
of trypanosomosis in West Africa.10,11 It has been identified as possessing gastropro-
tective properties, probably due to astringent flavonoids and antioxidant properties, in
rats and mice that have been artificially induced to develop ulcers.46 Phytochemical
screening of the fruit pulp indicated the presence of sterols or triterpenes, saponins,
tannins, carbohydrates, and glycosides.74
294 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

12.2.3.2 Aerva javanica [Burm. f.] Juss. ex J.A. Schultes, Amaranthaceae


Flowers of Aerva javanica [Burm. f.] Juss. ex J.A. Schultes, Amaranthaceae are used
in Kenya to treat theileriosis in cattle.32 This is an erect, multi-branched perennial
herb, 0.4–1.6 m high, that grows on sandy soils along drainage lines. It was found to
stimulate mice in a hypnotic study.6 Carbohydrates or glycosides, tannins, saponins,
alkaloids, unsaturated sterols, triterpenes, and flavonoids have been demonstrated to
be present in this species. Aqueous extracts of the species exhibited dose-dependent
smooth muscle relaxant effects and significant antispasmodic activity.94

12.2.3.3 Euphorbiaceae Species
Several Euphorbiaceae species have been cited for use in treating theileriosis
in East Africa. These include the bark of Croton megalocarpus, the whole plant
of Euphorbia triaculeata, and a decoction of the leaves and bark of Synadenium
compactum.1,2,13,32,67–69
Euphorbiaceae consists of about 322 genera and 8,900 species around the world
in both arid and humid tropics, and the plants are found as herbs, shrubs, stunted
succulents, and tall canopy trees.100 The Euphorbiaceae have been shown to possess
flavonoids, saponins, diterpenes, phorbol esters,101 lectins,102,103 and triterpenoids.104
Clerodane-type diterpenes have been isolated from Croton megalocarpus.4
Euphorbiaceae are well known for skin-irritating and tumor-promoting diterpenoids
(e.g., daphnane diterpenoids).23 However, numerous macrocyclic diterpenes (e.g.,
jatrophane, ingol, and myrsinane) from this taxon have also shown good biological
activity (i.e., anticancer, analgesic and antifeedant, among others).66,91 In addition to
the alkaloids, the Euphorbiaceae also contain phenolics, triterpenoids, and steroids.43
Synadenium spp. have shown immunoregulatory,75 fibrinolytic,73 and antitumoral
activity.72
Euphorbia candelabrum Trémaux ex Kotschy, Euphorbiaceae, latex and stem are
also used to treat lymph node enlargement as well as wounds, abscesses, and con-
junctivitis in livestock.38 In Uganda, it is used to treat ECF.21,65

12.2.3.4 Other Species
Leaves and juice extracted from leaves of Agave americana L., Agavaceae, are
also used in treatment of theileriosis wounds and act as a coagulant and an insect
repellant.1 Steroidal sapogenins with anti-inflammatory activity70 and in vitro anti-
leukemic activity99 have been characterized from this species. Antibacterial and
molluscidal constituents have also been isolated and characterized.69,79,86 Agave is a
source of fiber and produces steroidal sapogenins and saponins.105
Cissus quadrangularis, Vitaceae L., seeds, stem, and roots are used to treat theile-
riosis as well as diarrhea, external parasitism, foot rot, and pneumonia.9,32,39,49,62,65,67,90
Cissus quadrangularis is a source of stilbenes, including resveratrol, flavonoids, and
triterpenoids.5,13,35,57 Extracts of the plant have shown a bone fracture healing property
and antiosteoporotic effect78 as well as antibacterial and antioxidant activities.64
Clerodendrum myricoides (Verbenaceae) root is also used in Kenya to treat theile-
riosis, diarrhea, and fever in livestock.95 Spermidine alkaloids have been isolated
Ethnoveterinary Plants Used in East Africa 295

from this species.106 It is traditionally used to treat malaria in Kenya, and methanol
extracts have shown significant suppression of plasmodial parasitemia.107
The leaves of the cucurbit, Gerrardanthus lobatus and the root of Iboza multi-
flora are used to treat theileriosis in cattle in Kenya,9 while the leaves of the latter are
used for ectoparasites.49,67
Plectranthus barbatus leaves are also used to treat ECF fever in Kenya.67
Monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, and phenolics have been reported
in species of Plectranthus.107,108 Plectranthus barbatus is used in French Guyana for
malaria.109 Albizia coriaria and A. zygia, both Mimosaceae, root infusions are used
in Uganda to treat ECF.87,21 The related species A. gummifera is used traditionally to
treat malaria and has spermine alkaloids that exhibited moderate activity against the
malaria parasite in vitro.110
Other ethnoveterinary medicines reported for ECF in East Africa are leaf infu-
sions of Ananas comosus (Bromeliaceae), Aristolochia elegans (Aristolochiaceae),
Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae), Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae), and
Clerodendrum myricoides (Verbenaceae) and root infusions of Harrisonia abys-
sinica (Simaroubaceae), Maytenus senegalensis (Celastraceae), and Milicia excelsa
(Moraceae).88
There appears to be a striking correlation between plants that are used to treat
malaria in humans and the use of the plants in ECF. This may be a useful bio-
prospecting angle indicating that plant metabolites may have generalized antihemo-
parastic activity.

12.2.4 Heartwater
Heartwater is an infectious, noncontagious, rickettsial disease of ruminants in
areas infested by ticks of the genus Amblyomma. These include regions of Africa
south of the Sahara and the islands of the Comores, Zanzibar, Madagascar, São
Tomé, Réunion, and Mauritius. Heartwater and its vector are also endemic on the
islands of Guadeloupe and Antigua. Many ruminants, including some antelope
species, are susceptible. Some animals may become subclinically infected and
act as reservoirs. Indigenous African cattle breeds (Bos indicus) appear more
resistant than B. taurus breeds. The causative organism is an obligate intracel-
lular parasite, previously known as Ehrlichia ruminantium. Clinical signs are
dramatic in the peracute and acute forms. In peracute cases, animals develop
fever, followed rapidly by hyperesthesia, lacrimation, and convulsions. In the
acute form, animals show anorexia and nervous signs such as depression, a high-
stepping stiff gait, exaggerated blinking of eyes, and chewing movements. Both
forms terminate in prostration and convulsions. Diarrhea is seen occasionally. In
subacute cases, the signs are less marked, and central nervous system involvement
is inconsistent.
Abrus precatorius (jequirity bean) is used in combination with Carissa edulis
to treat heartwater.9 Several toxic lectins have been isolated from the seeds of A.
precatorius,37 and isoflavanquinones isolated from the roots were found to have
potent anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet, and antiallergic actions.51
296 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Leaves and roots of Carissa edulis are used for heartwater, as a laxative and
purgative, and for treatment of internal parasitism, colitis, gastritis, and peritonitis.9
Lignans and sesquiterpenes have been isolated from this species.2,3

12.2.5 Anaplasmosis
Anaplasmosis is a vector-borne, infectious, hemolytic, rickettsial disease of cattle,
sheep, goats, and other wild ruminants. In cattle, the most common etiological agent is
Anaplasma marginale; cattle also are affected with A. centrale, generally resulting in
mild disease. Anemia results from extravascular hemolysis when parasitized red blood
cell (RBC) membranes are altered and recognized by the reticuloendothelial system.
These RBCs are removed and finally destroyed. Accordingly, antibodies that develop
against the altered cell membrane can cause destruction of uninfected erythrocytes. The
severity of anaplasmosis depends on the species involved and age of the animal. Young
calves seem to have an innate resistance to the disease, while the acute form generally
occurs in cattle from 1 to 3 years. In cattle over 3 years, the peracute or most severe
form, with rapid onset and death, predominates. Animals that survive anaplasmosis
can become carriers for life and act as a reservoir of infection for susceptible animals.
Economic losses from anaplasmosis include abortions, death, weight gain and loss,
decreased milk production, bull infertility, and treatment expenses.
Roots, leaves, and bark of Ficus sycomorus L., Moraceae, are used to treat ana-
plasmosis and other conditions, including colitis, gastritis, and peritonitis and flush-
ing of uterus after abortion in animals.9,38 Ficus sycomorus is native to Africa south
of the Sahel and north of the Tropic of Capricorn, also excluding the central-west
rain forest areas. In Burkina Faso, it has been cited for use in malaria, but in vitro
studies have not shown good activity against Plasmodium falciparum.77
Phytochemical analysis carried out on F. sycomorus demonstrated the presence
of steroids, condensed tannins, flavone aglycones, and saponins.37,38 Extracts of F.
sycomorus have not shown good antibacterial or antifungal activity.50,83 However,
the Ficus genus is a popular herbal remedy that has been used to treat tumors
(internal and external) as well as mastitis, bronchitis, tuberculosis, and diarrhea.52
Phenanthroindolizidine alkaloids, coumarins, stilbenes, flavonoids, and triterpenods
have been isolated from this taxon.34,52

12.3 Ectoparasites
A total of 25 plants have been documented to have activity against ectoparasites.
Leaves are commonly used as insect repellant and for external parasites. Of the 25
species reported to be used for treatment of ectoparasites, 12 utilized leaves. These
included Acalypha fruticosa (Euphorbiaceae), which is also used to treat wounds,
abscesses, foot rot, burns, and pox as well,1 This species was also found to attract
ticks due to its odor.36 It is also an important folk medicine in Saudi Arabia and
India.1 Adenia veneta Forssk. Passifloraceae leaves are used for treatment of external
parasites and mange and as an antifungal.65 Leaves of Adenia multiflorum Klotzsch
Apocynaceae have been used as an insecticide and acaricide.1,62 Adenia spp. possess
entomotoxic lectins, which may explain their activity.111
Ethnoveterinary Plants Used in East Africa 297

12.4 Conclusion
Many plants have been identified for use in treatment of parasitic diseases in East
Africa. For many of them, phytochemical analysis is yet to be done. However, there
is a sufficient body of literature for many plants whose phytochemistry has been
done. Most of the plants identified were for treatment of diseases in ruminants; in a
few exceptions, plants were used to treat conditions in camels and poultry. Leaf and
bark were the most commonly used plant parts. In some instances, whole plants were
used, and a mixture of two or more plants has also been widely reported.

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13 Herbal Medicines for
Animal Health in the
Middle East and North
Africa (MENA) Region
Laïd Boukraa, Hama Benbarek,
and Mokhtar Benhanifia

Contents
13.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 303
13.2 Veterinary Medicine in MENA..................................................................... 305
13.3 Contemporary Ethnoveterinary Medicine.....................................................306
13.4 The Most Common Plants Used for Animal Health.....................................309
13.4.1 Urtica dioica......................................................................................309
13.4.2 Artemisia herba-alba.........................................................................309
13.4.3 Thymus capitatus............................................................................... 311
13.4.4 Juniperus phoenicea.......................................................................... 312
13.5 Scientific Evidence of Medicinal Plant Properties Used
in Animal Health........................................................................................... 312
13.5.1 Gastrointestinal Complaints.............................................................. 312
13.5.2 Treatment and Prophylaxis of Helminthiasis.................................... 312
13.5.3 Respiratory Disorders........................................................................ 313
13.5.4 Urinary Disorders.............................................................................. 313
13.6 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 313
Acknowledgments................................................................................................... 314
References............................................................................................................... 316

13.1 Introduction
Since time immemorial, medicinal plants have been used in virtually all cultures to
maintain and restore health. The widespread use of herbal remedies and health care
preparations, such as those described in ancient texts such as the Vedas and the Bible
and obtained from commonly used traditional herbs and medicinal plants, has been
traced to the occurrence of biologically active compounds.
The use of traditional medicine and medicinal plants in most developing countries
for treating disease and maintaining good health has been widely observed (United

303
304 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 1996).


Furthermore, an increasing reliance on the use of medicinal plants in the industrial-
ized world has been traced to the extraction and development of several drugs and
chemotherapeutics from these plants as well as from traditionally used remedies
(UNESCO, 1998). Worldwide herbal remedies have become more popular in the
treatment of minor ailments or for diseases that are refractory to allopathic medicine
and because of the increasing costs of medical care. Indeed, the market and public
demand has been so great that there is a great risk that many medicinal plants today
face extinction due to overexploitation.
This chapter discusses traditional veterinary medicine in the Middle East and
North Africa (MENA) region. Geographically, this area covers all the countries north
of the Sahara in Africa and stretches to Egypt across to the Arabian peninsula, Iraq,
and Turkey. The population is predominantly Arab and Moslem, but there are also
ethnic minorities (e.g., Berbers, Druze, and Kurds). The area is semiarid to arid and
prone to droughts, but there are also large expanses of forest, mountains, and fertile
riverine valleys (e.g., the Nile and Euphrates valleys) (Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, 1997), which support irrigation and were historically the setting of
great civilizations. Despite its aridity, the region contains 10% of the world’s known
species of higher plants of which half are endemic to the area (Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, 1997). The biological, cultural, and ethnic diversity of the
region has arisen because it is the convergence of different climatic, phytogeographic,
zoogeographic zones (i.e., the Mediterranean, the desert, and the Rift Valley) and an
important crossroads of international trade and cultures (Lev, 2006). The passage
of traders from East to West through the region has also led to exchange of cultural
information and healing philosophies (e.g., doctrine of signatures) to and from both
territories; for example, similar uses of medicaments have been witnessed elsewhere,
such as the use of Ammi visnaga for kidney stones, Malva nicaensis for wounds, and
so on (Azaizeh et al., 2006). Also, for example, the use of polyherbal preparations
originating from India has been noted in faraway Morocco (Merzouki, Ed-derfoufi,
and Molero Mesa, 2000).
Nomadic pastoralism, which was once dominant in the region, has been replaced
since World War II by intensive agropastoral production on marginal grazing
lands (Steinmann, 1998). In North Africa, rainfall diminishes from north to south,
and the vegetation changes from perennial grass (Stipa tenacissma) and woody
shrub (Artemisia herba alba) to a greater variety of woody shrubs and succulents
(Arthrophytum scoparium, Festuca algeriensis, Retama retam, Ziziphus lotus) in
the more arid Sahara (Steinmann, 1998). Annuals are the source of fodder and are
also valued for medicinal purposes.
The Sahara region has vegetation that is generally homogeneous and confined to
the wadi (beds) (Hammiche and Maiza, 2006). The Sahara—tropical and soudano—
decannian flora of mainly Acacia and Balanites and Aerva, Lepladenia, or Salsola
taxa, respectively, dominates in the south and changes to the saharo-mediterranean
(e.g., Myrtus, Lavandula, and Teucrium species) along the northernmost coastal
mountains (Hammiche and Maiza, 2006).
The eastern Mediterranean rim of the Middle East has plant species that are typi-
cal of the region (e.g., myrtle, sage, and wild majoram) and desert flora beyond that
Herbal Medicines for Animal Health in the Middle East 305

as it becomes more arid. For example, there are more than 2,600 plant species that
have been inventoried from the hills of historical Palestine, of which about 700 have
medicinal use (Azaizeh et al., 2006). However, this number and knowledge are under
threat, and only a third of the medicinal plants are still in use in Arab traditional
medicine; many of these are now rare or endangered, such as Euphorbia hirsute
(used as an antiparasitic) and Ophioglossum spp. (for parasites and wounds) (Azaizeh
et al., 2006). A similar decline in knowledge corresponding to loss of biodiversity has
also been noted among informants in the West Bank (Palestine) (Said et al., 2002).
Important livestock in the region includes small ruminants (goats and sheep),
bovines (cattle and buffalo), poultry (chicken and turkey), and camels and equines
valued for draught power (Nordblom and Shomo, n.d.). For religious reasons, there
are no pigs reared in the area.

13.2 Veterinary Medicine in MENA


With the demise of the Roman Empire, Arabia became the center of science and
medicine, and it was there that the Hippocratic-Galenic theories were further devel-
oped and refined (Azaizeh et al., 2006; Lev and Amar, 2002).
Historical records reveal people’s association with traditional veterinary treat-
ment of animals in North Africa and the Middle East to be over 14,000 years old. The
history reflects that by 9000 BC the dog was the first species to receive veterinary
care, then sheep and goats in the Nile Valley civilization of ancient Egypt (Mellaart,
1967). Cattle became important livestock in Egypt from 4000 BC and in Anatolia
from around 6000 BC. This evolution was followed by pig and horse cultures in
view of their importance (Murray, 1968). There was a great deal of economic, cul-
tural, social, and religious importance attached to each type of animal; naturally,
veterinary medicine evolved specifically to take care of the health of animals, which
were being domesticated (Thrusfield, 1986). Evidence of this is the recording of vet-
erinary therapeutic techniques of Egyptian healers (priest healers) in the veterinary
Papyrus of Kahun (ca. 1900 BC).
About 1,000 medicinal plants were documented in Sumerian records from over
4,000 years ago. The evolution and development of ethnoveterinary medicines
(EVMs), however, have lagged behind that of humans (Kofi-Tsekpo and Kioy, 1998;
Schillborn van Veen, 1997), but as history shows they should be viewed as comple-
mentary rather than separate fields (Lans, 2001). Schillborn van Veen (1997) men-
tioned that in addition to Sumerian records, veterinarians were providing services
as early as 1800 BC in Babylon, and there are documents recording the creation of
animal hospitals during the reign of King Ashoka between 269 and 232 BC in the
Rock Edict 11. This kind of veterinary art must have facilitated the development of
major veterinary centers, which appear in historical records in China and Egypt and
later in Arabia (Schillborn van Veen, 1997).
Veterinary medicine as practiced today has its roots in herbal medicine as prac-
ticed in ancient China, India, and the Middle East (Schillhorn van Veen, 1996).
The literature indicates that Arabia was the world center of veterinary and other
medical knowledge in the early Middle Ages. With the spread of Islam, some
of this knowledge made its way into Africa and was adopted by stock raisers
306 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

(Schillhorn van Veen, 1996). EVM was practiced as early as 1800 BC at the time of
King Hamurabi of Babylon, who formulated laws on veterinary fees and charged for
treating cattle and donkeys (Schillhorn van Veen, 1996).

13.3 Contemporary Ethnoveterinary Medicine


In contemporary rural NEMA, EVM often provides cheaper options to allopathic
medicine, and the products are locally available and more easily accessible. In the
face of these and other factors, there is increasing interest in the field of ethnoveteri-
nary research and development.
Many pastoral societies have wide knowledge of what can only be termed
immunology. For example, the North African Fulani (Ba, 1982; Wolfgang, 1983) and
the Maasai (Schwabe, 1978) use similar immunization techniques for vaccinating
against contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) by inserting a piece of infected
lung into the nostril of a healthy animal. Similarly, in Arabic pastoral cultures thorns
from acacia plants are used for inoculation (Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1995).
In North Africa, as elsewhere, more intensive herding and farming practices help
sustain a growing human population. But overgrazing, soil erosion, expansion of
cultivation, and irrigated agriculture threaten the long-term productivity of these
rangelands and the livelihoods that depend on them (Swearingen, 1994). These prob-
lems persist in part because the perceptions and interests of land users are neglected
in environmental change analysis and conservation planning (Blaikie, 1985).
In the Middle East and in Morocco specifically, researchers have generally
addressed the causes of nomadic sedentarization and associated environmental con-
sequences at the community or regional level. Their literature generally approaches
the problem of landscape change through an analysis of demographic, historical,
and political economic factors or transformations of regulatory institutions and land
tenure systems (Abbaab, 1994; Blaikie, 1985; Bencherifa and Johnson, 1991; Mendes
and Narjisse, 1992; Tozy, 1994; Trautmann, 1989). However, these analyses obscure
the changing production decisions at the household level, where broader economic
and environmental consequences are felt. The paucity of intrahousehold environ-
mental research in the region also results from cultural values that limit contact
between male researchers and local women. With few exceptions, male research-
ers have dominated fieldwork in pastoral and agropastoral communities in MENA.
Furthermore, conservation and development projects are generally implemented and
managed by men who work with male, but not female, land users. However, women
are quite visible across the rural landscape: collecting water, fuel wood, and other
plant resources; herding animals; and working in fields.
EVM has its advantages and limitations. The advantages, among others, are the
ease of administration of the remedies with little or no danger to the pastoralists
(in contrast to pharmaceuticals, which have complicated dose regimens and may
require protective clothing), and the accessibility, availability, and affordability of
the remedies and their familiarity to users (Mathias, 2004). The limitations are
obvious and include the lack of scientific evidence to validate use; the inconve-
nience of collection times, which may be seasonal; and the time consumed in mak-
ing the preparations. There are difficulties in standardizing herbal therapies as the
Herbal Medicines for Animal Health in the Middle East 307

concentration of active ingredient varies in different parts of the plants. It is also


generally recognized by the users that EVM remedies may not be effective against
infectious epidemic diseases.
To treat the diseases of their dromedaries, the Tuareg of North Africa use tra-
ditional medicines that are available in their immediate surroundings. Their treat-
ments vary from bloodletting to the use of medicinal plants and mineral products.
The most-used treatment is bloodletting, either alone or combined with the appli-
cation of animal products or plant medicines. About 20 main pathological condi-
tions have been described for which about 100 remedies are used. The collaboration
between stockbreeders and veterinary breeding services—when the latter exist—is
restricted due to dysfunctional social service systems in most of postcolonial Africa
and Asia.
It is to worth mentioning that due to religious beliefs, pork breeding does not exist
in North Africa and the Middle East, so no medicinal plants for pigs are reported.
Instead, for climatic and geographic considerations, camel breeding is predominant
in arid regions, so there is a great deal of knowledge of camel diseases and their
treatments among the desert people (Tables 13.1 and 13.2). The camel is an important
source of milk, meat, and transport in MENA and an important symbol of wealth
(Abbas, Al-Qarawi, and Al-Hawas, 2002).
The camel plays an important role as a food animal in many hot and arid
countries. The increase in the camel population was largely due to the growth of
herds owned by former pastoralists who have settled as agropastoralists, as well
as herds raised by wealthy merchants, who kept rather large herds of camels as
a sign of family prestige (Abdel Rahim, Abdel Rahman, and El Nazier, 1994;
Abbas, Al-Qarawi, and Al-Hawas, 1999). In spite of the general tendency toward
settlement of pastoralists in Saudi Arabia (Fabietti, 1982), about 40% of camels
in the country are kept by pastoralists who constitute less than 10% of the total
population (Al Humaidi, 1994). Camel milk and meat are popular items in the
Saudi menu, and the camel is a popular sport animal in all of the Arabian Gulf
countries. Most of these plants were seasonal, and some were restricted to certain
locations.
Several plants were used for the treatment of mycotic or allergic dermatitis,
which included all skin conditions not diagnosed as mange. For this purpose, the
leaves, seeds, or bark of Tamarix aphylla, Blepharis ciliaris, Hamada elegans, and
Euphorbia cuneata were dried, well ground, and made into a fine paste using but-
ter or petroleum jelly as base. The preparation was smeared over lesions once or
twice daily for 3–7 days. Severe lesions, such as those due to contagious skin necro-
sis, ringworm in young calves, or teat lesions in adult females, were then covered
or wrapped by several layers of Calotropis procera leaves for protection. Rhazya
stricta, Zygophylum album, Zygophylum coccineum, and Citrulus colocynthis were
the plants most commonly used by ethnoveterinarians for the treatment of helmint-
hiosis in camels.
Calotropis procera promises to be a plant of multiple benefits in the arid zones
(Fall, 1989). It contains cardenolides, which have broad antibacterial activity (Akhtar
et al., 1992), and C. procera has both therapeutic (antitumor, anthelmintic, and anti-
inflammatory) and toxic potential (Singh et al., 2000). Pastoralists in the Sahel used
308 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 13.1
Medicinal Plants Used by Ethnoveterinarians in Saudi Arabia for Treatment
of Camel Diseases
Latin Name (Arabic) Uses
Tamarix aphylla (Athil) Buds as paste for dermatitis; leaves and buds as eye wash
Rhazya stricta (Harmal) Leaves as vermifuge, purgative; for mange
Zygophylum album (Um thraib) Whole plant and seeds: vermifuge
Zygophylum coccineum (Humadd) Whole plant: purgative, vermifuge
Artemesia abyssinica (Aazir) Whole plant: laxative
Artemesia inculata (Sheeh) Whole plant and seeds: laxative and vermifuge
Blepharis ciliaris (Shokadab) Leaves and seeds: antiseptic; leaves: astringent
Zizyphus nummularia (Sid) Leaves and seeds for old wounds; leave decoction as astringent
Hamada elegans (Rimth) Leaves and bark: antiseptic, hasten wound healing; bark powder
reduces scars
Citrullus colocynthis (Sheri) Pulp: strong vermifuge, purgative; root and seeds for snakebite;
tar for mange
Fagonia pruguieri (Shwaika) Bark for mange
Lepidium sativum (Rashad) Seeds and leaves for gastroenteritis and dermatitis; leaf for
mange
Euphorbia cocuneata (Abu laban) Leaves and latex: antiseptic; purgative; for dermatitis; latex for
snakebite
Cymbopogon schoenanthus (Azkhar) Root decoction for bloat and colic; whole plant laxative
Milolotus alba (Handagog) Leaves and fruits for anorexia; leaves to induce milk let down
Lycium barbarum (Awsag) Fruits and leaves for colic and anorexia; whole plant for
myositis and arthritis; latex and leaves for snake bite
Heliotropium strigosum (Rimram) Seed: vermifuge and wound antiseptic
Cleome arabica (Umzameel) Bark: antiseptic, reduces scars
Haloxylon ammodendron (Ghadha) Leaves decoction for cough
Calotropis procera (Ushar) Fresh leaves and latex for arthritis, latex for scorpion sting; dry
leaves for stomachache, tonic
Colocynthis vulgaris (Handhal) Leaf for mange
Fagonia pruguieri (Shwaika) Bark for mange
Rhazya stricta (Harmal) Leaf for mange

Source: Abbas, Al-Qarawi, and Al-Hawas (2002). Journal of Arid Environments, 50: 367–379. With
permission.

C. procera as a livestock famine food during the famous drought of the 1980s (Fall,
1989; Abbas, Eltayeb, and Sullieman, 1993), while in the Sudan it was fed to cam-
els as a cure for night blindness, a condition precipitated by vitamin A deficiency
(Abbas, 1997). Kumar and Basu (1994) ascribed anti-inflammatory effects to the
latex of C. procera, while Al Qarawi et al. (2000) reported moderate anthelmintic
activity of the latex against experimental hemonchosis in sheep.
Herbal Medicines for Animal Health in the Middle East 309

Table 13.2
Some Camel Infections and Their Treatment with Local Herbs in Tuareg
Land (North Africa)
Common Name Local Name Plant Used Method
Dermatitis Ajwid Balanites aegyptiaca Mixed to bone powder and boiled; put on
the sick parts
Trypanosomiasis Manchach Boscia senegalensis Macerate leaves with tobacco and give to
animal as a drink
Piétin Adyal Acacia senegalensis Barks boiled in water and then put on
Calotropis procera wound
Latex mixed to butter and put on wound
Beat wound Tafaday Maerua crassifolia Macerated leaves cooked in butter and
put on the wound
Sinusitis Anafad Maerua crassifolia Macerated leaves cooked in butter and
inserted into sinuses
Diarrhea Touffite Acacia radiana Macerated leaves mixed to argil, diluted
Boscia senegalensis in water; give to animal as drink
Viper bite Assam Calotropis procera Powder of burned leaves put on swollen
part

13.4 The Most Common Plants Used for Animal Health


Many plants are used for animal health in the MENA region (Tables 13.3 and 13.4).
Some of the important plant species are discussed briefly next.

13.4.1 Urtica dioica
Stem and leaves of Urtica dioica are known for their anti-inflammatory effect, so
they are used to fight rheumatism and inflammatory pain of the urinary tract. It is
used in folk medicine as a diuretic and antianemic as it is rich in iron.
The leaves are known to be diuretic, anti-inflammatory, antiasthenia, antidiabetic,
astringent, and wound healing. The roots are diuretic and decrease the urine quantity
in the bladder.
The fruit is a tonic and galactogogue. Research has attributed anticancer, antioxidant,
and antiviral effects to this plant (Celik and Tuluce, 2007; van der Meer et al., 2007).

13.4.2 Artemisia herba-alba
The Artemisia herba-alba plant species is rich in essential oils. It is known for its pur-
gative effect, which plays a very important role in controlling intestinal worms. The
leaves of this plant are used in folk medicine to treat diabetes, bronchitis, abscess,
and diarrhea and as an anthelmintic (Le Floc’h, 1983).
Studies conducted in Morocco have shown the powerful effect of Artemisia
herba-alba against leishmania. The strongest leishmanicidal activity was observed with
the essential oil at 2 µg/mL versus the other two strains tested. The aqueous extract
310 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 13.3
The Most Common Medicinal Plants Used
Major Chemical
Scientific Name Local Name Plant Uses Constituents
Cupressaceae Arrar Cough, wounds, and Diterpenes, phenylpropanoids,
Juniperus phoenicea other skin problems furanones
Urticaceae Tazia, Horigh Urine retention, Flavonoids, triterpenes,
Urtica dioica antianemic coumarin
Solanaceae Tasakra Retained placenta, Sesquiterpenes, tropane and
Hyoscyamus albus fractures, and lameness piperidone alkaloids, imino
sugars
Lamiaceae Yazire, Hchiche, Wounds and other skin Sesquiterpenes, diterpenes,
Rosmarinus El-Arnab problems, edema, bite, essential oils
officinalis pneumonia, bronchitis,
antiseptic,
antispasmodic
Thymus vulgaris Zaatar Indigestion, bloat Essential oils, flavonoids
Marrubium vulgare Timret, timriouet, Pneumonia, bronchitis, Diterpene, phenylethanoids,
merouket antiseptic flavonoids
Origanum Timrisitine, Pneumonia, bronchitis, Essential oils
floribundum origan antiseptic, antispasmodic,
appetite stimulant
Asteraceae Cheih, Chiba Wounds and other Essential oils, guaianolide
Artemisia absinthium problems of the skin sesquiterpenes, flavonoids
Artemisia herba-alba Cheih Intestinal worms Sesquiterpenes, flavonoids
Globulariaceae Tasalka Conjuctivis, keratitis, Phenylethanoids, iridoids,
Globularia alypum cataract flavonoids
Lythraceae Hana, henna Fractures, diarrhea Xanthones, triterpenoids,
Lawsonia alba napthoquinones
Zygophyllaceae Harmal Intestinal worms Quinazoline, β-carboline
Peganum harmala alkaloids
Fabaceae
Cassia acutifolia Sna meki Indigestion, constipation Anthraquinones
Ceratonia siliqua Kharoube, carob Diarrhea Tannins, flavonoids, complex
sugars (mannans, galactans)
Geraniaceae Atarchaa, Diarrhea, intestinal Flavonoids, tannins,
Pelargonium tasekroute worms coumarins, phenolic acids
odoratissimum
Alliaceae Bsal Indigestion, colic, Flavonoids, thiosulfinates,
Allium cepa intestinal worms triterpenes
Rutaceae Fidjel Anthelmintic, diuretic, Coumarins, quinolone
Ruta graveolens antispasmodic alkaloids
Rhamnaceae Meliles-sfera Diuretic Anthocyanins, flavonoids
Rhamnus alaternus
Herbal Medicines for Animal Health in the Middle East 311

Table 13.4
Recorded Veterinary Uses of Mediterranean Plants in North Africa
Plant Name Country Part Used Administration Medical Use
Acacia nilotica Egypt Fruits and leaves Decoction Digestive
Acacia tortilis Egypt Leaves, fruits and Decoction Digestive
gums
Achillea Egypt Whole plant Decoction, topic Digestive, skin
fragantissima application disease
Allium cepa Morocco Bulb Fodder Placenta retention
Allium sativum Algeria, Morocco Bulb Fodder Digestive, vermifuge
Althaea officinalis Morocco Whole plant Wrapped in linen Oral inflammation
and placed in the
mouth of the horse
Anabasis articulate Egypt Aerial parts Topic Skin diseases
Angelica Morocco Macerate in vinegar Digestive
archangelica
Artemisia Algeria, Morocco Aerial parts Fodder, decoction Nervous disease,
absinthium digestive
Artemisia Algeria Aerial parts Fodder, decoction, Vermifuge, diarrhea,
herba-alba smoke acaricide
Artemisia judaica Egypt Aerial parts Decoction Urinary disorders

Source: From Pieroni et al. (2006). Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2: 16. With permission.

showed an antileshmanial activity at 4 µg/mL (Hatimi et al., 2001). Essential oil of


Artemisia herba-alba was active against some gram-positive and gram-negative bacte-
ria. The essential oil was fractionated by column chromatography, and these fractions
were tested for antibacterial activity. The principal component of the most active frac-
tion was santolina alcohol (Yashphe et al., 1979).
The antifungal activity of Artemisia herba-alba was found to be associated with
two major volatile compounds (carvone and piperitone) isolated from the fresh leaves
of the plant. Antifungal activity was measured against Penicillium citrinum (American
Type Culture Collection [ATCC] 10499) and Mucora rouxii (ATCC 24905). The anti-
fungal activity (IC50) of the purified compounds was estimated to be 5 µg/mL, 2 µg/
mL against Penicillium citrinum and 7 µg/mL, 1.5 µg/mL against Mucora rouxii for
carvone and piperitone, respectively (Saleh, Belal, and el-Baroty, 2006).
Research in Tunisia has attributed an antioxidant role to Artemisia herba-alba. It
has been shown that it had antioxidant effects equivalent to green and black tea decoc-
tions on oxidative stress and related metabolic parameters in rats (Abid et al., 2007).

13.4.3 Thymus capitatus
Thyme (Thymus capitatus) is a well-known plant used in folk medicine. Its leaves
are rich in essential oils largely used in phytotherapy (e.g., thymol, carvacrol, and
312 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

β-caryophyllene). They are used as infusion to treat respiratory problems and


wounds (Le Floc’h, 1983). Many studies have reported its anti-inflammatory proper-
ties (Vigo et al., 2004), antispasmodic effects (Meister et al., 1999), and antifungal
properties (Pina-Vaz et al., 2004).

13.4.4 Juniperus phoenicea
Decoction of leaves of Juniperus phoenicea is used to treat diabetes, diarrhea, and loco-
motive problems. Dried fruits are used as powder for ulcer and abscess healing (Le Floc’h,
1983). It is also known for its use as an antiseptic, analeptic, and antiparasitic.

13.5 Scientific Evidence of Medicinal Plant


Properties Used in Animal Health
13.5.1 Gastrointestinal Complaints
Several plants are described for therapy of digestive problems, especially tympa-
nism. This condition occurs after the ingestion of several fresh plants and can be
solved with herbal remedies like Thymus vulgaris, Artemisia absinthium, Allium
cepa, and yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (Renzetti and Taiani, 1988; Guarrera,
1981, 1987).
Decoctions of Cassia accutifolia and Rhamnus alaternus are used to treat reac-
tive motility (motricity) of the gastrointestinal tract, like indigestion and constipation.
Artemisia herba-alba, Marrabium vulgare, Lawsonia alba, and Ceratonia siliqua
are used for intestinal anti-inflammatory and antidiarrheal purposes.
Several compounds isolated from Rosmarinus officinalis (especially the triter-
penes ursolic acid and oleanolic acid) have been shown to have antimicrobial activ-
ity, such as growth inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus, gram-negative organisms,
and Microsporium lensoum. Ursolic acid was identified as one of the active compo-
nents in rosemary to inhibit the growth of some food-associated bacteria and yeast,
while oleanolate saponins also exhibited a broad spectrum of antifungal activity,
especially against the strain of Candida glabrata.
Essential oils of Thymus vulgaris, Allium cepa, and Origanum floribundum have
been shown to stimulate the appetite of cattle, sheep, and horses (Pieroni et al., 2006).

13.5.2 Treatment and Prophylaxis of Helminthiasis


In traditional societies, there seem to be a number of plant remedies deemed suitable
for parasitic disease (e.g., Peganum harmala, Artemisia herba-alba, Artemisia absin-
thium, Juniperus phoenicia, Rosmarinus officinalis) (Guarrera, 1999; Al-Qura’n,
2009). These plant species have compounds such as alkaloids, which have paralytic
action on tapeworms, and sesquiterpenes (e.g., santonin and artimisin), which also
have antiparasitic properties (Bennet-Jenkins and Bryant, 1996). The antiseptic and
acaricidal properties of this oil are also well known by shepherds in the Pyrenees,
who frequently use it (Agelet, 1999; Villar et al., 1992). Similar products derived
from other Juniperus species (Juniperus drupacea, Juniperus excelsa, Juniperus
Herbal Medicines for Animal Health in the Middle East 313

oxycedrus) are used in Turkey as antiseptic and parasiticidal remedies in animals


(Ertug, 1999). In Italy, Juniperus oxycedrus is employed for the same purpose (Viegi
et al., 2003).

13.5.3 Respiratory Disorders
Many plants are used for respiratory disorders, such as Juniperus phoenicia (contains
essential oils, pectin, camphen, resin, organic acid) and Laurus nobilis (lauric acid,
phellandren, tannin, resin) with antiseptic and balsamic properties and Marrubium
vulgare (marrubin, cholin, tannin, essential oils, glucosids, vitamin C) and Marrubium
deserti (Hammiche, 2006). Rosmarinus officinalis (oleanolic acid, ursolic acid) has
antiseptic and antimicrobial activity. The mechanisms of anti-inflammatory effects
have been attributed to the inhibition of histamine release from mast cells and inhi-
bition of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase activity. Thymus vulgaris, Origanum
floribundum, and Foeniculum vulgare all have antiseptic, expectorant, and anti-​
inflammatory properties in cattle (Afifi and Abu-Irmaileh, 2000; Yesilada, 1995).

13.5.4 Urinary Disorders
Decoctions of Urtica dioica and Laurus nobilis are used as diuretics and depura-
tives in animals and humans (Vàzquez, 1997). Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)
is widely used as a folk medicine remedy in different countries for several diseases,
including urinary ailments. Furthermore, several compounds isolated from R. offici-
nalis L. have been characterized and shown to possess potent antioxidative activity
(Liu, 1995). Marrubium vulgare, Origanum floribundum, and Ruta graveolens were
also used in urinary disorders.

13.6 Conclusion
Herbal medicine is probably the oldest medicine for humans and, by extension, for
animals. Unfortunately, the written tradition detailing historical uses of herbs in
domestic animals is scant at best. Veterinary herbalists study the human literature
for clues while using their knowledge of unique animal physiology and biochemistry
to develop treatment recommendations. Herbal medicine can provide benefits that
conventional medicine may not be able to offer. EVMs are often not as fast acting
and potent as allopathic medicines. They may therefore be less suitable to control
and treat epidemic and endemic infectious diseases (e.g., foot-and-mouth disease,
rinderpest, hemorrhagic septicemia, anthrax, blackquarter, rabies) and acute life-
threatening bacterial infections (e.g., generalized cases of coli- or pyogenes masti-
tis). For these problems, modern drugs might be the best choice. But, for common
self-limiting diseases and conditions such as colds, skin diseases, worm infestation,
wounds, reproductive disorders, nutritional deficiencies, and mild diarrhea, EVM
has much to offer and can be a cheap and readily available alternative to costly
imported drugs. For some diseases, a combination of modern and local remedies and
management practices might be preferable.
314 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Even with infectious diseases, ethnoveterinary treatments should not be dismissed


out of hand. Many drugs used in chemotherapy are based on chemical substances of
plant origin or on the semisynthetic derivatives of such substances. Some local pre-
ventive methods are effective and simple to apply; an example is the pox vaccination
conducted by pastoralists.
The search for alternatives is especially important as now any unnecessary use of
antibiotics and other chemical drugs is discouraged in the light of residue problems
and the growing resistance of microorganisms to some drugs. Projects should there-
fore explore whether local treatments are available and should validate practices that
are promising.
Far more research is needed in this domain to provide an understanding of the
effects of specific plants on animal health in general and especially on the quality
and quantity of meat and dairy products.
Many other in-depth ethnobotanical comparative studies will surely be necessary
in the Mediterranean region, as in other parts of the world, before we can gain crucial
clues about commonalities and differences in medicinal plant usages across different
cultures. In particular, our review has demonstrated that there is an urgent need for the
documentation of traditional and indigenous knowledge related to the intangible cul-
tural heritage concerning traditional plant uses, and that such a heritage is much more
complex than we may think. Ethnoveterinary data in the Mediterranean region could
offer an extraordinary background for conducting serious studies aimed at implement-
ing clinical phytotherapy in animal health care and the use of plant-derived nutraceu-
ticals, with the aim of improving the quality of animal-derived food products.

Acknowledgments
We are very thankful to all the contributors who have made this study possible:
veterinarians, breeders, and Department of Veterinary Sciences staff.

Artemisia absinthium
Herbal Medicines for Animal Health in the Middle East 315

Ruta graveolens

Thymus vulgaris
316 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Urtica dioica

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14 Ethnoveterinary
and Sustainable
Medicine

Livestock Management
in West Africa
Ifeanyi Charles Okoli, Hamidou
Hamadou Tamboura, and
Mawena Sylvie Hounzangbe-Adote

Contents
14.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 321
14.2 Livestock Production in West Africa............................................................. 323
14.3 Importance of Livestock................................................................................ 324
14.4 Constraints to Livestock Production.............................................................. 325
14.5 Animal Health Management Strategies......................................................... 326
14.5.1 Ethnoveterinary Concepts in Livestock Management....................... 327
14.5.2 Characteristics of Ethnoveterinary Practices in West Africa............ 328
14.5.2.1 Clinical and Epizootiologic Knowledge............................. 328
14.5.2.2 Practices.............................................................................. 328
14.5.2.3 Tools and Technologies....................................................... 329
14.5.2.4 Beliefs................................................................................. 330
14.5.2.5 Breeds................................................................................. 330
14.5.2.6 Human Resources............................................................... 330
14.5.2.7 Herbal Plants Used.............................................................. 330
14.6 Inventory of Plants and Remedies Used in Ethnoveterinary Practices......... 332
14.7 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 341
References...............................................................................................................344

14.1 Introduction
In-depth research into different indigenous animal production paradigms of nutri-
tion, disease causes and treatment, and socioeconomic aspects of animal husbandry
geared toward proper understanding of animal production systems of an area and
formulation of appropriate interventions not only promotes the development of useful
concepts in veterinary medicine but also encourages the maintenance of biological

321
322 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

and cultural diversity (De Haans and Bekure, 1991). In West Africa, the highest
proportion of livestock remains in the care of traditional herdsmen, among whom
ethnoveterinary health care forms a major component of disease management (Lobi,
1984; Agbédé, Téguia, and Manyeli, 1995; Guèye, 1999; Okoli, Okoli, and Ebere,
2002; Okeudo, 2004; Fajimi and Taiwo, 2005; Hounzangbe-Adote, 2001, 2005a;
Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998).
Traditional animal health care practice has remained popular because it is a read-
ily available, low-cost alternative to the relatively costly inputs driven by modern
veterinary services (McCorkle, 1995, 1996; Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1991) in
many rural communities of West African countries. In fact, animals such as the West
African dwarf ruminants, local chickens, and ducks kept in the humid and subhumid
parts of the region hardly receive any form of modern veterinary attention to face the
wide range of diseases (Sonaiya, 1990).
Diseases of high incidence encountered in the area stretching from Senegal to
Cameroon include helminthoses, trypanosomosis, babesiosis, ectoparasitoses, der-
matophilosis, orf, brucellosis, tuberculosis, and heartwater. Major outbreaks of con-
tagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), peste des
petits ruminants (PPR), and black quarter are also recorded.
Considering the popularity of ethnoveterinary practice among stock raisers, it
would seem that the amount of published information available on its diversity and
efficacy in the region is limited. It is, however, established that many of the traditional
medications used in humans are also applied in ethnoveterinary practice (Wahua and
Oji, 1987; Guissou, 1997; Adjanohoun, 1989; Houinato, 1999, 2002). Furthermore,
a number of browse plants utilized in animal feeding are also used to treat the self-
same animals when they fall ill (Wahua and Oji, 1987; Okoli, Okoli, and Ebere,
2002; Adewumi, 2004; Hounzangbe-Adote, 2004). Since plant substances continue
to serve as important sources of drugs for the majority of the world’s human and
animal population and several plant-based drugs are in extensive clinical use, there
is a need for the development of sustainable strategies to exploit Africa’s rich biodi-
versity (Toyang and Wirmum, 1994; Bognounou, 1993). There is an urgent need to
characterize the ethnoveterinary properties of increasingly endangered plant species
to improve animal production on the continent (Ngeh et al., 1995).
According to Leeflang (1993), one of the most positive ways to help planners and
development organizations to find workable solutions to problems of tropical animal
health and production is to conduct research on indigenous veterinary medicine and
to disseminate the findings. Better appreciation of indigenous veterinary skills and
practices and greater sensitivity toward local knowledge systems will enable plan-
ners and development workers to view animal health and production through the
eyes of the people whom their programs are supposed to benefit. Similarly, develop-
ment programs could be better adapted to local problems and therefore become more
likely to yield sustainable results. Insights into local knowledge systems would also
improve communication with livestock owners and facilitate their participation in
decision making about the health care of their animals (Padmakumar, 1998).
Etuk, Okoli, and Udedibie (2005) noted that before any of these animal health
development strategies can be successfully employed in the tropics, issues of pro-
duction systems need to be clearly outlined and integrated to the strategy to ensure
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management 323

that local problems and circumstances are properly accommodated. Furthermore,


strategic issues that may be effective in animal health management in one region
may at best be partially successful and at worst find no application in other regions,
especially in the tropics. Most regions of the world have evolved relatively successful
indigenous knowledge (IK)-based systems and ethnoveterinary medical practices in
solving their problems almost successfully.
Formal veterinary services and structures in West Africa and its structures were
originally created with the objective of implementing specific animal health poli-
cies developed by the colonial administrations. The development of the livestock
industry was not the priority of the colonial administration in most of the countries.
Rather, their major goals were to source raw materials for colonial factories and pro-
vide markets for their manufactured goods. Initial priorities were therefore research,
delivery of limited veterinary services to a select few, and processing of products
for export to the mother country (Maina, 2002). The legacy of colonial thinking has
been a fragmented, dysfunctional, and underresourced animal health care service.
This chapter appraises the current facts about ethnoveterinary development in
the West African subregion and highlights future research issues that could generate
appropriate data for intervention strategies.

14.2 Livestock Production in West Africa


Livestock production provides a veritable means of livelihood to millions of people in
West Africa. A large percentage of rural people in the region are involved in livestock
production, which involves the rearing and marketing of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs,
poultry, camels, and the like (Oyesola and Olujide, 2000; Okeudo, 2004). Over 80%
of the West African livestock population, especially cattle, sheep, and goats, are in
traditional herds. They are mostly owned by pastoral ethnic groups such as the Fulani,
Hausa, and Tuareg, generally located in the northern grasslands and sahelian regions
or dry areas (Ikeme, 1990; Bâ, 1994; Tamboura et al., 1998a). However, cattle remain
the most prominent of all domesticated animals in West Africa (Tewe, 1995).
There are many breeds of cattle indigenous to West Africa. According to Pagot
(1992), the popular breeds of cattle in West Africa include red Bororo, white Fulani,
Sokoto Gudali, Muturu, Keteku, Ndama, Azawak, Kouri, Gobra, and Foulbe. Popular
sheep include Macina woolsheep, Djallonke, Peul sheep, long-haired Moorish,
Mossi sheep, and West African dwarf, while the goats are the dry zone goats called
chèvre du Sahel, Savannah goats chèvre Mossi, West African dwarf goats, and the
red Maradi.
In the region, the historical mobile pastoralism or transhumance is the dominant
system of ruminant production. For a long time, it involved movement of the herds-
men, their families, and the herds from place to place, with the availability of fodder,
water, and animal health as determining factors. But now, due to shortage of land
space and occurrence of conflicts between herders and crop farmers, most of the
transhumants have become permanent stakeholders and do keep in a fixed place part
of the family and older or sick animals. Cattle are kept as a status symbol and cul-
tural medium (they play a major role in marriages, weddings, sacrifices, and funer-
als), but also for beef and milk production, hides and skin, as well as for traction
324 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

power and as a source of manure for cropping (Landais and Lhoste, 1993; Adekunle,
Oladele, and Olukaiyeja, 2002).
In the subhumid savannah and humid south, small ruminant and poultry produc-
tion predominates, with 85% of rural families keeping goats, sheep, chicken, and
local guinea fowl primarily as an investment, a source of income and manure, or
for meat at home or during festivals (Molokwu, 1982; Pagot, 1992; Okoli, 1993).
These indigenous animals, although hardy and well adapted to the environment,
grow slowly and are low in productivity. Most modern farms are commercial poul-
try and pig farms. They are growing in number, especially around major cities. In
Nigeria specifically, cultural and religious prohibitions have restricted pig farming to
the southern parts of the country, while small-scale producers dominate commercial
poultry production (Okeudo, 2884; Etuk et al., 2005; Okoli et al., 2004). The greater
proportion of poultry population in the West African region is thus made up of indig-
enous breeds kept under extensive scavenging and a free-range system (Guèye, 1999;
Sonaiya, 2000; Okeudo, 2004; Ibrahim and Abdu, 1996).
Currently, livestock production in West Africa lends itself to small, medium,
and large (industrial) production (Ikpi, 1992). According to Sonaiya (2000), fami-
lies employ various but largely extensive management systems to take advantage of
common village resources to produce milk, meat, and guinea fowl eggs. Industrial
livestock production is also proving to be a veritable economic recovery tool in most
West African countries (Okeudo, 2004; Etuk et al., 2005; Okoli et al., 2004; Okoli,
Anyaegbunam, et al., 2005).
The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO, 1998), Afolabi (2007) and
Abowei and Hart (2008) estimated the animal protein intake of Nigeria at about
5 g per person per day, 7 g for the Côte d’Ivoire, Mali, and Burkina Faso zone
and 8 g for Senegal, as against 60 g per person per day for North America. The
need for increased animal food products in the daily food intake of West Africans
can therefore not be overemphasized. Demand for animal products in the region,
however, continues to rise, as shown by Delgado et al. (1998), and is driven by
improvements in personal income, population growth, and increasing urbaniza-
tion. Animal food product supply, especially production efficiency, however,
remains low in West Africa despite the increasing number of yearly veterinary
science graduates from various institutions of higher learning (Okoli, 2006). One
way to improve livestock production systems in the region is through harnessing
of ethnoveterinary practices.

14.3 Importance of Livestock
The potential of livestock in sustaining local economies ranging from the village
family to national corporate entities has been acknowledged worldwide (Intermediate
Technologies Development Group and International Institute of Rural Reconstruction
[ITDG and IIRR], 1996; LEISA Editorial, 2002; Renard et al., 2004). In most sub-
Saharan African countries where resource-poor farmers live, livestock production is
almost always the first step in the difficult climb out of poverty. For many, animals
are the prime or only source of livelihood. For many more, they provide additional
sources of income, food, clothing, and labour or traction. Livestock act as a store of
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management 325

wealth and medium of exchange. They are also a vital part of culture and offer the
only way to survive in many difficult environments (Pagot, 1992; Etuk, Okoli, and
Udedibie, 2005). According to Oyesola and Olujide (2000), the livestock sector con-
tributed on average 5.2% to the gross domestic product (GDP) of Nigeria between
1993 and 1997, while figures among the sahelian countries varied from 10% to 12%
(Renard et al., 2004). In view of this acknowledged importance of the livestock pro-
duction sector, factors that tend to impede its continued development and expansion
should not only be identified but also adequate strategy should be developed and
applied to ensure a sustainable growth.

14.4 Constraints to Livestock Production


Several factors act as constraints to the optimal production of livestock in West
Africa. These constraints are of varied importance depending on the geographical
area and objective of production. Some of these constraints include, but not limited
to, low breed productivity, scarcity and seasonal availability of feedstuff, as well as
diseases and health problems (Pagot, 1992; Seifert, 1996).
Animal health problems are major constraints to livestock production in
many countries, especially in the tropics (Tamboura, Bessin, et al., 1998; Etuk,
Okoli, and Udedibie, 2005). Throughout recorded history, a major problem that
has plagued herders is how to prevent contagious diseases (CBPP, Rift Valley
fever, tick-borne diseases, among others) from spreading into new areas along
travel and trade routes (Schwabe, 1969; Atang, 1974; Lindberg, 1995). Other
major problems in tropical cattle breeding are parasites, mainly worms, ticks,
and bots (Primavesi and Primavesi, 2002). LEISA Editorial (2002) reported that
traditional systems of livestock production can be relatively productive while
making optimal use of the available natural and human resources. Seifert (1996)
added that irrespective of how livestock is valued, either as an economic entity
or a social status symbol, the health of the herd is of fundamental importance to
the achievement of the objective of the farmer. The health of animals (including
humans) with regard to the spread of zoonosis is of extraordinary importance
above all, especially in places where milk is consumed (FMANR, 1995; Edelsten,
1996; Atsanda, Agbede, and Ijagbona, 1999). This is of major concern especially
among the nomads and pastoralists who control livestock production in many
West African countries (Okoli, Aladi, et al., 2005). It is animal diseases, more
than customs duties and quotas, that are now the major obstacles to international
trade in animal products (Perry, 2003; Verstraete, 2005). Anyaegbunam (2003),
Okoli, Aladi, et al. (2005), and Nwaodu (2005) have identified disease occurrence
and inadequate veterinary services as major constraints to poultry production in
southeastern Nigeria.
In view of the overriding importance of the health of livestock to the achievement
of any objective of production, it becomes imperative for management strategies to
be elucidated not only to solve particular problems (shotgun approach) but also in a
holistic and sustainable manner incorporating all issues, including the objectives of
production, knowledge, and welfare of the farmers, the livestock, and the environ-
ment (Etuk, Okoli, and Udedibie, 2005). As amply captured by Seifert (1996), the
326 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

adaptation of animal health measures must make particular contribution to sustain-


ing the production system.
Pests and diseases are the two greatest threats to the realization of the productive
potential of livestock herds in tropical regions such as West Africa (Seifert, 1996;
Etuk, Okoli, and Udedibie, 2005). The inadequacy of modern animal health care
delivery systems calls for a look at alternative means of dealing with the menace of
pests and diseases. Pest and disease control has always been carried out according
to the traditional beliefs of the herdsmen prior to colonization, and these practices
continue despite exposure to modern control methods.

14.5 Animal Health Management Strategies


Animal health can be defined as the condition of the animal that enables it to attain
acceptable levels of production within the farming system in which it is maintained
(Etuk, Okoli, and Udedibie, 2005). Good health in animals will increase production
efficiency, protection against epidemic diseases, and improvement of human health
by safeguarding humans against zoonotic diseases (Tyler, 1990; Lindberg, 1995).
Modern poultry production, and indeed most modern livestock production that
is normally termed industrial or factory production, involves the rearing of high-
performing hybrid strains of livestock on a commercial scale. The venture presents
certain challenges in terms of management, nutrition, and maintenance of the pro-
ductive health of the flocks (Okoli, Okoli, and Ebere, 2002). The introduction and
continuous promotion of this “modern” method of livestock production over other
methods has given rise to the provision of veterinary support services as animal
health management strategy. According to Etuk, Okoli, and Udedibie (2005), this
operates either as a one-stop animal health management shop where all possible
issues relating to the health of animals are tackled or as an avenue to consult only
when all other strategies of disease control fail. This last is especially the case for the
smallholder, often resource-poor farmers.
Provision of properly coordinated veterinary services has improved the produc-
tivity of livestock a great deal. However, the smallholder farmers who still dominate
production in West Africa (and most of the developing world) have not found it easy
to adapt to the mode of operation of these services, mostly because of the cost impli-
cation and accessibility problems (McCorkle, 1995; Okoli, Okoli, and Ebere, 2002).
Thus, farmers and herders may only access veterinary services as a last option, espe-
cially when all others have failed. This was amply exemplified in Bolivia by van’t
Hooft (2003) when she described two basic livestock-keeping strategies: diversified
livestock keeping and specialized keeping. In the former, health care is based on
local practices and medicine embodied in the IK systems of the people, sometimes
complemented with selected “modern practices” (Schillhorn van Veen, 1991).
It has been severally highlighted that in most West African countries, orthodox ani-
mal health care is plagued by many problems, which include inadequate manpower
and logistics, scarce and erratic supply of veterinary drugs and supplies, high cost of
said drugs and services, poor infrastructure, and counterproductive government poli-
cies that do not complement the development of alternative and indigenous medicine
(Bâ, 1994; Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998; Adekunle, Oladele, and Olukaiyeja, 2002;
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management 327

Hounzangbe-Adote, 2004; Hounzangbe-Adote et al., 2005b). The relationship between


these problems and the current dependence on orthodox veterinary medicine has resulted
in a failure to solve the majority of animal health problems in the subcontinent.
The IK of livestock owners, however, forms the foundation for and complements
the success of all sustainable animal health care programs in developing countries.
It is only recently that orthodox veterinarians and other scientists have begun to
recognize the fact that livestock owners have holistic understanding and approach in
dealing with diseases and other livestock production problems.

14.5.1 Ethnoveterinary Concepts in Livestock Management


Global awareness of the potential contribution of IK to sustainable development and
poverty alleviation was recently heightened. Information originating from developing
countries suggested that IK is playing important roles in many sectors of agriculture,
such as intercropping techniques, animal production, pest control, crop diversity, ani-
mal health care, and seed varieties as well as other forms of natural resources manage-
ment (Anon., 2002). As a result of this increased awareness and flow of information,
academics, policy makers, and development practitioners have shown increasing
interest in IK. For example, through the use of modern ethnobotanical research, stud-
ies of the diversity of ruminant browses in southeastern Nigeria (Okoli, Nwokeocha,
et al., 2002; Okoli et al., 2003) and elsewhere in the subregion (Bognounou, 1993;
Hounzangbe-Adote, 2004; Hounzangbe-Adote et al., 2005c; Tamboura, 2006) have
yielded information of scientific promise on plants of ethnoveterinary importance.
Walter and Dietrich (1992) and Bâ (1994) reported that traditional medicine still
plays an important role in the nomadic life. It has been practiced since time immemo-
rial because it was the only medical system accessible to the majority of farmers living
in remote areas. According to these authors, traditional healers and pastoralists know a
lot about the transmission and spread of animal diseases. Therefore, disease prevention
plays an important role; for instance, traditional tick control involves avoiding places
with high infestation of ticks and feeding of certain plants that make ticks fall off an
animal. Furthermore, before leaving the enclosure in the morning, women and children
pick ticks from the animals and throw the ticks into a fire burning near the entrance to
the enclosure. Shady trees are deliberately avoided in case of tick infestation, while tick
eradication by burning the infested pasture is widely practiced (Bâ, 1994; Bary, 1998).
There is a silent revolution that is bringing back the previously neglected ethno­
veterinary medicine and knowledge of indigenous people in addressing hitherto intrac-
table animal health problems, especially localized ones. According to Provost (1974),
disease control should be based on the geographical area since vegetation zone also
influences the kind of disease prevalent in an area. The experience of ITDG and IIRR
(1996) indicated that there is a large overlap between standard and indigenous veteri-
nary practices, with many local practices having close equivalents in allopathic veteri-
nary medicine. They therefore recommended that in the field, especially in the tropics,
standard veterinary medicine and traditional practices should be complementary.
Pharmaceutical drugs are often more effective and convenient to use than tra-
ditional remedies, but the latter have the advantages that they are locally avail-
able and usually cheaper. In remote and often inaccessible locations of the tropics,
328 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

ethnoveterinary interventions are often the first line of defense against potentially
crippling health problems (Agaie et al., 2004). Thus, as stated, a strategic marriage
of the two on a case-by-case basis could be a potentially successful tool in improving
livestock productivity in the tropics (Etuk, Okoli, and Udedibie, 2005).
Furthermore, ethnoveterinary medicine lends itself easily to local adaptation and
application. However, while efficacy of some traditional medicines has been vali-
dated (Bayala, 2005; Tamboura et al., 2004, 2005), standardization of extracts and
dosage regimes needs to be done.
Based on this, health management needs to take cognizance not only of the pro-
duction system and objectives but also of the prevalent IK when prescribing strate-
gies in each locality. This is in agreement with the work of van’t Hooft (2002), who
stated that measures taken to reduce the mortality rate in diversified livestock keeping
should be based on the strategies, the practices, and the knowledge of rural families,
and that such measures should combine traditional and modern veterinary medicine.

14.5.2 Characteristics of Ethnoveterinary Practices in West Africa


Ethnoveterinary medicine differs not only from region to region but also among and
within communities (Mathias, 2001; Tamboura, 2006). This variation is driven by the
work division and professional specialization, which may make men know more about
large animals, while women may be more familiar with small animals or with certain
types of diseases, such as gynecological, mastitis, and neonatal care. Hunters may have
a wealth of information on hunting dogs. In some parts of southeastern Nigeria where
small ruminants are usually under permanent confinement, information on the diversity
and utilization of indigenous browses has been found to reside mostly with women and
children, who are traditionally saddled with the responsibility of collecting browses for
the animals (Okoli et al., 2003). In others, like Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger, nomadic
herders are more specialized in cattle diseases, while poultry and small ruminants are
well treated by sedentary agropastoralists (Aké-Assi, 1992; Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al.,
1998). According to Mathias (2001), knowing about such differences can be crucial
in the selection of respondents in research and partners for extension approaches, the
design of training courses, and the selection of trainees for community-based animal
health workers. Discussed next are some of the factors that need to be considered.
14.5.2.1 Clinical and Epizootiologic Knowledge
Stock raisers commonly know when their animals are sick. They can describe the
disease, which season it commonly strikes, and what types of animals are affected.
For example, the association between Amblyomma ticks and heartwater with strep-
tothricosis has long been appreciated by West African stock raisers (Schillhorn van
Veen, 1997). They also know where to find the best pasture, how to avoid tsetse-
infested areas, where to find salt licks, and so on, and they use tactical and seasonal
movements as management tools (Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998).
14.5.2.2 Practices
Practices are much more varied than just the use of herbal medicines. They also
cover bone setting, vaccination against pox and other infectious diseases, branding,
and integrated management practices.
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management 329

One of the most common nonherbal treatments is scarification and bloodletting


to free the animal from spoiled blood and use of red-hot plates on the body of the
animal to burn diseased spots. Indications of this type of therapy are lameness, the
rheumatic complex, skin diseases, and infectious diseases of the digestive and respi-
ratory tracts. There are obvious dangers to these practices, and some of them should
be discouraged if there is no apparent empirical basis for their use.
Also, Rajan and Sethuraman (1997) reported that indigenous disease control
measures are carried out through herd management, such as using herd dispersion to
reduce the risk of infecting all animals belonging to one household, choosing an ani-
mal for breeding based on the health of the animal, and preventing contact between
healthy and ill animals. Disease prevention can cause a herdsman and his herds to
move, while pastoralists avoid regions where vector insects abound or cattle rearers
use medication without proper care.
In Nigeria, the Fulani nomads have been known to possess a reservoir of IK
that has helped them survive even under extremely unfriendly conditions. Leeflang
(1993) reported that the Fulani’s response to FMD illustrates how IK sometimes
outstrips contemporary Western science. The Fulani sometimes move their cattle
upwind of infected herds to prevent the disease from spreading, and sometimes they
move them downwind to expose the animals to FMD, knowing that a mild case of
the disease will not be fatal and will confer immunity. Western scientists learned that
the FMD virus could be aerially transmitted over long distances only after recent
outbreaks of the disease in Europe.
Leeflang (1993) also reiterated that Nigerian cattle owners also know that the fluid
in the tongue blisters of animals infected with FMD is infectious to other animals.
To control the spread of the disease, they collect this fluid, dip a tree thorn in it,
and scratch the tongue epithelium of apparently healthy animals to vaccinate them.
Vaccination against CBPP is a standard procedure for the Fulani. They slice lung
tissue from a diseased animal and implant it under the skin on the foreheads of their
cattle, sealing the incisions with mud.
The Fulani recognize the role of insects in the spread of disease, that is, that try-
panosomiasis is linked to tsetse fly bites, whereas ticks are known to transmit other
blood diseases (Leeflang, 1993). Common preventive measures among the Fulani
include applying effective homemade fly repellents, lighting smudge fires to drive off
insects, and avoiding infested grazing areas and shade trees. To control ticks, they
feed host animals salty plants so that ticks fall off, they pick off ticks and burn them,
and they burn off infested rangeland. They also practice annual migration, which
was historically aimed at avoiding trypanosome infection. In the rainy season, cattle
would be brought to the Fulani’s ancestral homeland in the Sudan zone, where tsetse
flies are found only among river vegetation. As the dry season advances, however,
the grass in this zone quickly dries up and disappears, and water supplies shrink or
disappear as well. The Fulani would then move their cattle southward, following
disease-free tracks that had been scouted in advance by one of their members.

14.5.2.3 Tools and Technologies


Tools and technologies range from simple tools such as thorns to vaccinate animals
to complex animal housing adapted to local conditions. Farmers are familiar with
330 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

the various materials available in their environment and skillfully take advantage
of them.

14.5.2.4 Beliefs
Beliefs are commonly thought of as superstitious, something negative that has to be
suppressed. Still, some beliefs can be useful because they improve the condition of
the animals or prevent them from getting sick. Examples are the feeding of salt that
has been blessed, protecting animals against evil winds, and not letting animals on
pastures where other animals have died from diseases such as anthrax. Therefore,
it is advisable to have a close look at beliefs and encourage these if they promote
animal health.

14.5.2.5 Breeds
Local breeds, such as dairy buffalo, are the outcome of centuries of selection. At
first sight, they may produce less than introduced breeds, but they may not score
as poorly if both input costs and outputs are considered instead of only the outputs.
Local breeds are presently receiving increased attention in connection with attempts
to conserve their dwindling genetic diversity.

14.5.2.6 Human Resources
Knowledgeable farmers, herders, and local healers are repositories of knowledge and
can be valuable partners in development projects.

14.5.2.7 Herbal Plants Used


Ethnoveterinary research has focused on understanding both the general practice
and screening of commonly used medicinal plants. Many indigenous plants have
been found to possess medicinal properties. The ethnoveterinary characteristics and
active principles of some of the plants from West Africa against common infec-
tions have been studied (Gefu, Abdu, and Alawa, 2000; Adewumi, 2004; Fajimi and
Taiwo, 2005), while the majority have not received much scientific attention.
Specifically in the last few decades, herbal remedies employed in animal produc-
tion in Nigeria have attracted the attention of researchers. A review of the literature
by Fajimi and Taiwo (2005) discussed the previous and current status of herbal rem-
edies in animal parasitic diseases in Nigeria. This study presented in quantifiable
terms the degree of efficacy of whole or plant parts and their extracts in percentages
of efficacy. Dosages and concentrations were reported in certain instances, espe-
cially in confirmatory research trials for which scientific validation is necessary,
unlike in “surveys” in which dosages were not recorded but presented only as “tra-
ditional practices among herdsmen.” Similarly, comparative inferences were drawn
between the efficacy of the tested herb and its counterpart in modern medicine.
Adekunle, Oladele, and Olukaiyeja (2002) examined the use of indigenous con-
trol methods for pests and diseases of cattle among herdsmen in northern Nigeria
and showed that the majority of herdsmen used indigenous methods to control pests
and diseases in their herd; this included hygiene (93%), herbs (87%), herd shar-
ing (22%), bush burning (48%), holy books (35%), incantations (28.6%), and local
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management 331

concoctions (35%). They found significant relationships between the use of IK and
age, marital status, and years of experience of the herdsmen.
Fieldwork at Tahara in northeastern Nigeria reported by Akingboye (1995)
revealed that the majority of the Fulani herdsmen (Bororo) have knowledge of tra-
ditional plant preparations through which common herd diseases are cured. Seeds,
roots, leaves, barks, tubers, and fruits are gathered for processing by grinding, boil-
ing, or soaking in water and are used to tackle skin diseases, wounds, cold, and
reduced appetite. The Fulani rely on the knowledge passed on by their forefathers
to observe signs and symptoms of sickness in animals and to decide on the type
of treatment. Commonly used species include baobab (Adansonia digitata) against
diarrhea and skin disorders; ginger (Zingiber officinale) as a laxative, appetizer, and
antibloat agent; garlic (Allium sativum) as an antidote; African locust beans (Parkia
filicoides) for skin infections, wounds, and worms; tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)
against myiasis, hoof infections, and ectoparasites; and neem (Azadirachta indica)
as an insect repellent (Hounzangbe et al., 2002, 2004; Ibrahim, 1996).
Similarly, Okoli et al. (2002a) surveyed the diversity of plants of ethnoveterinary
importance in southeastern Nigeria. They found that indigenous farmers and heal-
ers utilized 24 plant species in the treatment of common livestock ailments, such
as diarrhea, ecto- and endoparasitic infections, retained placenta, and dehydration,
among others. Methods of preparation and administration were found to include
direct feeding of the plant parts, drenching with aqueous decoction, or direct exter-
nal application of plant juice on affected parts.
Adewumi (2004) reviewed the potential role of herbal plants in livestock pro-
duction in Nigeria and highlighted the results of surveys carried out by different
scientists in Nigeria that showed that herdsmen and indigenous livestock keepers
were competent in the diagnosis of animal diseases and have various methods of
preparation of medicinal plants for the treatment of their animals. These reports
showed that herbs and plant extracts, seeds, leaves, and barks of certain trees,
tubers, and roots were the most commonly used sources of drugs. The review,
however, concluded that the toxicity of plants containing toxic components such
as aristolochic acid and pyrrolizidine alkaloids should be made known to livestock
keepers.
Ethnoveterinary medical practice is also widespread among herdsmen and village
livestock producers in northern Nigeria, which harbors most of the livestock in the
country (Gefu, Abdu, and Alawa, 2000). Modern veterinary inputs and services are
usually not readily available to most of the villagers in the region. Therefore, they
rely on local plants for livestock health management (Adewumi, 2004).
According to Alawa, Jokthan, and Atuk (2002), herdsmen and livestock owners
readily identify signs of disease. They also reported various traditional drugs and
methods of treating some common animal health and production problems among
Fulani herdsmen and village producers. They also noted the use of less-conventional
treatments such as kerosene and spent engine oil. The authors concluded that consid-
ering the combination of ingredients used by the traditional animal health practitio-
ners, it is likely that additive, synergistic, and nutritional effects might be involved in
alleviating the problem of ill health in animals. The descriptive signs for a specific
332 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

disease were fairly common from one producer to another. The diseases and prob-
lems identified included ticks and flea infestations, swollen joints or feet, sprain,
ringworm, retained placenta, pneumonia and other respiratory diseases, poisoning,
and mineral deficiencies and how to improve milk yield. Other diseases and prob-
lems included mastitis, kid navel disease or protection, infertility, helminth infec-
tions, gastric or emetic problems, foot rot, diarrhea and dysentery, bloat, appetite
promotion, anthrax, and acetonemia.
According to Kaikabo, Mustapha, and Dagona (2004), the ancient Bade pastoral-
ists of Nigeria possessed a sophisticated body of ethnoveterinary knowledge about
animal diseases, treatments, and management practices that spaned from generation
to generation to date. Ethnoveterinary practices were adopted by 85.7% of the pasto-
ralists. The major reasons for their adoption were low cost, effectiveness, accessibil-
ity, and practicability.
Sonaiya (2000) reported that the use of natural products in various aspects of fam-
ily poultry is widespread in Nigeria. Owners of family poultry everywhere reported
that they have preparations for treating Newcastle disease (NCD), a viral disease
(Chavunduka, 1976; Nwude and Ibrahim, 1980). Also, the efficacy of natural prod-
ucts in fighting parasites has been established. The use of Ficus exasperata leaves
to remove ectoparasites, especially mites and lice from the body of birds in coops
or overnight housing, is widely reported (Sonaiya, 2000; Okoli et al., 2002b). Most
poultry producers feed hot peppers (Capsicum spp.) to their birds as a prophylaxis or
treatment for common colds (Guèye, 1999; Sonaiya, 2000). Other reports indicated
that feeding peppers to laying hens, apart from enhancing yolk color, also increases
egg size (Brown, 1996).

14.6 Inventory of Plants and Remedies Used


in Ethnoveterinary Practices
Major plants and remedies utilized in indigenous veterinary health care in West
Africa are highlighted in Table 14.1. Seeds, leaves, bark, tubers, and roots of plants
are commonly used, but wood ash kaolin and potassium, local soaps, and spent
engine oil have also been reported (Adewumi, 2004). Some of the important species
are discussed briefly here. It should be noted that the biological activity has largely
been tested in in vitro assays, and there is little phytochemical work conducted on
many of the species in the table.
The use of a single remedy or plant extract in treating more than one disease as
well as combinations of various plant extracts for broad-spectrum therapy are com-
mon. For example, extracts of or ingredients from mahogany (Khaya senegalensis)
are used to treat anthrax, diarrhea, dysentery, foot rot, helminth infections. and ring-
worm (Maas, 1991; Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998; Fagnissè, 2006). Extracts
from the mahogany tree are also used to improve appetite and fertility as well as to
relieve animals in cases of gastric or emetic problems or poisoning and as a laxative
(Alawa et al., 1996; Adewumi, 2004). The methods of processing vary from grinding
or soaking in water to obtain solutions given by mouth to inclusion in feedstuff fed to
the animal (Alawa et al., 1996; Jagun et al., 1998; Okoli, Okoli, and Ebere, 2002).
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management
Table 14.1
Plants and Remedies Used by Indigenous Veterinary Healers in West Africa
Species Family Parts Used Preparation Diseases Treated References
Sanseveria liberica Agavaceae Fresh leaves — Antivenom (naja) Aké-Assi, 1992
Spondia mombin Anacardiaceae Leaves Water and ethanolic Diarrhea, galactogogue Maas (1991), Gbego and
extract Hounzangbe-Adote (2001)
Sclerocarya birrea Anacardiaceae Bark Powdered Anthrax Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Lannea acida Anacardiaceae Bark — Galactogogue, bovine Aké-Assi, 1992
newborn nutrition
Lannea microcarpa Anacardiaceae Bark — Astringent Aké-Assi, 1992
Annona senegalensis Annonaceae Bark, tillage, leaves, roots — Insecticid, worms, Aké-Assi, 1992; Nacoulma-
piroplasmicid, Ouédraogo, 1996
antiallergy
Saba florida Apocynaceae Latex — Galactogogue Aké-Assi, 1992
Saba senegalensis Apocynaceae Leaves — Galactogogue Sawadogo, 1987
Leptadenia hastata Asclepiadaceae Roots + leaves + tillage + Decoction or maceration Placental retention Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
salt
Calotropis procera Asclepiadaceae Leaves, tillage, latex — Insecticide, latex Aké-Assi, 1992
Lesptadenia Asclepiadaceae Roots — Flatulence Aké-Assi, 1992
pirotechnica
Balanites aegyptiaca Balanitaceae Bark Decoction on hygromas Brucellosis Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Roots from young plants Maceration Anthrax Fagnissè, 2006
Bark Decoction Galactogogue
Adansonia digitata Bombacaceae Fruits, roots, fibers — Artificial delivery, Aké-Assi, 1992
surgical sealing,
astringent,
dermatophilosis

333
(continued)
334
Table 14.1 (continued)
Plants and Remedies Used by Indigenous Veterinary Healers in West Africa

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Species Family Parts Used Preparation Diseases Treated References
Bark or leaves Decoction Placental retention Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Ceiba pentendra Bombacaceae Leaves, bark + salt Maceration Placental retention Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Bombax costatum Bombacaeae Leaves Decoction Placental retention Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Hemorrhoid
Aké-Assi, 1992
Capparis corymbosa Capparidaceae Roots — Ticks Aké-Assi, 1992
Boscia senegalensis Capparidaceae Leaves + fruits — Insecticide, anti- Aké-Assi, 1992
inflammatory, purgative
Boscia salicifolia Capparidaceae Leaves — Galactogogue, fever Aké-Assi, 1992
Cadaba farinosa Capparidaceae Leaves — Galactogogue Sawadogo, 1987
Maytenus senegalensis Celastraceae Roots Decoction Worms Fagnissè, 2006
Afzelia africana Cesalpinaceae Bark Maceration Pasteurellosis Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Bauhinia rufescens Cesalpiniaceae Leaves — Hemostatic Aké-Assi, 1992
Cassia alata Cesalpiniaceae Whole plant Water and ethanolic Dermatophilosis Emmanuel-Ali, 2002
extract
Cassia sieberiana Cesalpiniaceae Leaves, root bark Infusion, decoction Diuretic Aubreville,1950
Blennorragy
Sex impotence
Teniasis fever, malaria
Dysmenorrhea Adjanohoun,1986
Female sterility, diuretic Von-Maydell, 1983
yellow fever, icteria
Intestinal colic
Avian pestis
Worms
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management
Cassia tora Cesalpiniaceae Roots Decoction Intestine worm Maas (1991), Gbego and
Hounzangbe-Adote (2001)
Cesalipinia sp. Cesalpiniaceae Leaves Maceration applied on Galactogogue Gbego and Hounzangbe-Adote, 2002
teats
Cissus sp. Cesalpiniaceae Leaves Maceration applied on Galactogogue Gbego and Hounzangbe-Adote, 2002
teats
Daniellia olieri Ceasalpiniaceae Bark Powdered Galactogogue Fagnissè, 2006
Manihot esculata Cesalpiniaceae Leaves Maceration Galactogogue Gbego and Hounzangbe-Adote, 2002
applied on teats

Mucuna sp. Cesalpiniaceae Leaves, fruits, seeds Applied on teats Mother refusing to Gbego and Hounzangbe-Adote, 2002
suckle kids
Spondia mombin Cesalpiniaceae Leaves Grilled and eaten at the Galactogogue Gbego and Hounzangbe-Adote, 2002
moment of lambing
Tamarindus indica Cesalpiniaceae Fruit Maceration Bloat Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Vigna unguilata Cesalpiniaceae Seeds ground + salt Maceration Brucellosis Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Anogeissus leiocarpus Combretaceae Bark Decoction Abdominal pain Fagnissè, 2006
Fruits Decoction Vermifuge Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Roots + seeds — Bovine pestis Aké-Assi, 1992
Guiera senegalensis Combretaceae Whole plant — Heals, enhance physical Aké-Assi, 1992
Nodes on tillage Maceration performance Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Roots Maceration (per os) + Brucellosis
some drops in nose Anthrax
Combretum glutinosum Combretaceae Bark of tillage and roots — Cicatrisant, poison Aké-Assi, 1992
antidote, anticough
Combretum nigricans Combretaceae Leaves — Youngster tonic Aké-Assi, 1992
Combretum micranthum Combretaceae Roots, seeds Cataplasm of powdered Eyes diseases, cough Fagnissè, 2006
Leaves Decoction Vermifuge Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998

335
(continued)
336
Table 14.1 (continued)
Plants and Remedies Used by Indigenous Veterinary Healers in West Africa

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Species Family Parts Used Preparation Diseases Treated References
Terminala avicenoides Combretaceae Bark, roots Powdered Wounds, bovine Fagnissè, 2006
Leaves and roots pasteurellosis Aké-Assi, 1992
Worm, eyes filariosis,
African animal
trypanosomias (AAT)

Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae Whole plant Water and ethanolic Dermatophilosis, plague Emmanuel-Ali, 2002
extract
Euphorbia balsamifera Euphorbiaceae Latex and young leaves — Galactogogue, epizootic Aké-Assi, 1992
lymphangite
Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae Young leaves — Galactogogue Aké-Assi, 1992
Alysicarpus ovalifolius Fabaceae — — Antiallergy Nacoulma-Ouédraogo, 1996
Lonchocarpus laxiflorus Fabaceae Bark Decoction Diarrhea Fagnissè, 2006
Pterocarpus erinaceus Fabaceae Leaves, roots, bark Decoction Diarrhea, bloat, lack of Fagnissè, 2006
Bark Maceration appetite, anemia, Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
bovine pasteurellosis,
tick-borne disease
Avian typhosis
Xeroderris stulhmaii Fabaceae Bark Decoction Abdominal pain Fagnissè, 2006
Hyptis suaveolens Labiaceae Whole plant Water extract Small ruminants Wabi, 2000
dermatophylosis
Tapinanthus bangwensis Loranthaceae Leaves, seeds, fruits — Sterility Aké-Assi, 1992
Gossypium arboreum Malvaceae Seeds Powdered Eye diseases Fagnissè, 2006
Hibicus sabdariffa Malvaceae Seeds Maceration Placental retention; Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
antiallergy Nacoulma-Ouédraogo, 1996
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management
Daniellia oliveri Meliaceae Bark Decoction Bloat Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Khaya senegalensis Meliaceae Bark Maceration, decoction Abdominal pain, Maas, 1991; Fagnissè, 2006.
diarrhea, bloat,
helminthosis, lack of
appetite, anemia,
wounds, bovine
tuberculosis
Acacia ataxacantha Mimosaceae Bark Decoction Diarrhea, fasciolosis, Fagnissè, 2006
snakebites, bovine
tuberculosis
Acacia albida Mimosaceae Bark Maceration Avian typhosis Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Acacia hockii Mimosaceae Rubber — Bovine tuberculosis Fagnissè, 2006
Acacia macrostachya Mimosaceae Leaves Macerated leaves to be Snake bites Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
poured on
Acacia nilotica Mimosaceae Fruit, seeds Powdered Wounds, galactogogue Fagnissè, 2006
Leaves Aké-Assi, 1992
Acacia pennata Mimosaceae Bark Maceration Snakebites, genital Fagnissè, 2006
inflammation
Acacia raddiana Mimosaceae Leaves — Youngster tonic Aké-Assi, 1992
Acacia senegal Mimosaceae Rubber, latex — Intestinal pain Aké-Assi, 1992
Acacia seyal Mimosaceae Bark of tillage — Keratite Aké-Assi, 1992
Dichrostachys cinerea Mimosaceae Bark Decoction in milk Brucellosis Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Parkia biglobosa Mimosaceae Seeds, fruits — Anorexy, abdominal Aké-Assi, 1992
Bark, fruit Decoction pain, diarrhea, bloat, Fagnissè, 2006
Roots laxative Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Black leg disease
Prosopis africana Mimosaceae Young leaves — Hemorroids Aké-Assi, 1992
Roots, fruits Decoction Snakebites, wounds, Fagnissè, 2006
bovine pasteurellosis

337
(continued)
338
Table 14.1 (continued)
Plants and Remedies Used by Indigenous Veterinary Healers in West Africa

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Species Family Parts Used Preparation Diseases Treated References
Ficus capensis Moraceae Leaves, fruits — Sterility, galactogogue Sawadogo, 1987
Ficus ingens Moraceae Bark of tillage — Galactogogue Sawadogo, 1987
Moringa oleifera Moringaceae — — Antiallergy Nacoulma-Ouédraogo, 1996
Arachis hypogea Papillonaceae Oil — Constipation Aké-Assi, 1992
Pterocarpus erinaceus Papillonaceae Bark of tillage — Diarrhea Aké-Assi, 1992
Ceratotheca sesamoides Pedaliaceae Whole plant — Placental delivery, Aké-Assi, 1992
ocytocic Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Placental retention
Eragrostis tremula Poaceae Whole plant — Constipation Aké-Assi, 1992
Sorghum bicolor Poaceae Germed seeds — Dysentery Aké-Assi, 1992
Young plant, seeds Grilled Bloat, snakebites Fagnissè, 2006
Zea mays Poaceae Seeds Powdered and given as Galactogogue Gbego and Hounzangbe-Adote, 2002
porridge
Securidaca Polygalaceae Bark Decoction Worm, snakebites Fagnissè, 2006
longepedunculata
Ziziphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae Roots Maceration Vermifuge Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Mitracarpus scaber Rubiaceae Whole plant Water and ethanolic Dermatophilosis, plague Wabi, 2000
extract
Mitragyna inermis Rubiaceae Bark of tillage — Sterility Aké-Assi, 1992
Crossopteryx febrifuga Rubiaceae Bark Maceration Antivenom Fagnissè, 2006
Sarcocephallus latifolius Rubiaceae Roots Decoction Diarrhea Fagnissè, 2006

Vitellaria paradoxa Sapotaceae Fruit Powdered Babesiosis Fagnissè, 2006


Fresh leaves Powdered Galactagogue Chabi Toko, 2005
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management
Striga hermonthica Scrophulariaceae Whole plant Decoction Diarrhea, bloat Fagnissè, 2006 Tamboura,
Leaves Dermatosis, FMD Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Aké-Assi, 1992
Capsicus frutescens Solanaceae Fruits — Laxative, oxytocic Aké-Assi, 1992
Sterculia setigera Sterculiaceae Bark of tillage — Anivenom Aké-Assi, 1992
Tillage Decoction Constipation in donkeys Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Lantana camara Verbenaceae Whole plant Water and ethanolic Dermatophilosis, plague Emmanuel-Ali, 2002
extract
Cissus populnea Vitaceae Leaves and roots Decoction Snakebites Fagnissè, 2006
Cissu quadragularis Vitaceae Whole plant Powdered and then Wounds, bovine Fagnissè, 2006
decoction tuberculosis Aké-Assi, 1992
Dermatophilosis
Khaya senegalensis + Melioceae Bark Maceration Black leg disease Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Ximenia americano Olacaceae

Tapinantus sur Balanites Loranthaceae Leaves Powdered Pasteurellosis Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
aegyptiaca Balanitaceae
Piliostigma reticulatum Caesalpiniaceae + Leaves + bark + roots Decoction FMD Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
+ Khaya senegalensis Meliaceae +
+ Lonchocarpus Fabaceae
cyanescens
Butyrospermum parkii + Sapotaceae + Bark + fruits + roots Maceration Avian typhosis Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
Diospyros Ebenaceae
mespiliformis
“K” solution from — — Aqueous solution given Bloat Tamboura, Sawadogo, et al., 1998
sorghum or millet per os
tillage

339
340 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Yohimbine, widely used for sexual virility in men, is also employed for use in
veterinary medicine as an aphrodisiac (Nwude and Ibrahim, 1980). The anti-inflam-
matory as well as the antipyretic activities of Azadirachta indica (neem) have been
evaluated and documented (Okpanyi and Ezeukwu, 1981). Neem is universally rec-
ognized as an effective insecticidal repellant (Birmah, 2000). The anti-inflammatory
and analgesic properties of the methanolic extract of Ramalina farinacea at a dose
of 1,600 mg/kg have been shown to suppress signs associated with inflammation
and gave results comparable to those of indomethacin (Udem et al., 2001). The hot
water leaf extract of Ocimum grattisimum, when given to dogs, produced significant
reduction in the duration of emesis comparable to that of metaclopamide, a standard
antiemetic drug (Udem and Opara, 2001).
Leaves of Cassia occidentalis are used as an anticonvulsant and as a purgative,
Adansonia digitala (baobab) is used as an antidiarrheic in cattle, while Erythrina
senegalensis has a potent diuretic property (Gefu, Abdu, and Alawa, 2000). Guiera
senegalensis, Anogeissus leocarpus, and Sclerocarya birrea have been found use-
ful in overcoming dystocia in domestic animals (Hassan and Zalla, 2005). The root
extract of Nauclea latifolia was observed by Madubuinyi (1995) to possess an anti-
hepatotoxic effect and inhibited the multiplication of Trypanosoma brucei. Alcoholic
extract of a combination of Sorghum bicolor and Telfaria occidentalis reconstituted
at a concentration of 4 mg/100 mL of distilled water proved a potent hematinic in
the treatment of anemic rabbits and was better compared to commercial hematinic
(Adedapo et al., 2002). The activities of Carica papaya extracts against Salmonella
typhi, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli have been documented (Osato
et al., 1993). Similar reports on the antimicrobial activities of certain Nigerian plants
have been reported (Olukoya et al., 1993; Sofowora, 1982; Irobi, 1992; Iwu, 1994;
Etkin, Ross, and Muazzami, 1990).
The antimicrobial properties of the crude extract of Ageratum conyzoides have been
validated (Durodola, 1977). The aqueous extract of Combretum padiculatum was found
to be bacteriocidal at a concentration of 10% and bacteriostatic at 5% against Salmonella
pullorum (Atawodi, 2000). Extracts of A. egypti showed activity against Staphylococcus
aureus, and methanol leaves extract of Balanites aegyptiaca inhibited Staphylococcus
albus and Shigella using the zone inhibition method (Agaie and Usman, 2001).
The anti-infective activities of Vernonia amygdalina and Anona senegalensis
leaves were effective in the treatment of helminthes in cattle (Alawa et al., 2000;
Chiezey et al., 2000) and in chicken (Jisaka et al., 1992; Igile et al., 1994; Abdu and
Faya, 2000). Abdu and Faya (2000) also reported the use of Solanum incanum fruit
to treat coccidiosis in poultry, M. balsamia to treat fowl pox, and Capsicum frute-
scens for the treatment of NCD.
The kern oil of B. aegyptica proved highly efficacious against ectoparasite infes-
tation of camels in northern Nigeria (Oliver, 1960). Skin parasite infections of goats
in southern Nigeria have been successfully treated with leaves of Sida carpinifolia
squeezed and rubbed on lesions (Dalziel, 1937). Burned leaves and twigs of Guiera
senegalensis as well as burned whole plants of Hyptis spicifigera are used individu-
ally as insecticides in Nigeria (Nwude, 1997).
Shea butter (Vitellaria paradoxa) plus salt at a ratio of 100:1 has been efficacious
in the treatment of localized psoroptic mange infection in rabbits, with about 90%
Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management 341

efficacy by the 14th day (Fajimi, Taiwo, et al., 2002). Aloe variegata, a green dagger-
shaped plant with a clear viscous gel applied as a gel and spread over mange lesions,
produced an efficacy of over 50% (Fajimi, Ayodeji, et al., 2002). Okolo and Unaigwe
(1984) reported that mange is treated by scrubbing the skin lesions with the fibrous
palm kernel fruit waste with the addition of the mineral lime, kitchen salt, lime juice
(Citrus aurantium), and palm oil for a couple of weeks. Shittu and Bwala (1988)
reported satisfactory results of the seed oil of mahogany (Khaya ivoriensis) against
dermatitis associated with mange and dermatophilosis. Leaf and stem extracts of
tobacco showed 100% efficacy against lice by the second day of application and
maintained this efficacy for about 56 days postchallenge in West African dwarf goats
(Okoli et al., 2002b; Fajimi et al., 2003). Annona squamosa and Tephrosia vogelli,
through their powdered seeds, effectively controlled lice in ruminants.

14.7 Conclusion
The literature so far reviewed reveals the wealth of traditional knowledge embodied
in ethnoveterinary medical practices of the peoples of West Africa. These clearly
constitute untapped resources for possible deployment in sustainable animal health
management systems in the region. Even though a sizable body of published literature
now exists on the subject in the region, it deals mostly with pharmacological screen-
ing of common plants. Useful information on traditional animal health care practices,
however, remains uninvestigated in a sizable proportion of livestock-raising com-
munities in the region. There is therefore the need to investigate and integrate these
results into primary animal health care delivery systems of the subcontinent.
Animal production curricula in the educational institutions in the region still
reflect the ignorance of the special needs of traditional production systems in most
countries, which still constitute the major segment of the industry (Sonaiya, 1990;
Ikeme, 1990; Okeudo, 2004). It is therefore necessary to consider the development of
other alternative pathways for harnessing livestock resources by developing appropri-
ate curricula that will empower a new generation of properly equipped animal health
practitioners. Etuk, Okoli, and Udedibie (2005) reiterated the need to predicate ani-
mal health development strategies in the tropics on issues of production objectives.
There is also the need to clearly outline and integrate these strategies to ensure that
local problems and circumstances are properly accommodated.
This review has also highlighted the fact that traditional animal health caregivers
remain important components of livestock health care systems in West Africa. However,
as observed by Mathias (2004) and Wanzala et al. (2005), traditional healers and their
role in animal health care have been largely ignored by the modern veterinary com-
munity. Veterinary colleges and public veterinary services pay little or no attention
to these local-level experts except perhaps to label them as quacks or witch doctors,
whose practice should even be criminalized. Very little is currently known about eth-
noveterinarians, especially their sociocultural practices and pharmacopoiea (McCorkle
and Mathias-Mundy, 1992). There is an urgent need to study this important group and
design steps for integrating them into the conventional animal health care systems.
Ethnoveterinary practices need to be validated before they can be widely promoted.
This, according to Mathias (2001), constitutes an important component of research
342 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

and could be pursued across several levels, which may include tapping the experience
of local people, searching the literature for available information on the botany, phy-
tochemistry, and in vitro, in silico, and in vivo tests, and other relevant aspects; con-
ducting laboratory and clinical tests on station or in experimental herds; monitoring
the use of remedies in the field; and studying a remedy’s influence on production and
agronomic parameters. The exact method or combination of methods will depend on
the intended use of the practice to be tested and the purpose of the validation.
The impact of ethnoveterinary promotion on the environment has been shown
by McCorkle (1986, 1998) to vary between positive and negative effects. According
to these authors, local practices could be environmentally friendlier than imported
ones. Local tick control methods, for example, are commonly less harmful to the
environment than dipping with commercial chemicals, while projects that stimulate
conservation measures and the establishment of herb gardens help maintain bio-
diversity. On the negative side, large-scale promotion and commercial production
bring with them the danger that heavily used plant species may become scarce or
even extinct. Therefore, projects promoting plant medicines on a large scale should
be required to monitor their environmental impact and explore how far endangered
species can be cultivated. There is the need to continuously monitor the impact of
ethnoveterinary policies and programs in the region.
According to Mathias (2001), understanding local approaches to animal health
care and production and being familiar with the information people have can facilitate
the planning and implementation of appropriate development projects and training
efforts. There are currently limited data on the impact of appropriate ethnoveterinary
projects and trainings executed in the region. Similarly, literature offers little data
on the economic impact of promoting ethnoveterinary projects in the region, while
other issues like intellectual property rights (IPRs) have hardly received any serious
regional attention. These issues will require future research attention by workers in
the region (Wanzala et al., 2005).

Lannea microcarpa (Anacardiaceae). Photo courtesy of H.H. Tamboura, 2006.


Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management 343

Tamarindus indica (Caesalpiniaceae). Photo courtesy of H.H. Tamboura, 2006.

Calotropis procera. Photo courtesy of M.S. Hounzangbe, 2006.


344 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Heliotropicum indicum. Photo courtesy of M.S. Hounzangbe, 2006.

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15 Traditional Chinese
Veterinary Medicine
Lida Teng, Debbie Shaw, and Joanne Barnes

Contents
15.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 353
15.2 History and Development of TCVM............................................................. 353
15.3 Basic Theory of TCVM................................................................................. 354
15.4 Diagnosis and Therapeutics........................................................................... 356
15.5 Herbal Veterinary Medicines........................................................................ 356
15.6 Scientific Evidence and Modern Veterinary Uses of TCVM........................ 358
15.7 Current Status of TCVM in China................................................................ 369
15.8 Veterinary Folk Medicines in China............................................................. 369
15.9 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 370
References............................................................................................................... 370

15.1 Introduction
Traditional Chinese veterinary medicine (TCVM) is the application of traditional
Chinese medical theory to treating disease in animals and maintaining animal
health, including for domestic animals, poultry, pets, marine life, and other wildlife.
TCVM consists of traditional Chinese herbal veterinary medicine and physiothera-
pies such as acupuncture and cupping; it is based on the same traditional Chinese
medical theory but clearly varies in therapeutic forms.

15.2 History and Development of TCVM


TCVM has over 3,000 years of history in China. The Chinese words veterinary
and veterinarian were first introduced in the Zhou Dynasty (11th century BC to
256 BC), according to an ancient book of etiquette, The Rites of Zhou-Offices of
Heaven (written in the 7th to 4th centuries BC). The names of well-known Chinese
veterinarians have been documented in China since the 10th century BC (Niu, 1991).
Although herbs were used for animal health thousands of years ago, the system-
atic practice and theory of TCVM was only fully developed in the Han Dynasty
(206 BC to 220 AD), when the traditional Chinese philosophy of yin-yang and the
five elements was widely applied to medicine. From then up to 1840 BC, over 80
reference books and monographs on veterinary medicine and animal husbandry
were written and published in ancient China (He, 2007), of which the Yuanheng

353
354 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Liaoma Collections (published in the 1600s) were considered the most comprehen-
sive ancient theoretical books for TCVM practice in China (Niu, 1991). The modern
corrected edition of the Yuanheng Liaoma Collections includes about 175 herbal
formulas and covers animal disease caused by internal and external factors as well as
some miscellaneous conditions (Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1963).
Compared with some other forms of indigenous ethnoveterinary medicine, the
properties and traditional therapeutic effects of Chinese materia medica for veteri-
nary use are well established in China. The earliest pharmacognosy monographs,
Shen Nong Ben Cao (also known as The Divine Farmer’s Herb-Root Classic;
206 BC to 8 AD), recorded more than 300 herbs for human and animal use. The
first comprehensive herbal pharmacopoeia, Ben Cao Gang Mu (also known as
the Compendium of Materia Medica), was completed in the late 16th century and
included 1,892 herbs and over 11,000 formulas for medicinal uses. Excluding herbs
for both human and animal use, Ben Cao Gang Mu recorded 219 herbal materi-
als specifically for veterinary medicine, animal feeds, and animal growth (Feng,
2000). For example, Fu Zi (Radix Aconiti Lateralis Preparata; the processed root
of Aconitum carmichaeli) was recorded as being used for treating coma and anal
incontinence caused by physical overexertion in apes or monkeys. The herbal mate-
ria medica has continued to evolve and is now a key component of the veterinary
pharmacopoeia. The most recent Chinese Veterinary Pharmacopoeia written in
Chinese (CVP; Commission of Chinese Veterinary Pharmacopeia, 2005) recorded
685 different TCVM, 491 of which are single crude herbal materials. Each mono-
graph in the CVP generally includes the Chinese name, scientific name, herbal
species, microscopic and chemical identification, quantitative determination, pro-
cessing methods, properties in traditional description, indications, and dosages. In
addition, the dosages are documented for different animals. For example, the dos-
age of a common herb Dang Gui (Radix Angelicae Sinensis) is recorded as “Equus
and Bos 15–60 g; Camelus 35–75 g; Ovis and Suidae 5–15 g; Canis and Felis 2–5 g;
Leporidae and Aves 1–2 g.” At present, most Chinese veterinary reference books are
only available in the Chinese language. However, the first English version of CVP
has been published (Commission of Chinese Veterinary Pharmacopeia, 2008).

15.3 Basic Theory of TCVM


Although traditional Chinese medical theory is well known worldwide for its appli-
cation in human health, it has rarely been referred to in veterinary science outside
China. The concepts of Chinese medicine have been applied to the practice of both
veterinary and human medicine for thousands of years in China and other Eastern
countries. In practice, this includes holistic approaches to differential diagnosis. The
concept of holism concerns the animal body as a whole, with the functions of each
organ interdependent (Wang, 2005). Moreover, holism also considers animals and the
living environment as a whole, especially focusing on the influences of environmen-
tal changes (e.g., weather and season) on animal health (Wang, 2005). TCVM uses
the word pattern to differentiate the combination of symptoms and signs observed in
different animals. The pattern or syndrome directs the choice of treatment, that is,
acupuncture points or herbal combinations.
Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine 355

The general therapeutic principles of


TCVM are based on the Chinese philos-
ophy of yin-yang and the five elements
(Wang, 2005). Yin-yang (see Figure 15.1)
focuses on the opposite characteristics of
different substances and phenomena.
Yin (the black area in Figure 15.1)
represents dark, passive, downward, and
internal features, while yang (the white
area in Figure 15.1) represents bright, Figure 15.1 Yin-yang.
active, upward, and external features.
In TCVM, all phenomena in nature are considered to have yin and yang features.
Yin and yang are opposite, but interdependent; they are transformable at a certain
stage. The yin-yang concept is applied to interpreting TCVM anatomy and physiol-
ogy; for example, the external part of the body (e.g., skin) is yang, and the internal
part (e.g., organs) is yin. The stomach and intestines are considered to be yang organs
as they are in contact with the exterior through different tracts and as they have
yang functions (e.g., absorption and transforming foods to produce body energy);
organs such as the heart, liver, kidneys, and lungs are yin organs as they are less
dynamic and used to store essential substances (e.g., “energy” and blood). The yin-
yang concept is also used to describe different diseases, diagnoses, and treatments.
For example, animals suffering from toxins in the blood could appear to have high
fever and other “hot” symptoms (yang); however, the extreme heat in the body can
cause damage to body fluids and blood, so “cold” symptoms (yin) would appear,
such as weakness and coldness in limbs. In TCVM, hot symptoms (yang) are usually
treated with herbs with cold properties (yin) and vice versa.
The five-element theory gives further explanation of the body medical system.
The theory uses the five elements wood, fire, earth, metal, and water to describe
different substances and phenomena of similar nature. Animal body organs are clas-
sified according to the properties of each element; for example, the animal spleen
relates to Earth, as in TCVM the function of the spleen is to transform food energy
and produce the body’s vital substances, which are considered similar to the nature
of Earth (i.e., growing and generating). The relationship of the five elements is com-
plex and includes intergeneration, interrestriction, overacting, and reverse restric-
tion. As each organ is assigned a relevant element (Table 15.1), the relationship of

Table 15.1
Examples of Body Organs Classified by the Five Elements
Element Yang Organ Yin Organ Sense Organ Yin-Yang Properties
Wood Gall bladder Liver Eyes Less yang
Fire Small intestine Heart Tongue Utmost yang
Earth Stomach Spleen Mouth Neutral
Metal Large intestine Lung Nose Less yin
Water Bladder Kidney Ears Utmost yin
356 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

the body organs to each other is interpreted by the relationship of the five elements.
However, it is important to clarify here that the medical terms used in TCVM are
different from those of conventional or orthodox Western medicine, particularly in
describing the name of the organ and the organ function. In TCVM, each organ is
considered to be a holistic energy system rather than the actual anatomical organ as
identified by Western physiology.
The yin-yang concept and the five-element theory fundamentally support the
TCVM theory philosophically, and the basic treatment principle of TCVM con-
cerns maintaining the balance of yin and yang and the balance of the five elements.
However, these two theories are not sufficient to interpret more complicated cases in
actual practice. Other important principles of TCVM include the theory of viscera
(internal organs), the theory of meridian (the longitudinal pathways on the body
where acupuncture points are distributed), and the identification of patterns accord-
ing to states of vital substances such as Qi energy, blood, body fluids, and mind
(Wang, 2005).

15.4 Diagnosis and Therapeutics


TCVM diagnostic methods vary depending on the different animal species to which
they are applied. Multiple factors have to be considered during diagnosis, including
external factors (e.g., heat and damp climate) and internal factors (e.g., over-, or lack
of, exercise). Four basic diagnostic techniques are applied to determine the correct
therapeutic pattern for a certain animal and a certain disease; these techniques are
observation (e.g., observing physical expression and symptoms of disease); listening
and smelling (e.g., listening to the animal’s sounds and breathing, smelling secre-
tions and excretions); interrogation (e.g., asking the animal carer about the appear-
ance or history of the disease); and palpation (e.g., touching or pressing the animal’s
body, feeling the pulse and other internal organs). After diagnosis, diseases are clas-
sified into various patterns (also known as syndromes), such as cold-hot patterns and
exterior-interior patterns. These patterns or syndromes determine the forms of treat-
ment that will be used for any particular animal, whether TCVM or physiotherapies
such as acupuncture, cupping, or scraping.

15.5 Herbal Veterinary Medicines


Unlike veterinary acupuncture, a therapeutic model of TCVM that has been widely
accepted in Western countries since the 1970s (Haas, 2004; Jaggar, 1992), traditional
Chinese herbal medicines have not been widely accepted in veterinary use outside the
Eastern subcontinent. Before conventional medicine was introduced to China (in the
mid-1800s), herbal medicine was the only pharmacotherapy available for animal use in
China. In modern Chinese society, medicinal herbs have gradually gained popularity
for use in animal health, partly because herbal medicines or herbal additives in animal
feeds are believed to result in fewer residues than from conventional drugs (Li, 2008).
Herbal treatments may involve nonherbal materials, as traditional Chinese mate-
ria medica includes not only plant species but also animal parts (e.g., toad venom,
cicada slough) and minerals (e.g., talcum, calomel). However, as over 90% of TCVM
Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine 357

crude materials are of plant origin, they are commonly referred to collectively as
“herbal” medicines in most ancient and modern textbooks.
In traditional Chinese medicine, each crude herbal material has to be processed
before clinical use. The simplest method of processing is to cut or slice and dry
the medicinal parts of the plants. Many herbs need more complicated processing
methods to reduce their toxicity or change their medicinal properties. For example,
the toxic herb Aconitum carmichaeli is processed by soaking in frequently changed
water for a prolonged period and then steaming or boiling. The aconitine alkaloids,
responsible for cardiac toxicity, are reduced by up to 90% in the resulting processed
herb, Fu Zi (Radix Aconiti Lateralis Preparata) (Chan et al., 1994).
TCVM herbs are mostly prescribed as compound formulas, and each formula
includes 1–15 or more herbal ingredients. After diagnosis, appropriate herbs or stan-
dard formulas defined for a specific therapeutic pattern are prescribed. The order
of the herbs in each formula reflects the functions of the herbs. The first herbs in a
formula are known as the principal herbs and target the main symptoms; these are
followed by associate herbs, which are thought to assist the function of the princi-
pal herbs and target other symptoms. The next part of the formula comprises the
adjuvant herbs for strengthening the function of the principal herbs and reducing
toxicity; finally the messenger herbs guide the function of all herbs into the right
pattern and harmonize the function of the formula.
In TCVM, a course of treatment is highly individualized depending on the par-
ticular animal’s characteristics (e.g., genera, age, gender) and the TCVM therapeutic
patterns after diagnosis. Herbs are rarely listed by medical condition according to
Western classification; rather, it is usual to describe which herbs could be considered
as priority herbs for a specific diagnosis or disease. In general, approximately 500
herbs have been documented as commonly used in veterinary practice. In practice,
the principal herbs in a customized remedy may be varied for the same condition,
and some principal herbs in a certain remedy are used as associate herbs or adjuvant
herbs in other customized remedies for similar conditions. For example, common
constipation occurring in swine can be divided into a few different patterns on diag-
nosis: constipation due to “excess heat syndrome”; constipation due to “deficiency
of yin and blood syndrome”; constipation due to “asthenia cold deficiency” (Wang,
2005). The common principal herb used for constipation of the excess heat syndrome
type is Da Huang (Radix et Rhizoma Rhei); however, in the remedy for deficiency of
yin and blood syndrome, Da Huang is only considered as an associate herb or is not
used at all due to its strong purgative effects, which can cause “overdeficiency” or
loss of the body’s vital substances. For constipation of the asthenia cold deficiency
type, different formulations, such as suppositories, are recommended since the oral
administration of herbal decoctions may cause strong bowel reactions in swine with
this type of constipation.
The latest CVP (Committee of China Veterinary Pharmacopeia, 2005) records
around 200 standard herbal formulas for various veterinary conditions based on
different TCVM therapeutic patterns. In most cases, the standard or documented
formula for a certain pattern or syndrome is modified by the addition or removal
of herbal ingredients depending on differences in the condition of the particular
animal.
358 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Methods for preparing herbal remedies include making a decoction of the mix-
ture of herbs, making porridges of herbs and grains, or grinding herbs into granules
(to be fed to the animal after mixing with water). Herbal decoctions are commonly
prepared with water, but in some cases, herbs are boiled in rice water or with liquor
to enhance their therapeutic functions. The time of administration (e.g., feeding with
warm or cold medicine, before or after foraging) varies depending on the disease
being treated. For example, animals suffering from spleen-stomach weakness, such
as diarrhea, or suffering from painful conditions (or inflammation) are normally
fed with decoctions before foraging; the associated herbs for this particular method
include Hou Pu (Cortex Magnoliae Officinalis) and Sha Ren (Frutus Amomi).
Decoctions are administered before foraging to improve absorption of the medicine
and reduce digestive burdens on the stomach (Wang, 1991).

15.6 Scientific Evidence and Modern


Veterinary Uses of TCVM
TCVM uses a large number of natural materials and is applied to the majority of
veterinary conditions in China. However, the therapeutic effects of Chinese herbs
are mostly described in the literature by traditional classifications using Chinese
medical terms, which may not be the same as the actual pharmacological effects
of the treatment, particularly as described for conventional pharmaceutical drugs.
Obtaining scientific evidence for TCVM theory itself is problematic since the theory
is based on a highly abstract philosophy.
In China, many herbs have been used to replace pharmaceuticals because herbs
are perceived to be less toxic and reduce the presence of animal drug residues; in
particular, some herbs are used as additives in animal feeds alone or in conjunction
with conventional drugs. However, the evidence that herbs could reduce therapeutic
toxicity and produce fewer residues has not yet been well established.
Modern phytochemistry and pharmacological sciences have been widely applied
to the study of traditional veterinary medicine. Some TCVMs have been found to
have several pharmacological effects (described using Western medical terminol-
ogy), including antimicrobial and immunomodulatory properties and ability to
improve reproductivity of animals (Yang, 2005). As many plant species are used tra-
ditionally for both animal and human health, the results from some scientific studies
initially designed to assess treatments for improving human health have been used
in improving or modifying TCVM treatments. For example, the roots of Dang Shen
(Radix Codonopsis, referred species Codonopsis pilosula) are traditionally used for
tonic purposes. However, the other plant parts of Codonopsis pilosula, such as the
stems and leaves, have been found to contain high concentrations of saponins, which
can be used to feed poultry to increase their egg-laying rate (Liang, Zhang, and Li,
2005). Table 15.2 summarizes phytochemical and pharmacological information for
several TCVM herbs mentioned in this chapter, as well as their traditional descrip-
tions (herbs recorded in CVP [Committee of China Veterinary Pharmacopeia, 2005]
are selected in the table as they are popular in TCVM practice).
Studies assessing the efficacy of Chinese herbs specifically for animal uses are
published mostly in Chinese scientific journals, and few are available in the English
Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine
Table 15.2
Traditional Descriptions, Chemical Constituents, and Pharmacological Data of TCVM Herbs Described in This Chapter
Pharmacopoeial Chinese Botanical Common Dosage per Main Chemical
Namea Name Namea TCVM Indicationsa,b Formulaa Constituentsb–d Pharmacological Effectsb,d
Cortex Magnoliae Hou Pu Magnolia Indigestion, food Equus & Bos 15–45 g; Lignans (magnolol, Antibacterial effects (gram-positive
Officinalis officinalis accumulation due to Camelus 30–60 g; Ovis tetrahydromagnolol, bacteria); antifungal effects; muscle
Qi stagnation, & Suidae 5–15 g; isomagnolol, honokiol, relaxant activity; preventing water
abdominal distension, Leporidae & Aves magnaldehyde), alkaloids immersion stress ulceration and
constipation, 1.5–3 g (magnocurarine, gastric hemorrhage induced by
vomiting, nausea, magnoflorine, salicifoline), stress; antiallergic effects; lowering
coughing and β-eudesmol blood pressure; inhibiting blood
wheezing due to platelet concentration
Qi-stagnation
Flos Lonicerae Jin Yin Lonicera Fever due to wind-heat, Equus & Bos 15–60 g; Chlorogenic acids, Anti-inflammatory effects;
Hua japonica cough due to Ovis & Suidae 5–10 g; triterpenoid saponins, antibacterial effects (Staphylococcus
excessive lung heat, Canis & Felis 3–5 g; flavonoids (luteolin, aureus, S. albus, Salmonella typhi);
sore throat, dysentery Leporidae & Aves corymbosin), linalool, controlling influenza viruses in mice;
due to heat toxins, 1–3 g; fishes 3–5 g/kg tannins, luteolin, lonicerin, inducing abortion in the early stages
abscesses inositol, loganin of pregnancy in animal tests
Fructus Crataegi Shan Zha Crataegus Indigestion, stomach Equus & Bos 20–60 g; Crataegolic acid, oleanolic Improving digestion and increasing
pinnatifida distension, food Ovis & Suidae 10–15 g; acid, ursolic acid, chlorogenic secretion of digestive juices; dilating
accumulation Canis & Felis 3–6 g; acid, malic acid, citric acid, blood vessels and lowering blood
Leporidae & Aves 1–2 g quercetin, vitexin, hyperoside, pressure; increasing blood flow in
epicatechin, sitosterol, the coronary arteries; decreasing
vanillic aldehyde, carotene, cholesterol concentrations
flavan polymers, glycosides

(continued)

359
360
Table 15.2 (continued)
Traditional Descriptions, Chemical Constituents, and Pharmacological Data of TCVM Herbs Described in This Chapter

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Pharmacopoeial Chinese Botanical Common Dosage per Main Chemical
Namea Name Namea TCVM Indicationsa,b Formulaa Constituentsb–d Pharmacological Effectsb,d
Fructus Lycii Gou Qi Lycium Liver and kidney yin Equus & Bos 15–60 g; Polysaccharides, carotene, Stimulating respiration in rabbits;
Zi barbarum deficiency, dizziness, Ovis & Suidae 10–15 g; thiamine, betaine, riboflavin, lowering blood pressure; increasing
blurred vision, Canis & Felis 3–8 g nicotinic acid, ascorbic acid, testosterone concentration; reducing
seminal emission, β-sitosterol, linoleic acid, blood lipid levels and blood sugar
limpness and aching physalien, atropine, concentrations; strengthening
in the lumbar areas scopoletin, zeaxanthin uterine contractions; improving
and knees immunity
Frutus Amomi Sha Ren Amomum Indigestion due to Equus & Bos 15–30 g; Volatile oils (camphor, borneol, Having therapeutic effects for peptic
villosum, Qi-stagnation, Ovis & Suidae 3–10 g; bornyl acetate, camphene, ulcers; inhibiting blood platelet
A. longiligulare abdominal and Leporidae & Aves linalool, limonene, nerolidol, concentration; antibacterial (Proteus
stomach distension, 1–2 g β-pinene, α-pinene, guaiaol), vulgaris, Shigella shigae, Bacterium
vomiting, upset saponins, flavonoids coli); promoting movement in the
stomach, diarrhea due intestinal tract
to cold deficiency
Herba Epimedii Yin Yang Epimedium Impotence due to Equus & Bos 15–30 g; Flavonoids (icariin, Strengthening immunological
Huo brevicornum, kidney yang Ovis & Suidae 10–15 g; epimedosides, icarisoside, functions; improving sexual ability
E. pubescens, deficiency, lack of Leporidae & Aves sagittatosides, wushanicariin, due to its male hormone-like
E. wushanense, strength in the lumbar 0.5–1.5 g epimedokoreanoside, functions; lowering blood pressure;
E. koreanum area and knees, anthocyanin, baohuoside), preventing coronary heart disease;
rheumatism or anthraquinones, volatile oils, antibacterial effects; relieving and
numbness, nonestrus polysaccharides, ceryl suppressing coughing; calming
of female animals alcohol, phytosterol, palmitic wheezing; tranquilizing functions
acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid
Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine
Herba Verbenae Ma Bian Verbena Blood stasis Equus & Bos 30–120 g; Glycosides (iridoid glycosides, Anti-inflammatory effects on
Cao officinalis postpartum, water Ovis & Suidae 15–30 g verbenalin, hastatoside, conjunctivitis in rabbits; analgesic
retention, stomach eukovoside, verbascoside), effects; relieving and suppressing
distension, abscesses β-sitosterol, ursolic acid, coughing
and sores artemetin, triterpenes, lupeol
Radix Aconiti Fu Zi Aconitum Yang collapse and Equus & Bos 15–30 g; Diterpenoid alkaloids Contains high concentrations of toxic
Lateralis carmichaeli deficiency, cold limbs, Ovis & Suidae 3–9 g; (aconitine, mesaconitine, alkaloids: oral administration of
Preparata weak pulse, Canis & Felis 1–3 g; hypaconitine, talatisamine, 1.0–3.0 mg/kg of aconite results in
abdominal pain and Leporidae & Aves benzoylaconine, death in mice, LD50 of aconitine
loose stools due to 0.5–1 g benzoylmesaconine, (intravenous injection; mice) = 0.22
yang deficiency, benzoylhypaconine), mg/kg; causing general paralysis
impotence, aminophenols, hygenamine, and respiratory arrest in animals;
rheumatism, or coryneine, salsolinol cardiotonic effects; arrhythmia
numbness caused by effects; enlarging cardiovascular
draught, cold, or and cerebral vessels; preventing
damp coma; tranquilizing function;
analgesic effects; anti-inflammatory
effects
Radix Angelicae Dang Angelica Blood stasis, exterior Equus & Bos 15–60 g; Volatile oils (n-butylide Inhibiting platelet aggregation and
Sinensis Gui sinensis injuries, abscesses Camelus 35–75 g; Ovis phthalide, ligustilide, serotonin; relaxing effects on
and sores, & Suidae 5–15 g; Canis α-pinene, β-pinene, animal tracheal smooth muscles;
constipation due to & Felis 2–5 g; camphene, p-cymene, antiasthmatic and spasmolytic
dry bowels Leporidae & Aves myrcene), p-methyl- activity; improving
1–2 g benzoalcohol, ferulic acid, microcirculation; regulating uterus
succinic acid, nicotinic acid, function; inhibiting blood platelet
vitamin B12, B1, E concentration, arrhythmia, and
cardiac ischemia; reducing blood
lipid concentrations

(continued)

361
362
Table 15.2 (continued)
Traditional Descriptions, Chemical Constituents, and Pharmacological Data of TCVM Herbs Described in This Chapter

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Pharmacopoeial Chinese Botanical Common Dosage per Main Chemical
Namea Name Namea TCVM Indicationsa,b Formulaa Constituentsb–d Pharmacological Effectsb,d
Radix Astragali Huang Qi Astragalus Deficiency of spleen Equus & Bos 20–60 g; Astragalus polysaccharides, Enhancing immunity; therapeutic
membranaceus and lungs Qi, exterior Camelus 30–80 g; Ovis astragalosides, soyasaponin, effects for chronic hepatitis
weakness, & Suidae 5–15 g; daucosterol, β-sitosterol, (preventing decrease of hepatic
spontaneous sweating, Leporidae & Aves palmitic acid, kumatakenin, glycogen contents and raising the
swelling due to Qi 1–2 g choline, betaine, folic acid, total serum protein and album
deficiency, sores, formononetin, calycosin, concentrations); anti-inflammatory
abscesses, ulcers cycloastragenol effects; antibacterial effects
(Shigella shigae, Haemolytic
streptococci, Staphylococcus
aureus); reducing free radicals;
inhibiting gastric secretion and
preventing gastric ulcers; lowering
blood sugar
Radix Bupleuri Chai Hu Bupleurum Cold and flu, high Equus & Bos 15–45 g; Saponins (saikosaponins, Antipyretic effects; preventing stress
chinense fever, alternate attack Ovis & Suidae 3–10 g; saikogenin, ulcers in rats; inhibiting the
of chills and fevers, Leporidae & Aves longispinogenin), volatile histologic damage of liver tissue in
diarrhea due to spleen 1–3 g oils (bupleurumol, rats; moderate analgesic effects in
deficiency, prolapse of limonene, myrcene), oleic mice; tranquilizing functions;
rectum or uterus acid, linolenic acid, palmitic relieving and suppressing coughing;
acid, α-spinasterol antibacterial and antiviral effects;
anti-inflammatory effects
Radix Dang Codonopsis Deficiency of energy Equus & Bos 20–60 g; Sterols (stigmasterol, Inhibiting ulcers and gastric secretion,

Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine


Codonopsis Shen pilosula, Qi and blood, reduced Ovis & Suidae 5–10 g; α-spinasterol), preventing gastric mucous membrane
C. tangshen appetite, coughing Leporidae & Aves polysaccharides, phenolic damage; strengthening cardiac
and wheezing due to 0.5–1.5 g acids, terpenes contractions; increasing blood
lung Qi deficiency, (atractylenolide), inulin, pressure; inhibiting blood platelet
loose stools, fatigue fructose, choline, caproic concentration; improving immunity
and weakness acid, enanthic acid, pinene
Radix Wu Ye Codonopsis Weakness after Equus & Bos 30–150 g; Triterpene saponins Antioxidant effects; increasing the
Codonopsis Shen/Si lanceolata diseases, agalactia, Ovis & Suidae 15–30 g (oleanane-type saponins, activity of SOD (superoxide
Lanceolataee Ye lung abscess, painful taraxerone), flavonoids dismutase) enzyme; antifatigue in
Shenf swelling, sores, and (luteolin, apigenin, rats; reducing blood pressure in
abscesses tectoridin), alkaloids rabbit; improving immunity in
(perlolyrien, norharman), mice; tranquilizing functions;
stigmasterol, syringarsinol, analgesic effects; antibacterial
α-spinasterol, hexadecane effects; relieving and suppressing
acid, succinic acide coughing in mice; improving
memory in micee
Radix et Rhizoma Ren Shen Panax ginseng Fatigue, lack of Equus & Bos 15–30 g; Ginsenosides Improving immunity; improving
Ginseng strength, cold limbs, Ovis & Suidae 5–10 g; (protopanaxadiol, memory; decreasing heart rate and
weak pulse, Canis & Felis 0.5–2 g protopanaxatriol), volatile oil central venous pressure in dogs;
spontaneous sweating, (α-guaiene, β-patchoulene, decreasing blood pressure; preventing
palpitations, coughing trans-caryophyllene, cardiac ischemia; dilating blood
and wheezing due to humulene, elemene), vessels; preventing blood blotting;
lung qi deficiency, panaxynol, panaxydol, improving endocrine functions;
reduced appetite linoleic acid, citric acid, delaying anesthesia induction by
panax acid, vitamins, sterols, alcohol in rats and rabbits when
carbohydrates pretreated with the herb; antitumor
effects; stimulating pituitary-
adrenocortical system

363
(continued)
364
Table 15.2 (continued)
Traditional Descriptions, Chemical Constituents, and Pharmacological Data of TCVM Herbs Described in This Chapter

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Pharmacopoeial Chinese Botanical Common Dosage per Main Chemical
Namea Name Namea TCVM Indicationsa,b Formulaa Constituentsb–d Pharmacological Effectsb,d
Radix et Rhizoma Da Rheum Constipation due to Equus & Bos 30–120 g; Anthraquinone derivatives Purgative effects due to stimulating
Rhei Huang palmatum, excessive heat, Camelus 30–90 g; Ovis (aloe emodin, chrysaron, middle part of the colon; inducing
R. tanguticum, stomach distension & Suidae 6–12 g; Canis chrysophanol, emodin, secretion of bile; antibacterial effects
R. officinale and pain, abscesses & Felis 3–5 g; isoemodin, physcion, rhein), (Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus
and sores, acute Leporidae & Aves tannins (glucose pyrogallol aureus, Escherichia coli, Micrococcus
conjunctivitis due to 1.5–3 g tannins, catechu tannin, free luteus, Candida albicans, Clostridium
wind-heat, external gallic acid), sennoside, perfringens, Fusobacterium varium,
injuries rheinosides, anthranol, Bacteriodes fragilis); antipyretic
anthrone effects; anti-inflammatory effects;
improving immunity; diuretic effects
in rabbits; hemostatic activity;
preventing gastric ulcers and bleeding
Radix Gan Cao Glycyrrhiza Fatigue, lack of Equus & Bos 15–60 g; Triterpenoid saponins Inhibiting gastric secretion; prolonging
Glycyrrhizae uralensis, strength, coughing Camelus 45–100 g; Ovis (glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhizic biological effects of cortisol,
G. inflata, and wheezing, sore & Suidae 3–10 g; Canis acid, glycyrrhetic acid, aldosterone, and testosterone by
G. glabra throat, sores, and & Felis 1–5 g; glabrolide), flavonoids delaying clearance of corticosteroids
abscesses Leporidae & Aves (liquiritin, liquritigenin, during metabolism; antibacterial
0.6–3 g isoliquiritin, neoliquiritin, effects; antiallergic effects; promoting
liqurazid, licoricone, urination; relieving gastrointestinal
isolicoflavonol), urease, spasm; inhibiting hepatitis viruses;
sucrase enzymes relieving coughing and promoting
bronchial secretion; lowering blood
lipid concentrations
Radix Isatis Ban Lan Isatis indigotica Cold and flu due to Equus & Bos 30–100 g; Indoxyl-β-glucoside, isatin, Antibacterial effects
Gen wind-heat, sore throat, Ovis & Suidae 15–30 g; β-sitosterol, γ-sitosterol, (Staphylococcus aureus,
mouth ulcer, sores andCanis & Felis 3–5 g; amino acids, epigoitrin Escherichia coli, Shigella shigae,

Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine


abscesses Leporidae & Aves Salmonella enteridis)
1–2 g; fishes 1–2 g/kg
Radix Puerariae Ge Gen Pueraria lobata Fever due to wind-cold Equus & Bos 20–60 g; Isoflavones (daidzin, Antipyretic effects; lowering blood
Lobatae or wind-heat, first Ovis & Suidae 5–15 g; daidzein, pueroside, pressure in dogs; relaxing coronary
stage of measles, Leporidae & Aves puerarin), arachidic acid, vessels and improving coronary
thirst due to stomach 1.5–3 g daucosterol, allantoin circulation
heat, diarrhea due to
spleen deficiency
Radix Huang Scutellaria Cough due to excessive Equus & Bos 20–60 g; Flavonoids (baicalin, Antibacterial effects (Vibrio comma,
Scutellariae Qin baicalensis lung heat, diarrhea, Ovis & Suidae 5–15 g; baicalein, wogonoside, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella
jaundice, high fever, Leporidae & Aves wogonin, neobaicalein, shigae, Corynebacterium
thirst, sore and 1.5–2.5 g; fishes skullcap flavones, diphtheriae, Pseudomonas
swollen throat, 2–4 g/kg oroxylin A, aeruginosa, Bacterioides
vomiting of blood, 7-methoxybaicalein, melamnogenicus intermedius, and
uterine, bleeding, 7-methoxynorwogonin), other gram-positive bacteria);
hemafecia, abscess, palmitic acid, oleic acid, antipyretic effects; antihistaminic,
threatened abortion benzoic acid, sterols anticholinergic, and papaverine-like
due to internal heat (β-sitosterol, stigmasterol) activity in guinea pigs; reducing
blood lipid concentrations
Rhizoma Coptidis Huang Coptis Diarrhea, dysentery Equus & Bos 15–30 g; Isoquinoline alkaloids Antibacterial effects (Staphylococcus
Lian chinensis, and vomiting due to Camelus 25–45 g; Ovis (berberine, coptisine, aureus, S. hemolyticus, Salmonella
C. deltoidea, damp-heat in stomach & Suidae 5–10 g; worenine, palmatine, typhosa, Shigella dysenteriae,
C. teeta and intestines, sore Leporidae & Aves columbamine, jatrorrhizine, S. paradysenteriae, Escherichia coli,
and swollen throat, 0.5–1 g; fishes 2–5 g/ epiberberine, magnoflorine), Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Diplococcus
mouth sores, red and kg ferulic acid, chlorogenic pneumoniae); anti-inflammatory
swollen eyes, acid effects; antipyretic, effects;
abscesses and ulcers inhibiting the growth of Ehrlich and
lymphoma ascites tumor

365
(continued)
366
Table 15.2 (continued)
Traditional Descriptions, Chemical Constituents, and Pharmacological Data of TCVM Herbs Described in This Chapter

Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health


Pharmacopoeial Chinese Botanical Common Dosage per Main Chemical
Namea Name Namea TCVM Indicationsa,b Formulaa Constituentsb–d Pharmacological Effectsb,d
cells; lowering blood pressure in rats
and rabbits; increasing bile bilirubin
concentration in rats; decreasing serum
cholesterol concentrations
Rhizoma Shan Yao Dioscorea Reduced appetite, Equus & Bos 30–90 g; Mannan, diosgenin, choline, Improving secretion of biliary
Dioscoreae apposita loose stools due to Ovis & Suidae 10–15 g; saponins, starch, cholesterol, bile salt and
spleen deficiency, Leporidae & Aves glycoproteins, batatasine, phospholipids; improving digestion;
coughing and 1.5–3 g phytic acid, allantoin, lowering blood sugar
wheezing, frequent diastase enzymes, vitamin C concentrations; improving
uresis immunity; expelling sputum
Rhizoma Paridis Chong Paris Cough due to excessive Equus & Bos 30–60 g; Saponins (pariphyllin, Relieving and suppressing coughing
Lou polyphylla lung heat, sore throat, Ovis & Suidae 15–60 g dioscin, diosgenin, and wheezing; antibacterial effects
swollen and toxic pennogenin), alkaloids, (Staphylococcus aureus, Paracolon
abscesses, fright polysaccharides, aspartic bacilli, Shigella shigae); antivirus
epilepsy, convulsions, acid, asparagine, alanine, (type A Asian influenza virus);
snakebites, external amino acids tranquilizing function; inhibiting
injuries carcinoma

a Committee of China Veterinary Pharmacopeia (2005).


b Xu and Wang (2002).
c Zheng (1999).
d Tang and Eisenbrand (1992).
e References in notes b–d did not record Radix Codonopsis Lanceolatae; therefore, chemical and pharmacological data of this herb were compiled from Wu, Pu, and Han (2005).
f Chinese name was recorded as Si Ye Shen in CVP 2005.
Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine 367

literature. Most of the articles published in the English literature described studies
examining the immunomodulatory and antibacterial or antiviral effects of TCVM.
For example, a Chinese herb, Ma Bian Cao (Herba Verbenae), at a concentration of 1%
(vol/vol) increased bovine blood neutrophil activity by over 40% compared with con-
trol in an in vitro study (Hu et al., 1992). Herba verbenae was recorded in the ancient
Chinese book Ben Cao Gang Mu as a treatment for equine pharyngitis, and it is also
included in the CVP (Committee of China Veterinary Pharmacopeia, 2005). The
study also demonstrated that herbs traditionally believed to have antipyretic effects
(CVP, 2005), such as Chai Hu (Radix Bupleuri) and Jin Yin Hua (Flos Lonicerae),
could stimulate bovine milk neutrophil functions and increase phagocytosis.
Other in vivo and in vitro studies have examined the immunostimulatory effects
of active compounds extracted from Chinese herbs for use as adjuvants to animal
vaccines, such as Newcastle disease vaccine for chickens and rabbit hemorrhagic
disease vaccine (Kong et al., 2006; Sun et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2005). For example,
Kong et al. (2006) showed that Astragalus polysaccharide (constituent of Huang
Qi, Radix Astragali), Isatis root polysaccharide (constituent of Ban Lan Gen, Radix
Isatis), and Epimedium flavone (constituent of Yin Yang Huo, Herba Epimedii) could
optimally enhance the cell proliferation of chick embryo fibroblasts in response to the
Newcastle disease virus when applied at concentrations of 600, 150, and 20 µg/mL,
respectively, compared with the relative controls containing no active herbal constit-
uents (p < .05) (Kong et al., 2006). This study also indicated the importance of cor-
rect concentrations of active compounds used in developing immune stimulators or
adjuvants for the vaccine. In another study (Sun et al., 2006), carried out in zelanian
rabbits vaccinated against rabbit hemorrhagic disease, a rapid increase in serum anti-
body titer (determined by the hemagglutination inhibition test) was observed after
injections of a mixture of Chinese herbal compounds containing Astragalus polysac-
charide and ginsenoside when compared with the control group. Sun et al. suggested
that chemical constituents in Chinese herbs may play an important role in improving
immune response by enhancing peripheral T-lymphocyte proliferation and serum
hemagglutination inhibition antibody titer; therefore, they could be considered for
use as immunopotentiators.
Although isolated chemical constituents from some herbs have been shown to have
certain pharmacological effects, it is not clear whether the same therapeutic effects
will occur if several herbs are used in combination, as is more frequently the case
in TCVM. With combination herbal treatments, there is the potential for synergis-
tic or antagonistic interactions to occur during preparation or administration. Some
veterinary studies have investigated the effects of TCVM mixtures (Lin et al., 1988;
Lin et al., 2000). In a comparative study, a TCVM formula (0.5 g), Koken-Huanglien-
Huangchin-Tang, containing Ge Gen (Radix Puerariae Lobatae), Huang Qin (Radix
Scutellariae), Huang Lian (Rhizoma Coptidis), and Gan Cao (Radix Glycyrrhizae) was
administered orally twice a day to 1-day-old piglets with preweaning diarrhea. The
results showed that, compared with the control (0.5 g lactose), the formula reduced the
incidence of infection (p < .1) during the first 10 days of life and significantly reduced
the duration of preweaning diarrhea (p < .01) (Lin et al., 1988).
A recently developed TCVM formula, Yi-Kang-Kong, was claimed to have poten-
tial antiviral activity against transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) in swine
368 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

(Lin et al., 2000). Yi-Kang-Kong is composed of several herbal extracts, including


Gou Qi Zi (Fructus Lycii), Huang Qi (Radix Astragali), Shan Zha (Fructus Crataegi),
Chong Lou (Rhizoma Paridis), Dang Gui (Radix Angelicae Sinensis), Bai She Hua
Cao (Ancistrodon acutus), Shan Yao (Rhizoma Dioscoreae), and Wu Ye Shen (Radix
Codonopsis Lanceolatae). An in vitro study found that Yi-Kang-Kong extract at a
concentration of 10 µg/mL could decrease TGEV infection in the cultured swine tes-
tis (ST) cells by 45% at a temperature of 25°C, and that the infectivity was reduced
by around 25% in ST cells pretreated with the extract for over 2 h (Lin et al., 2000).
Although potential synergistic or antagonistic effects may exist in a combined
TCVM formula, little research has been done to examine this issue. Sun et al. (2006)
also compared the immune-enhancing effects of mixtures of Chinese herbal isolated
active constituents (e.g., Astragalus polysaccharide and ginsenoside) and that of a
mixture of Chinese herbal extracts (e.g., water decoction of herbs, Astragalus, and
Ren Shen/ginseng). The results showed that, based on the equivalent active con-
stituents, Chinese herbal extracts were less effective than the mixture of isolated
constituents, although both types of preparation achieved positive results in the
immuno-enhancement trials (Sun et al., 2006). This study may indicate the potential
antagonistic effects between different chemical constituents in the herbal mixture.
However, in practice, the use of isolated active constituents rather than prepared
decoctions of herbal mixtures may not necessarily be considered as a therapeutic
priority without understanding the toxicity of both types of preparation. Moreover,
there is a lack of toxicity studies on TCVM herbs or their active constituents.
It is beyond the scope of this chapter to review all available studies published
in Chinese databases as studies published in the Chinese literature cover a wide
range of therapeutic uses. At present, common types of veterinary herbal medicines
used in China include herb-only traditional remedies (which may include animal and
mineral products as TCVM ingredients), integrated traditional herbs with conven-
tional drugs, active compounds isolated from Chinese herbs, and herbs as additives
to animal feeds.
Over 1,500 articles associated with Chinese herbal veterinary treatments have
been published since the 1970s and are recorded in the China Academic Journal
Database (http://chinanew.eastview.com/). Most clinical articles in the Chinese lit-
erature described case reports of effectiveness of TCVM treatments rather than con-
trolled studies assessing efficacy. However, in recent years authors and scientists have
applied the principles of evidence-based medicine to veterinary medicine: Evidence-
based veterinary medicine (EBVM) has been suggested to assess the quality of sci-
entific evidence for veterinary medicines (Holmes and Cockcroft, 2004; Kastelic,
2006; Schmidt, 2007). EBVM uses a systematic approach to reviewing all published
scientific evidence for veterinary treatments and aims to improve standards for vet-
erinary drug treatment trials. However, current published reviews mostly focused on
orthodox medical treatments; only a few involved TCVM. A systematic review of
40 studies for canine atopic dermatitis (published in 1980–2002) included several
studies assessing Chinese herbal remedies for this condition; the review concluded
that there was insufficient evidence to recommend or to advise against the use of
Chinese herbal treatments (Olivry, Mueller, and The International Task Force on
Canine Atopic Dermatitis, 2003). The study implied that systematic review of the
Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine 369

Chinese literature may be necessary to assess scientific evidence for efficacy and
safety of TCVM for specific animal diseases. Such a review of the extensive existing
literature is needed to identify areas in which there is adequate evidence of safety or
efficacy and those for which more studies are required.

15.7 Current Status of TCVM in China


At present, in China TCVM is regarded as a mainstream veterinary treatment
approach alongside conventional veterinary drugs. TCVM products are regulated
under the same regulatory frameworks as are traditional and conventional medicines,
and manufacturers of TCVM products are required to comply with the principles
of good manufacturing practice (GMP) to demonstrate and ensure product quality.
TCVM is also a compulsory subject required for students of veterinary medicine in
most Chinese universities offering a 5-year veterinary medicine course. However,
unlike traditional Chinese medicine for human health, training in TCVM is offered
by few universities in China as an individual degree course; therefore, the number of
TCVM practitioners is probably far fewer than that of traditional Chinese medical
doctors in China. Nevertheless, TCVM remains a popular approach on many Chinese
farms and in veterinary clinics as it is believed to be able to reduce potential adverse
effects from conventional drugs, although evidence for this is lacking.
Compared with traditional Chinese medicine for human use, TCVM is a relatively
new subject for modern scientific studies in China. Additional rigorous research is
needed to investigate the efficacy and safety, including the toxicity of traditional
herbs, herbal residues in animals, and herb–drug interactions, of TCVM and ulti-
mately its cost-effectiveness. Moreover, it has been suggested that the exploitation
of new medicinal plant resources for veterinary uses in China is important to avoid
competition with the medicinal plants used for human treatment (Liang, Zhang, and
Li, 2005). This suggestion implies that there is currently competition for supplies of
specific herbs that are used for both animals and humans, and that there may not be
sufficient supply for both markets.

15.8 Veterinary Folk Medicines in China


Although TCVM is the major and best-known form of ethnoveterinary medicine in
China, it is not the only ethnoveterinary approach currently used among Chinese
societies. Many of the 56 ethnic minority groups in China have their own traditional
plants as folk veterinary medicines. Some of these “folk herbs” may not be recorded
in Chinese veterinary textbooks or pharmacopoeia. The practice of veterinary medi-
cine by some minority groups may have similarities to that of TCVM. For example, a
preliminary investigation of folk veterinary medicine in Bouyei society in southwest
China found some similarities with TCVM in diagnostic techniques (e.g., interroga-
tion, observation, and palpation) and therapeutic approaches (e.g., internal herbal
decoction, needle stimulation, and cupping) (Lu, 1999). The study identified a few
unique practice methods used in this society, including bloodletting and bamboo
tube therapy. They found that Bouyei folk veterinary medicine is believed to be
effective for bone setting and external injuries, such as snakebites, that plant names
370 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

are based on the plant’s reputed therapeutic function, and that veterinary practice is
still influenced by local shamanism. However, the study did not collect specimens
of the plant resources used, so no botanical or scientific validation of the plant uses
was possible. Although this type of investigation is rarely published in the English
or Chinese literature, it still provides a good ethnomedical source for understanding
ethnoveterinary medicine in some remote areas in China.
Several other ethnobotanical studies have been carried out among ethnic minor-
ity groups in China, although most have explored medicines used for human health
(Chen, Chen, and Xiao, 2003; Pei et al., 2006). Information on the medicinal plants
identified in these studies is potentially valuable for development of ethnoveteri-
nary plant medicines. However, the current practices and features of ethnoveterinary
medicines within ethnic minority societies in China are rarely explored and docu-
mented. In addition, some veterinary medicines used in ethnic minority groups in
China might evolve under the influence of TCVM and modern (Western) veterinary
medicine. Therefore, it is suggested that more ethnoveterinary investigations are
needed to explore veterinary practice in remote areas of China and to record their
traditional knowledge.

15.9 Conclusion
TCVM has developed based on ancient Chinese philosophy. At present, it is an inte-
gral part of veterinary medicine in China. However, there have been limited system-
atic investigations of plants used specifically for TCVM treatments. Further studies
investigating efficacy and safety of TCVM and systematic reviews of the existing lit-
erature are needed to support traditional veterinary uses, as well as ethnoveterinary
studies to record traditional knowledge, particularly in remote areas. Collectively,
this approach may help identify safe and effective new veterinary medicines for
pharmaceutical development.

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16 Ethnoveterinary
Medical Practice in the
European Union (EU)
A Case Study of the
Netherlands
Tedje van Asseldonk

Contents
16.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 373
16.2 Dutch Ethnoveterinary Traditions................................................................. 374
16.3 Ethnoveterinary Traditions in Europe........................................................... 377
16.4 Emerging Markets for Herbal Pet Products................................................... 378
16.5 Herbal Food Additives for Farm Animals..................................................... 379
16.6 Testing of Products........................................................................................ 382
16.7 Prospects of Herbal Medicines at the EU Level............................................ 383
16.8 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 383
Acknowledgments................................................................................................... 384
References............................................................................................................... 384

16.1 Introduction
The Netherlands is a small country (41.526 km2) in the northwest of Europe, consist-
ing mainly of the fertile deltas of three rivers. Nearly half of the country is situated
below sea level. The climate is strongly influenced by the sea. There are moderate
yearly temperature fluctuations (January 2°C, July 17°C) and rain all year round
(50–80 mm each month). The original vegetation consists of the temperate decidu-
ous forest, partly kept open by big grazers. Of this original landscape, nearly nothing
is left. At present, the Netherlands has the highest population density in the Western
world (465 persons/km2, nearly twice as much as the United Kingdom, 17 times as
much as the United States). The majority of this population is concentrated in the
west part of the country (Holland) and nearest the sea (Anonymous, 2001). In spite
of this fact, the country is the world’s third largest agricultural export nation, both for
vegetable (flowers, vegetables) and for animal products. The agricultural activities use
55% of the land and have been modernized through many technological innovations,

373
374 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

leading to intensification. For example, pig farms have an average of 1,400 pigs on
13 hectares of land, with megafarms holding up to 16,000 pigs (Wisman, 2003). The
dairy producer has an average of 55 dairy cows on the farm, but the 100 largest farms
have 270 cows on 54 hectares of land on average (Pierik, 2001). Apart from the
millions of cattle and pigs, about 92 million chickens, 1.6 million small ruminants
(sheep/goats), and an increasing number of pets (about 135,000 horses and around
5 million cats and dogs) live in the Netherlands (CBS, 2008). The feed for these ani-
mals is mainly imported from other countries. The dense concentration of animals
makes contagious diseases a great risk for farmers. Not only innovative management
systems but also frequent use of antibiotics are used to control and ameliorate against
these risks.
Traditional use of herbs for both humans and animals can be found in hand-
books and textbooks from 1500 to 1900 (Wagenfeld, 1844; Numan, 1844; Ludwig,
1996); afterward, chemical synthetic medicine gained popularity.
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss present-day use of herbal medicines
for animals in the Netherlands, both the traditional use in folk medicine and the
use resulting from modern agricultural innovations and from international trends in
animal health care.

16.2 Dutch Ethnoveterinary Traditions


Ethnobotanical and ethnoveterinary research taking place in the Netherlands itself
are not big topics in Dutch universities and are mainly provided by the Institute for
Ethnobotany and Zoopharmacognosy (IEZ), a small private knowledge institute that
performed field studies to make inventories of traditional Dutch folk remedies used
for animals (Van Asseldonk, 2001; Van Asseldonk and Beijer, 2006). Wageningen
University questioned organic farms in the Netherlands for their actual medicine
use, and this revealed some use of alternative remedies (Kijlstra et al., 2004; Van der
Meulen et al., 2004a, 2004b; Van der Werf et al., 2004a, 2004b). A lack of knowl-
edge regarding quality, safety, and efficacy of these remedies existed both among
farmers and among the researchers.
A field study of 30 organic dairy farms was also done by the Dutch Institute for
Food Safety RIKILT (Groot, 2003). Many of these farms used homeopathic rem-
edies (27% of treatments), whereas allopathic medicines consisted of 61% and phy-
tomedicines 10% of the treatments mentioned. However, it is worth noting that in
the Netherlands, as in most of Western Europe, many herbal tinctures are registered
as homeopathic and were indicated as such by the farmers. Many of them should be
categorized as herbal medicines due to the concentrations used.
In the Netherlands, herbal use for both animals and humans is similar to that in
Germany, Austria, and Switzerland (Van Asseldonk and Beijer, 2006). IEZ recorded
168 folk remedies for animals, including 63 plant genera (68 plant species) (Van
Asseldonk and Beijer, 2006). The animals involved most frequently were horses.
There were only a few remedies for pigs, and contact with the association of organic
pig farmers confirmed that their members hardly use herbs. Of the 68 plant species
(involving 36 families), 92% were indigenous to or naturalized in the Netherlands.
Ethnoveterinary Medical Practice in the European Union (EU) 375

Table 16.1
Eight Plant Genera Most Involved in 168 Ethnoveterinary Recipes Reported
to IEZ 1998–2004
Genus/Species No. Plant Parts Animals Involved Health Problem Example
Allium sativum 11 Cloves Horse, dog, chicken Worms, cough, insect
repellant, general health
Calendula 6 Flower, Dog, cat, horse, sheep, External application on
officinalis Herb guinea pig wounds
Linum 20 Seed Horse, cow, sheep Improving molting; on
usitatissimum wounds; prevent colic
Matricaria 9 Flower Horse, dog, cat, ferret External for prevention of eye
chamomilla infection, cough
Mentha species 6 Leaves Horse, cow, goat, rabbit Colic, scour, hard udder
Taraxacum 8 Herb, root Rabbit, horse, dog, General health improvement
officinalis pigeon
Trigonella foenum 5 Seed Horse Cough
graecum
Urtica dioica/ 15 Herb Horse, chicken, turkey, Regaining strength and
urens pig, cow, goat stimulating milk after
delivery; roborans (tonic to
speed convalescence)

No. = Exact reported number of recipes with these genera.

Apart from nettles, there was hardly any harvesting from the wild. The eight rem-
edies mentioned most often are listed in Table 16.1.
The most frequently reported plant (20 times) was Linum usitatissimum, com-
monly called flaxseed. It is used for a range of different health conditions but mainly
for skin and digestive problems in horses and cows. In two cases, it was used for
sheep. Many of the users are enthusiastic about the influence these seeds have on
molting, but they added a warning: The seeds should be boiled before use to neutral-
ize the prussic acid/hydrogen cyanide (HCN). Also, in some cases only the slimy
residue was used, and the seeds were left behind.
Several studies have been conducted in Canada on the feeding of flaxseed to dairy
cows. This was shown to have a positive influence on the milk quality (Gonthier
et al., 2005; Lessard et al., 2003; Petit, 2002; Petit, Germiquet, and Lebel, 2004;
Soita et al., 2003). The beneficial influence of flaxseed on the skin of atopic horses
also has been confirmed by a Canadian clinical study (O’Neill et al., 2002). Flaxseed
has considerable nutritional value due to the presence of α-linolenic acid and soluble
and insoluble fiber (Degenhardt et al., 2002). Lignans have been isolated and found
to be anticarcinogenic, estrogenic, and antiestrogenic. While the α-linolenic acid
may tend to improve milk quality (Dewhurst et al., 2003), the phytoestrogens may
have deleterious effects on fertility and milk production if flaxseed is used in excess
376 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

(Tou et al., 1998). In the Netherlands, flaxseed is part of calf and piglet feed and of
some types of horse feeds. It is not a part of the normal feed for cows or pigs.
The second most popular plant (mentioned in 15 reports) is the nettle. Two Urtica
species, U. dioica and U. urens, are available in the Netherlands, and they are both
being used. These are among the few plants that are collected from the wild. Their
use is very broad, covering all animal species. The use is mostly as a tonic (general
strength improvement) and to aid with recovery. One interesting practice was to rub
the leaf onto a sow’s nipples; the burning sting would make her allow the piglets to
suckle more easily. We also feel that the internal use of the nettle around the period
of delivery is an application that deserves more research. Urtica species contain
lignans, lectins, and steroids (Anonymous, 2007). Polysaccharides and caffeic malic
acid also isolated from Urtica species were found to have anti-inflammatory activ-
ity and stimulated T-lymphocyte synthesis in animal experiments. This genus is in
fact widely used in humans for rheumatism and inflammation of bruises and sprains
(Wang et al., 2008).
The third plant, reported 11 times, was garlic. Allium sativum seems to be a
worldwide remedy that was reported several times for ethnoveterinary use (Mathias,
Rangnekar, and McCorkle, 1998; Pieroni, 1999; Williams and Lamprecht, 2008) and
in case studies in Trinidad and Tobago (Lans, 1996). This is not an indigenous plant
to the Netherlands, but it is cultivated on a small scale. A lot of the reports concerned
commercial preparations sold for horses. Because of the antiparasitic, antibacte-
rial, insect-repellant, antitussive, and antioxidant properties of the organosulfides
in garlic, it appears to make a good equine nutraceutical component (Williams and
Lamprecht, 2008).
Accidents are likely to happen soon as the market for these animal herbal prod-
ucts is booming without enough traditional herbal knowledge left among animal
owners to resist the advertisements. It is known that garlic in large quantities, or its
chronic use, can cause anemia in sheep and anemia or urticaria in horses (Miyazawa
et al., 1991; Parton, 2000; Pearson et al., 2005). It is also known that the aromatic
compounds of garlic pass the ovine placental barrier (Nolte et al., 1992).
The rather popular human remedies Calendula officinalis L. and Matricaria
chamomilla L. were mentioned only for external applications. Other popular plants
were several mint species with several different applications and Trigonella foenum-
graecum L. (Greek hay). This is another herb strongly promoted by the commercial
animal herbal industry, mostly for cough. We could not find studies confirming the
rationality of this use. It has previously been shown to have larvicidal (Halim and
Morsy, 2006) and nematicidal (Zia et al., 2001) activity.
The treatments that were reported most often were alimentary tract and metabo-
lism treatments and dermatological applications. Respiratory, antiparasitic, and
reproductive treatments are also common. There was only one cardiac remedy men-
tioned; this was Crataegus laevigata (Poir) DC (hawthorn), also sold as a commercial
preparation for humans in Europe and the United States. It was noteworthy that this
herb was reported by Zitterl-Egelseer and Franz (1999) as the most prescribed herb
by veterinarians in German-speaking countries, mainly for mild cases of heart fail-
ure in old dogs. Hawthorne (Crataegus species) is one of the most popular European
Ethnoveterinary Medical Practice in the European Union (EU) 377

herbal products. Its cardiotonic and cardioprotective effects are subscribed to the
oligomeric procyanidins and (−)-epicatechin (Svedström et al., 2002).

16.3 Ethnoveterinary Traditions in Europe


Since 1996, there have been several studies on ethnoveterinary practices in Europe.
This makes it possible to compare some results. Table 16.2 shows results of several
European studies.
Allen and Hatfield (2004) compiled a survey of medicinal plants from British and
Irish folk traditions. They presented 105 genera of vascular plants that were used
to treat animals. Of these, the IEZ study (Van Asseldonk and Beijer, 2006) shared
23 genera, although they were often applied differently. For example, although the
English name for Artemisia absinthium L. is wormwood, and IEZ found two reports
of its use against worms in the Netherlands, Allen and Hatfield only reported the use
for cuts on cow udders. Likewise, it was found that of the 23 genera, only 7 were used
in a more or less similar way in both the Netherlands and the British Isles.
A study by Agelet and Vallès (1999) in Spain mentioned 76 remedies, of which
IEZ shared 20; again, the indications are quite different. The IEZ study only
shared a few remedies with the study of Uncini Manganelli, Camangi, and Tomei
(2001) in Tuscany, but of the ones shared, at least one of the indications was quite
often similar. This was less the case for the survey Pieroni et al. (2004) con-
ducted in the south of Italy. There were many commonalities between the herbal
remedies used in the Netherlands and the herbal remedies reported for Austria
(Ludwig 1996).
The Rubia project, a large study coordinated at Wageningen University by
Pieroni (Pieroni et al., 2006), described the actual Mediterranean use of herbs,
including ethnoveterinary uses. In the survey, 135 veterinary preparations and

Table 16.2
Plant Genera Used for Ethnoveterinary Practice in the Netherlands (IEZ
Study) Compared to Genera Reported by Other Recent Studies
Indication
No. Genera Shared Shared
IEZ study (Van Asseldonk and 63
Beijer, 2006)
United Kingdom/Ireland (Allen and 105 23 7 (30%)
Hatfield, 2004)
Spain, Catalonia (Agelet and Vallès, 76 20 8 (40%)
1999)
Italy, Tuscany (Uncini Manganelli, 77 14 9 (64%)
Camangi, and Tomei, 2001)
Italy, south (Pieroni et al., 2004) 55 10 5 (50%)
Austria, dairy (Ludwig, 1996) 37 22 13 (59%)
378 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

110 plant taxa were recorded, with Asteraceae and Lamiaceae the most mentioned
botanical families.
Following requests from several organic pig farmers, the IEZ performed a con-
trolled study of six farms in the Netherlands, testing some traditional Dutch medici-
nal plants. Dried herbs (nettles, fennel, aniseed, and thyme) were fed to both sows and
piglets. They appeared to have a positive impact on piglet survival (Van Asseldonk
et al., 2005) given the fact that on average one extra piglet survived in each nest as
compared to the untreated controls. However, this result could not be repeated by
another researcher (De Vries, Bestman, and Wagenaar, 2006).

16.4 Emerging Markets for Herbal Pet Products


Zoopharmacognosy (self-medication, or spontaneous use of uncultivated or medici-
nal plants by animals) is a popular issue among pet owners. Many pet owners think
these phenomena are scientifically proven facts, whereas in fact up to now only a few
scientists worldwide have addressed this subject (Huffmann, 2005). Advertisements
for herb mixes (which sometimes seem to be undefined or irrationally created) for
pets use this belief for the purpose of increased sales.
Commercial activities regarding herbs for pets and training of specialized pre-
scribers of these products to become holistic pet therapists in private institutes
is a booming business in the Netherlands as well as in the rest of Europe. Some
veterinarians are involved because they feel the consumer’s need for these new
approaches; instead of combating disease to try to improve health, there is the
move from treatment-oriented medicine to prevention. But, in the Netherlands the
sole veterinary university does not provide an educational background for a criti-
cal involvement with these issues. As a result, interested veterinarians are vulner-
able to commercial activities. Education for nonveterinarians provided by private
parties tends to lack a scientifically sound background and be of a commercial
nature, which may cause conflicts of interest.
Many herbal products are offered to owners of horses that are used for rec-
reation and sports, and many do buy these products. However, research into the
quality, efficacy, and safety of these products is lacking. A better situation exists in
the German-speaking countries (Germany, Switzerland, Austria), where there has
been more involvement of science in herbal therapies. For example, the Veterinary
University of Vienna (Austria) has a long-standing tradition of researching herbal
medicines for animals. However, from the large number of registered herbal medi-
cines for animals that existed in Germany and Austria at the end of the 20th century,
next to nothing is left. New European Union regulations demand new and costly
(re-)evaluation of these medicines, which is not affordable in a market in which
the same herbs continue to be sold as feed items. Many herbal remedies that were
used by veterinarians some years ago are now being sold as feed supplements,
through veterinarians or directly to the owners. A growing market exists for use
of herbs and other natural products (such as prebiotic substances and probiotics:
active microorganisms), both for pets and for farm animals, the latter being of
great economic importance.
Ethnoveterinary Medical Practice in the European Union (EU) 379

16.5 Herbal Food Additives for Farm Animals


At the request of the organic farmers organization, in 2006 the Dutch Ministry of
Agriculture, Nature, and Food Quality initiated the Fyto-V project for the development
of phytotherapy as a tool for reducing or preventing diseases in farm animals. Organic
farmers should preferably use natural remedies such as phytotherapy to treat animals,
but since few are registered as veterinary medicines, information on the quality and
the efficacy of herbal products on the market was not easily available. The goal of the
project was to increase knowledge about a possible rational use of herbal therapies in
organic farming. The project was performed by RIKILT Institute of Food Safety in
Wageningen in cooperation with several research institutes: Utrecht University, the
Animal Science Group of Wageningen University, the Louis Bolk Institute, IEZ, and
the professional agricultural university in Den Bosch (Groot et al., 2008).
The project started with an inventory of the available herbal products for farm
animals in 2006. Most products were not registered as veterinary medicines but
instead were used as feed additives or feed constituents. Information on all 255 prod-
ucts for pigs, cows, or poultry was compiled in a database (http://www.fyto-v.nl).
Literature references to studies regarding the efficacy of the products or their herbal
ingredients were included.
A large number of herbal products have been developed partly as a response to the
ban on antimicrobial growth promoters in animal feed in the European Union that
went in place in January 2006. The replacement of growth-promoting antibiotics by
plant extracts and other natural materials was a concern for many scientists and cor-
porations in several EU-(co)financed projects in the period 2001–2007 (Rumen-up,
Replace, Feed for Pig Health, Healthy Pig Gut, and Safewastes).
The FytoV project identified, in addition to the product information concerning
the herbal products that were on the market in 2007, about 30 related (in vitro) stud-
ies and 150 clinical studies with herbs that were not confidential. Only 65 (43%)
were published in peer-reviewed journals. Table 16.3 shows the number of herbal
products and number of relevant publications found in relation to the indication
for their use and the target species. Several producers showed their documentation
on experiences with their products in confidence, both performed by independent
research institutes and results from practice. This indicates that many promising
products are available. For certain important indications (e.g., respiratory condi-
tions or parasites in poultry and pigs), there are still only a few products available
on the market (Groot et al., 2008). These figures may be biased by the restriction of
medicinal claims that can be made for feed substances or feed additives. The herbal
products are mostly marketed as aromatic feed additives. Still, many of them are
made from herbs that are listed in the European Pharmacopoeia because they are
used for medicinal applications in human medicine. The claim is mostly restricted
to “increased appetite,” sometimes in addition to “better growth.” In several cases,
documentation existed of the preventive or damage control effect that these herbs
will have in animals, for example, in relation to stressful periods such as weaning or
transport or during infections with Escherichia coli or clostridia. Dermatologicals
and external preparations for gynecological problems (mastitis) belong to a second
group that is well represented in this market.
380 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Table 16.3
Numbers of Herbal Products and Numbers of Relevant Publicationsa Found
at the Start of the Fyto-V Project in Relation to the Indication for Their Use
Products and Target Species
Small
Therapeutic Uses Publicationsa Sum Cattle Pigs Poultry Ruminants
Alimentary tract (against 5 13 6 6 3 2
diarrhea and constipation)
Alimentary tract (enhancing 96 55 22 26 23 6
appetite and growth)
Alimentary tract (specific 7 24 10 8 9 6
organ functions and special
diets)
Alimentary tract (prebiotic 13 19 8 9 5 2
and dried probiotic)
Dermatological 1 12 11 9 3 9
Genitourinary tract 22 24 20 4 0 10
Immunological 6 2 0 0 0 0
Anti-infective (systemic) 23 0 0 0 0 0
Musculoskeletal 0 1 1 0 0 1
Nervous system 9 5 0 3 4 0
Antiparasitic products, 10 7 2 2 5 2
insecticides, and repellents
Respiratory system 0 7 6 6 2 3
Sum 192 168 86 74 54 41

a The number of publications concerns mostly clinical studies with the product in one of the target ani-
mals and some in vitro studies. Some of the products carry more than one indication and some products
are used in more than one animal species for the same indication. Therefore the sum of the number of
products is not the same as the sum of products for different target species.

In many cases, the plant species used in these feed additives was not public
information, and more transparency would be desirable. Therefore, the listing
in Table 16.4 of the herbs that are most often used for livestock may be biased.
Still, the most important herbs (i.e., oregano, garlic, yeast, cinnamon, and chicory)
can be identified. Several studies exist on the veterinary use of these five plants.
Oregano oil appeared very promising for the prevention of E. coli infections in
the pig gut (Jongbloed, Maiorano, and Wagenaars, 2008). Chicory root is sold as
such or with enriched content of fructooligosaccharides (FOS) that has a probiotic
effect (i.e., stimulates the growth of beneficial microorganisms in the gut). The use
of the other plants seems to be based mainly on tradition or is derived from human
use, for which extensive documentation exists for these herbs (European Scientific
Cooperative on Phytotherapy [ESCOP], 2003).
Ethnoveterinary Medical Practice in the European Union (EU) 381

Table 16.4
Plant Species Used in More Than Four Herbal Products for Veterinary Use
Identified in the Dutch Fyto-V Project with Numbers of Products and
Numbers of Publicized Clinical Animal Studies in Which They Appear
Species
(Botanical Name) English Products Publicationsa Use
Acorus calamus Sweetflag 6 7 Digestive aid
Allium sativum Garlic 12 24 Gut health, antibiotic
Aloe vera Aloe 5 1 External (skin, udder)
Arnica montana Mountain arnica 5 0 External (bruises)
Artemisia absinthium Absinth 7 2 Digestive aid
Cichorium intybus Cichory 8 12 Prebiotic (fiber)
Cinnamomon camphora Camphor 6 0 External (udder)
Cinnamomon zeylanicum Cinnamon 7 16 Gut health, antibiotic
Echinacea purpurea Purple coneflower 6 14 Immune stimulant
Erythraea centaurium Common centaury 11 0 Digestive aid
Foeniculum vulgare Fennel 6 7 Digestive aid
Lavendula officinalis Lavender 5 1 External, skin
Matricaria chamomilla Chamomile 5 0 Digestive aid
Mentha piperita Mint 5 4 External (udder)
Origanum vulgare Oregano 6 37 Gut health, antibiotic
Quercus robur Oak 9 3 Antidiarrhea
Rosmarinus officinalis Rosemary 9 2 Gut health, antibiotic
Saccharomyces spp. Yeast 14 10 Prebiotic (cell walls)
Silybum marianum Milk thistle 13 0 Digestive aid/liver support
Thymus vulgaris Thyme 6 22 Gut health, antibiotic
Trigonella foenum Fenugreek 8 1 Roborans (tonic to speed
graecum convalescence)
Urtica urens Nettle 13 3 Roborans

a Number of publications refers to clinical studies with poultry, pigs, or cows. For all of these herbs,
except for oregano and chicory, which seem to be more specific animal remedies, many studies exist,
both in vitro and animal studies, for the validation of all of these remedies concerning human use
(ESCOP, 2003). All of these herbs are also (part of) registered human medicines in Germany. But, clini-
cal use in animals has for some herbal products only been marginal or has not been tested in spite of a
long tradition. Moreover, not all studies dedicated to agricultural applications were positive. For exam-
ple, the use of Echinacea has strong evidence based on in vitro and clinical studies for humans, and this
herb also is used for animals; it has been tested in products for several animal species, but the results
were disappointing for poultry, and results for pigs were inconsistent. One of the remedies tested on
cows in the Fyto-V project was a herb mixture with Echinacea as an important constituent that showed
in vitro activity against Staphylococcus aureus.
382 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

16.6 Testing of Products
Of the hundreds of products summarized, 10 herbal products were selected for qual-
ity and efficacy tests in the Fyto-V project. Three herbal preparations were clinically
tested on pigs, five on poultry, and three on dairy cattle (one in two animal species). In
general, all these herbal products were very well tolerated during the trials.
The products tested on pigs were a simplex of standardized oregano oil on puffed
wheat; a fixed combination of oregano, aniseed, and lemon peel oil on powdered
chicory root; and a fixed complex mixture of about 10 dried herbs.
All three products showed positive effects as claimed by the suppliers either on
growth or on feed conversion in weaners, but due to large variations per animal there
was no strong significance (.05 < p < .13). Interesting results were found at the time of
slaughtering: Differences in carcass and organ assessments and percentages of meat
and fat were registered as compared to untreated controls. Oregano oil gave less fat,
and the oregano-aniseed-orange oil tended to give on average more meat. A number
of livers were collected for in vitro research of biomarkers regarding gut health.
Promising results were found with gene expression assays for oxidative stress, which
clearly showed health improvement for the animals using herbs in their feed (Groot
et al., 2008).
The five poultry products that were tested for their effects on coccidiosis infection
were developed as feed additives for broilers. They did not cause a reduction of the
effect of an acute Eimeria infection in young layer hens (Lourens and Jongbloed,
2008). However, the synthetic ionophore coccidiostatic that was used as an internal
control for the trial was equally ineffective in this challenge study. On day 28, the
effects of the infection on the gut had disappeared; only a slightly retarded growth
(15 g) remained that was better conquered by the coccidiostatic than by the herbs.
More studies are necessary to determine whether herbal products may perform bet-
ter in the case of milder and chronic infection at a higher age, preferably tested in a
plot that simulates the actual farm problems more accurately.
Three herbal products currently used by several dairy farms in the Netherlands,
and claiming to have a beneficial influence on high cell count, were given to dairy
cows. None of the products made a significant difference in cell count compared to the
control group. Due to an unknown cause, the cell count barely increased at the start of
the trial, unlike the beginning of the prior period. Therefore, this test could not con-
clude whether the effect could have been beneficial in the case of high cell counts.
An important part of the Fyto-V study was the study of quality (in laboratory tests)
and of biological activity (in chemical and bioassays) of the herbal products used in
the animal trials. All but 2 producers of 10 showed documents that proved their
products to be of stable quality. Tests regarding the presence of specific herbs and the
absence of antibiotics, ionophores, and hormones revealed no abnormalities.
All herbal products showed antioxidant activity in the ORAC (oxygen radical
absorbence capacity) tests, but when comparing the feed preparations with and with-
out herbs added, there was no statistical difference. As a result, clinical effects can-
not be accounted for by their antioxidant value.
The three pig products were active against E. coli. Two of three herbal products
tested for dairy cows showed activity against biofilm formation by Staphylococcus
Ethnoveterinary Medical Practice in the European Union (EU) 383

aureus, possibly by reducing bacterial growth. One of them was a fixed combination
of tinctures of seven herbs; the other was garlic extract, enriched to a high percentage
of stable allicin.
These five products were also shown to decrease the functioning of polymorpho-
nuclear granulocytes, thus indicating an immune-modulating effect, without having
a toxic effect.
At the end of the Fyto-V project, it was concluded that some herbal products could
be beneficial to animal health. However, more literature as well as clinical studies
will be necessary to make better judgments regarding the possible benefits and opti-
mal use of these products by farmers. In particular, studies that measure relevant
examples of gene expression profiles promise to provide statistical proof for health
effects of some herbal products for animals (Groot et al., 2008).

16.7 Prospects of Herbal Medicines at the EU Level


During the course of the 20th century, interest in herbal products for animals was
lost in Europe, but it regained importance near the start of the 21st century. Future
developments in this field will be strongly influenced by legislation that is harmo-
nized at the level of the European Union. It will be necessary to adapt regulations for
herbal veterinary products. The European Medicines Agency (EMEA) has already
adopted rules for human herbal medicine and food supplements (Groot et al., 2007).
Dutch legislation in the area of animal feed and veterinary medicinal products is
based on European legislation and consists of a national implementation of this
legislation.
A distinction should be made between the uses of herbs as animal feed, animal
feed supplements, animal feed additives or therapeutic products. Currently, herbs
without medical claims can be used in animal feed, provided they are safe and not
mentioned on the list of undesirable substances of the European Directive 2002/32/
EC (European Parliament and Council, 2002) and provided they do not contain toxic
substances above permitted levels.
The growing interest in the use of herbs for several health conditions requires
both adequate legislation and proper bioassays to value and reward the honest and
transparent health claims. This is a challenge science and industry will face in the
coming years (Groot, 2008).

16.8 Conclusion
The potential of herbal animal remedies is slowly dawning in the Netherlands and
all over Western Europe, both in the pet care field, in which scientific involvement is
rare, and in the field of animal feed, in which innovative companies are developing
new herbal products. The introduction of herbal and related natural products in the
field of animal feed has contributed to maintaining the productivity of the livestock
after the banning of the use of antibiotics as growth promoters. To gain the benefit of
these promising approaches, the scientific community should get more involved and
support innovative developments in this area. Legislative constraints for these devel-
opments should be evaluated and, if possible, removed. It is of equal importance that
384 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

science is involved in monitoring and controlling the risks accompanying these new
products. Little is known about

• The interaction of natural growth promoters with each other and with vet-
erinary medication (be it negative or, under control, positive).
• The residual or other effects these products have on meat quality. Again,
risks must be assessed here, but there are also some positive signals (e.g.,
feeding on oregano seems to give more unsaturated fatty acids in meat).
The impact on the production and quality of milk and eggs of herbal inges-
tion also needs to be investigated (Gerber, 1997; Wenk, 2005).
• The implementation of natural products within the specific management
situation of each farm. Many general health problems are solved by vac-
cination and balanced feed; the remaining problems are often farm related
and require specific additional products (like herbal supplements) to solve
them. The choice of natural products is overwhelming, and good monitor-
ing of their results in specific situations will be necessary to make better
use of them.

Expertise on these topics needs to be built up by all involved institutions and should
be supported by international cooperation.

Acknowledgments
We thank everyone involved in the studies described. The ethnoveterinary fieldwork
for IEZ was performed by 85 students of two professional universities and received
no funding. The Fyto-V project involved the research activities of 20 people in
seven institutes and two organic farms. M. Groot (RIKILT) coordinated the Fyto-V
project. M. N. Zijlstra (IEZ) edited the literature studies that were gathered in a
spreadsheet and edited this chapter. The Fyto-V project was financed by the Dutch
Ministry of Agriculture, Nature, and Food (LNV) at the request of the Bioconnect
organization.

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17 Herbal Medicines for Pet
and Companion Animals
David R. Katerere and Vinny Naidoo

Contents
17.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 389
17.2 Herbs for Ticks............................................................................................ 390
17.3 Herbs for Skin Diseases.............................................................................. 393
17.4 Herbs for Arthritis and Joint Support......................................................... 394
17.5 Herbs for Intestinal Worms......................................................................... 396
17.6 Herbs for Immunomodulation.................................................................... 397
17.7 Herbs for Behavioral and Cognitive Disorders........................................... 398
17.8 Herbs for Coughing.....................................................................................400
17.9 Pitfalls in the Use of Herbs for Companion Animals................................. 401
17.10 Conclusion...................................................................................................402
References...............................................................................................................403

17.1 Introduction
A cursory glance at the popular literature or a general Internet search reveals that
there is an increasing interest in the use of herbal products for domestic pets and
horses. This mirrors the same interest for using, and self-medicating with, com-
plementary and alternative medicine (CAM) among humans. As with humankind,
there is evidence that animals have been self-medicating for millennia (Huffman and
Hirata, 2004), and in some cases humans may have started to use certain plants on
observing animals using them to good effect (Huffman and Seifu, 1989).
In the 1990s, there was an unprecedented growth in the herbal medicine mar-
ket, with at least 60 million Americans using botanicals (Miller, 1998; Kennedy,
2005). In Germany, the use of “natural remedies” has more than doubled since the
1970s, from 20% in 1970 to 56% of the population in 2002 (Ernst and Dixon, 2006).
This reflects a worldwide trend that has probably exponentially increased for vari-
ous reasons. The reasons most commonly cited are increased cost of medical care
(Dubnick, 1986) leading persons, particularly those of low economic status, to seek
cheaper alternatives; the need for control by patients over their health care that self-
medication appears to satisfy; and globalization, which has led to greater awareness
of other medical systems and philosophies, especially those from China and India
(Ernst and Dixon, 2006). There is also the general perception that “natural is safe,”

389
390 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

and this partly arises due to the adverse effects that are associated with the use of
synthetic chemicals and pharmaceuticals (Dubnick, 1986).
With specific reference to veterinary pharmaceutical products, a good example is
the environmental and human safety concerns arising from the use of topical fipronil
(Frontline®), the premier tick control product in dogs (Geary, Conder, and Bishop,
2004). It is now known to be toxic to fish, bees, rabbits, and game birds (Gupta,
2007). Imidacloprid (Advantage®), a neonicotinoid, has been banned in Germany
because of its toxicity to honeybees (Benjamin, 2008). In India, Nepal, and Pakistan,
the use of diclofenac in cattle was banned because of the threat to the survival of
scavenger vultures, which feed on animal carcasses (Swan et al., 2006).
For the foregoing reasons, there is increased use of botanicals in humans that is now
filtering through to use in their animal companions for the same reasons. The renewed
interest in industrialized countries in traditional veterinary medicine has tracked the
revival in interest of CAMs for human use (Schillhorn van Veen, 1997), and this has
coincided with new-found global interest in green issues and respect for indigenous
cultures and traditional ecological knowledge. Due to globalization, there is also a shift
in human–pet relations that started in industrialized countries and now is spreading to
emerging markets, in which pets are now considered part of family, and their lifestyle
(including food and medicine) has been “humanized” (Reportbuyer, 2009).
Interestingly the acceptance of CAMs by the veterinary establishment appears to
have been more enthusiastic than that by the human medical fraternity. In the United
States, the American Veterinary Medicine Association (AMVA) has spearheaded
the founding of the Veterinary Botanical Medical Association, and professional
associations elsewhere (e.g., Britain and South Africa) have followed suit.
Countries with strong Germanic influence (e.g., Germany, Austria, Switzerland,
and the Netherlands) have been leading proponents of phytomedicine in humans and
more recently in animals. A survey done among veterinarians in Austria, Germany,
and Switzerland, for example, found increasing interest in the use of veterinary
phytotherapies (Hahn, Zitterl-Eglseer, and Franz, 2005), with three-quarters of the
respondents already using herbal products on their patients, often for liver, joint,
kidney, heart, and skin diseases. The same study found that herbal drugs were more
acceptable to pet owners and veterinarians due to the belief that they had fewer side
effects when used for the management of chronic diseases.
This chapter discusses phytotherapies commonly used to treat and maintain health
in companion animals, mainly dogs, cats, and horses. Seven common therapeutic areas
have been selected and are discussed. An apparently glaring omission is in the treat-
ment of allergies, but because allergies in animals are caused by numerous known and
unknown insults, management is symptomatic. The remedies used for skin, immune
modulation, and cough can also be used for managing allergies in pets.

17.2 Herbs for Ticks


Pets are carriers of ectoparasites (fleas, ticks, and lice) that if untreated cause misery
to the pet or are carriers of severe blood-borne parasitic diseases, such as babesiosis
and ehrlichiosis. In addition, these ectoparasites pose a zoonotic risk for diseases such
as psittacosis, cat scratch disease, and tapeworm (Kayne et al., 2001). Ectoparasites
Herbal Medicines for Pet and Companion Animals 391

belong to a wide group of parasites that live in or on the skin of animals. The para-
sites that live on the skin include blood-sucking flies, ticks, fleas, and lice (Horowitz,
2003). In seeking appropriate interventions, it is important to understand the parasite
and its life cycle; adult fleas live on the animal, while eggs, larvae, and pupae live
in the environment (i.e., carpet, bedding, and soil), so eradication methods should
be aimed at both populations (Wynn and Chalmers, 2002). Ticks, on the other hand,
may have a one-host, two-host, and three-host cycle and may therefore complete
their life cycle over a longer period of time, thereby contaminating the environment
for a prolonged period if they carry diseases.
The parasites living within the skin are the mites (e.g., sarcoptic and demodectic
mange). Their management is also wide and includes products such as medicated
topical washes, spot-ons, collars, dips, and powders.
In the past, organochlorine and organophosphate compounds were used for tick
and insect control, but these fell out of favor because of their toxicity and persistence
in the environment. They were largely replaced by the pyrethroids (Casida, 1980),
which are synthetic analogues of naturally derived pyrethrins and the formidines.
The natural pyrethrins (from chrysanthemums) and D-limonene (from citrus) are
widely used and investigated for insecticidal activity. The pyrethrins are found natu-
rally in the pyrethrum flower Tanacetum or Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium (Casida,
1980; Kiriamiti et al., 2003). The pyrethrum flower has a history dating to its use
for body lice in central Europe and Persia in the 1800s. Synthetic analogues, the
pyrethroids (e.g., permethrin and cypermethrin), are widely used as domestic, indus-
trial, and agricultural insecticides (Soderlund et al., 2002). Pyrethrins and related
compounds affect the nervous system of insects and other arthropods by disrupting
ion channels (Townsend, 2005). Pyrethrins are rapidly broken down and have little
residual effect, which makes them environmentally safe, while the pyrethroids are
more stable, persist in the environment for longer, and hence are more toxic.
Neem oil, derived from Azadirachta indica, has a broad spectrum of activity and
is safe for all pets, including kittens and puppies. The azadirachtins and salannin are
thought to be the insecticidal constituents of neem oil (Wynn and Chalmers, 2002).
There is good clinical evidence to suggest that spraying fleas for 3 to 5 days with
neem oil gives the best outcome (Wynn and Chalmers, 2002). It has been shown to
be safe not only for kittens and puppies but also for humans.
Azadirachtin and related neem compounds exhibit various actions against insects,
e.g., antifeedancy, growth regulation, fecundity suppression and sterilization, ovipo-
sition repellency or attractancy, changes in biological fitness, and blocked develop-
ment of vector-borne pathogens. These compounds show broad-spectrum activity
against species of insects of medical and veterinary importance (e.g., mosquitoes,
flies, triatomines, cockroaches, fleas, and lice) (Mulla and Su, 1999).
Melaleuca alternifolia (the tea tree) is an Australian plant with a long history of
use among the Aborigines and with proven potent antimicrobial activity (Carson,
Riley, and Cookson, 1998; Allen, 2001). It is the source of tea tree oil (TTO), which
is a complex mixture of terpene hydrocarbons and tertiary alcohols distilled mainly
from plantation stands of Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden and Betche) Cheel of
the Myrtaceae family. Data from individual components suggest that TTO has the
potential to be developmentally toxic if ingested at higher doses; however, TTO and
392 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

its components are not genotoxic (Hammer et al., 2006). TTO has acaricidal proper-
ties and has shown activity against nymphs of Ixodes ricinus (Iori et al., 2005).
Another Australian native and also a member of the Myrtaceae family, the
Eucalyptus (gum tree) also possesses essential oil with fungicidal, insecticidal or
insect repellent, acaricidal, and nematicidal properties (Batishet, Singh, and Kohli,
2008). The lipophilic terpenoids terpinen-4-ol and 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), major
constituents of TTO and gum tree, are known to possess broad-spectrum activity
because of their ability to disrupt cellular membranes and associated receptors and
signalling pathways (Camp, 2004).
Mammea Americana, Pouteria sapota, and Manilkara zapota are used for
ectoparasites in dogs in the Caribbean (Lans et al., 2000). Mammea americana is a
tree from the tropical rain forests of South America that is now domesticated for its
edible fruits (zapote domingo) (Reyes-Chilpa et al., 2008). In Columbia, powdered
seeds are applied in the form of a paste to dogs and humans for the elimination of
fleas, lice, and mange mites. Several coumarins (so-called mammeins) and xantho-
nes with insecticidal and antibacterial activity have been isolated from M. Americana
(Crombie et al., 1970; Yasunaka et al., 2005).
In Canada, fleas and flies on dogs and cats are treated with Artemisia vulgaris
(mugwort), Citrus x limon (lemon), Juniperus communis (common juniper),
Lavandula officinalis (lavender), Melissa officinalis (lemon balm), and Thuja pli-
cata (western red cedar) (Lans, Turner, and Khan, 2008). All of these plants are
aromatic and possess insecticidal activity, probably due to the presence of mono­
terpenoids. Limonene, for example, is a common constituent of citrus aromatic or
essential oils and acts by dissolving the cuticle of the adult flea (Wynn and Chalmers,
2002). However, it causes hypersensitivity in cats.
In central Italy, the leaves of the tomato plant (Lycopersicon esculentum) are
placed in dog kennels to repel fleas and other parasites (Guarrera, 1999). Tomato
plants synthesize the glycoalkaloids dehydrotomatine and α-tomatine, possibly as a
defense against bacteria, fungi, viruses, and insects (Kozukue et al., 2004).
Also in Italy, an infusion, leaves, or flowers of the dwarf elder (Sambucus ebulus)
were rubbed on the animal’s body or placed on bedside tables to remove mosqui-
toes or other insects (Guarrera, 1999). Pallets were also made with dwarf elder
branches to prevent fleas in kennels (Guarrera, 1999; Ebrahimzadeh, Mahmoudi,
and Salimi, 2006). Sambucus ebulus contains lectins called ebulitins (de Benito
et al., 1995), which are ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) and inhibitors of pro-
teolytic enzymes and glycohydrolases (Ryan, 1990).
In the United States, the aromatic herbs pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium), pepper-
mint (Mentha x piperita), or spearmint (Mentha spicata) are used in natural flea
collars (Horowitz, 2003). There is no literature that could be found that showed
investigation of the antitick or insecticidal efficacy of the mint. However, it can be
postulated that the role of the monoterpenes is central, and as Wynn and Chalmers
(2002) have suggested, the mechanism is by disrupting the cell wall.
As a direct result of ethnoveterinary information, a herbal preparation contain-
ing oil extracts of plants Cedrus deodare (deodar cedar) and Pongamia glabra was
successfully used in the management of dogs heavily infested with Sarcoptis scabiei
in a controlled clinical study (Das, 1996). The results showed this combination to be
Herbal Medicines for Pet and Companion Animals 393

highly effective, with even the most severely infested dog recovering by day 14 of
treatment. Most importantly, the cure was clinically comparable with a commercial
amitrax formulation. This new formulation was based on previous ethnoveterinary
information suggesting that the individual plants were effective against animal para-
sites on production animals (Sharma et al., 1997).

17.3 Herbs for Skin Diseases


As with treatments for ticks, pet owners are concerned about the long-term effects
of the use of pharmaceutical products, especially corticosteroids, for skin diseases
(Wynn and Chalmers, 2002). Various products containing oatmeal, TTO, Aloe vera,
and hammamelis have been used, mainly as shampoo to control pruritus.
Aloe vera is one of the most widely known herbal products and is used for all
manner of purported therapeutic and cosmetic reasons. It has been reported to assist
wound healing by increasing epithelialization in trials on dogs (Farstvedt, Stashak, and
Othic, 2004). Extracts of Aloe vera also showed reduced leukocyte adhesion, tumor
necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and interleukin (IL) 6 in an in vivo study on burn wounds.
An in vitro study by Naidoo, Zweygarth, and Swan (2006) also showed the potential
benefits of the related Aloe marlotthii extract in the management of ehrlichiosis.
Sarcoptic mange is one of the most important veterinary skin diseases. Conventional
therapy and control of sarcoptic mange involves the use of chemotherapeutics. Most
of the chemical acaricides currently used have several drawbacks (e.g., resistance,
toxicity to the patient and the ecosystem) (Du et al., 2008). In Estonia, various plant
species are used to treat mange, such as Heracleum sosnowskyi, Artemisia vulgaris,
Tanacetum vulgare (common tansy), Artemisia absinthium, Allium sativum (garlic),
Piper nigrum (black pepper), Juniperus communis, and Cymbopogon nardus (citro-
nella grass) (Magi, Jarvis, and Miller, 2006). They have mainly been shown to have
activity against ectoparasites.
Azadiracta (neem), which is widely used for tick repellency, also features as a
treatment for sarcoptic mange. Petroleum ether extracts of neem oil were found
effective against Sarcoptes scabiei var. cuniculi larvae (Du et al., 2008).
For the treatment of mange in Trinidad and Tobago, dogs are bathed in water
with leaves of bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris), black sage (Cordia curassavica), and
Congo lala (Eclipta alba) (Lans et al., 2000). Bambusa vulgaris is, however, toxic
to horses (Barbosa et al., 2006). Cordia curassavica is used in Central America
and the Caribbean islands for humans with respiratory and dermatological disorders
(Hernandez et al., 2007). The leaf branch of C. curassavica is used for grooming
horses in Trinidad and Tobago (Lans et al., 2006). Extracts of this species have been
shown to have antibacterial, larvicidal, and antifungal activity (Hernandez et al.,
2007; Ioset et al., 2000). Biological activity has been ascribed to meroterpenoid
naphtoquinones called cordiaquinones (Ioset et al., 2000). In Suriname, neonates
are bathed with black sage and a mixture of Lantana camara and Renealmia spe-
cies to protect from a variety of illnesses (Ruysschaert et al., 2009), which reinforces
the purported efficacy of black sage. Eclipta alba (false daisy) is used in India as
a topical antiseptic and has been shown to have broad-spectrum antibacterial and
antifungal activity (Kumar et al., 2006).
394 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Lans et al. (2000) have suggested that the treatment of mange mirrors that of
various human skin conditions; for example, Scoparia dulcis (licorice weed) is used
to treat impetigo and herpes, Bixa orellana (achiote) seeds have been used for burns
and wounds; the sap of Musa spp. is used for burns and wounds, while Eclipta alba
has been used as a hemostatic and for bruises and wounds in cattle. These species
are now being used for dogs.
In Tuscany (Italy), numerous remedies are recommended for topical wound man-
agement, such as Pinus halepensis (Aleppo pine), Equisetum telmateia (giant horse-
tail), and Stachys officinalis (Bishop’s wort), among others (Uncini Manganelli,
Camangi, and Tomei, 2001). Pinus halepensis resin is warmed in olive oil or lard
and used in dogs; dried and chopped cauli of E. telmateia may be applied to small
wounds, especially those caused by hematophagous insects. Stachys officinalis is
applied locally to infected and purulent wounds of cats, dogs, and horses. It is rich in
polyphenolic compounds and phenolic acids, which gives it good free-radical scav-
enging properties (Vundać et al., 2007), and it may play a part in wound healing. The
phenylethanoid glycosides have also been isolated from it (Miyase, Yamamoto, and
Ueno, 1996). Nerium oleander (oleander) is applied locally on the skin of dogs and
cats affected by fungal disease. Nerium oleander is well known for the presence of
cardenolides, which are toxic to man and animals; therefore, its application should
be done carefully (Barbosa et al., 2008).
For horse hoof lesions, wonder of the world (Kalanchoe pinnata), young banana
leaves (Musa species), castor bean leaves (Ricinus communis), or turmeric root
(Curcuma longa) may be crushed and stuck onto affected areas with soft candle
wax or epsom salts (Lans et al., 2006). These treatments are used in the horse-racing
industry in Trinidad and British Columbia but have yet to be validated.

17.4 Herbs for Arthritis and Joint Support


Bone and joint disorders are a frequent occurrence in both dogs and horses. The
etiologies of the diseases are different, however, and numerous. In dogs, the typical
cause of joint problems results from the developmental diseases, such as osteochon-
drosis dystrophy and degenerative joint disease (DJD). Of these, the latter tends to
be caused by incorrect diet during the growing phase of bone. In horses, the cause
could be developmental and may also be due to excessive training. Symptomatic
treatment and the alleviation of pain are the common treatment modalities. With
bone disorders, the only manner of managing permanent changes is surgically, or
through the implantation of prosthesis. Infection, trauma, and inflammation may
also cause joint disease.
In Canada, horses with injuries have rachette (Nopalea cochenillifera) applied
directly to the injured area or as a mixture with Aloe vera, flour, or Epsom salts
(Lans et al., 2006). Another remedy was castor bean leaves (Ricinus communis)
quickly passed over a flame and wrapped around clay, which is used as a dressing on
the injured area. Alternatively, leaves of wonder of world (Kalanchoe pinnata) were
used to remove the “heat” from the injured leg.
The leaves, root, and seed oil of castor (Ricinus communis) are used as an anti-
rheumatic externally as a poultice in the Middle East (Marc et al., 2008). Extracts of
Herbal Medicines for Pet and Companion Animals 395

cayennne pepper, turmeric, horsetail, and Chinese skullcap are also widely used in
the Middle East, Asia, and the Mediterranean for arthritis and joint pain (rheuma-
tism). Cayenne pepper (Capsicum sp.) is mixed with olive oil to form a paste, which
could be rubbed onto the affected area. The capsaicinoids, acid amides isolated from
the fruits of Capsicum species, are commonly formulated into topical analgesics for
clinical use (Li et al., 2009). Turmeric (Curcuma longa), which is closely related to
another popular spice, ginger (Zingiber officinale), has been widely used either topi-
cally or orally in traditional Chinese medicine and ayurveda for the relief of pain
and inflammation (Anonymous, 2001). The curcuminoids, isolated from Curcuma
longa, have been shown to inhibit cyclooxygenase (Cox) enzymes (Cox-1 and Cox-2)
(Ramsewak, DeWitt, and Nair, 2000). In animal studies, curcumin was shown to
reduce levels of the inflammatory glycoprotein GpA-72, with a concomitant reduc-
tion in paw inflammation (Vitetta, Cicuttini, and Sali, 2008). Ginger, on the other
hand, has been known for its anti-inflammatory effects for centuries. This has now
been validated by research, which showed that gingerols inhibit prostaglandins and
leukotrienes (Ali et al., 2008). Ginger has been found to modulate some biochemi-
cal pathways activated in chronic inflammation (Grzanna, Lindmark, and Frondoza,
2005). It was found to inhibit the induction of several genes involved in the inflam-
matory response, and some of these genes encode cytokines, chemokines, and the
inducible enzyme Cox-2 (Grzanna, Lindmark, and Frondoza, 2005). Ginger extracts
have potent Cox-1 inhibitor effects (Williams and Lamprecht, 2008), but they also
have the tendency to increase proinflammatory cytokines. Ginger has been used in
horses and been shown to reduce postexercise recovery times.
Scutellaria baicalensis (Chinese skullcap) was found to have activity comparable to
the standard treatment in the arachidonic acid (AA)-induced mouse ear edema on topi-
cal application (Cuéllar et al., 2001). It is an important medicine in the Chinese phar-
macopoeia used for inflammation and as an antiviral, anticancer preparation (Li, Jiang,
and Chen, 2004). It contains several constituents (e.g., phenylethanoids, amino acids,
and a large variety of flavonoids). The flavones baicalein and baicalin were shown to be
responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity via free-radical scavenging or antagonizing
ligand-initiated Ca2+ influx leading to inhibited leukocyte adhesion (Shen et al., 2003).
Harpagophytum procumbens (devil’s claw) has validated anti-inflammatory activ-
ity that has been attributed to various iridoid glycosides and acetylated phenolic gly-
cosides (Williams and Lamprecht, 2008). Harpagoside, one of the glycosides, has
been shown to suppress Cox-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in vitro, but
not Cox-1 activity. It also has chrondroprotective effects. Most of the human clinical
studies reported reduced pain intensity and increased joint flexibility, and these stud-
ies have been used to justify the use of devil’s claw preparations in animals, particu-
larly horses. Pearson, McKee, and Clarke (1999) reported an anti-inflammatory effect
in horses due to a reduction of the prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) synovial fluid content.
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) has also been evaluated for use as an
anti-inflammatory and found to reduce both Cox-1 and Cox-2 levels (Williams and
Lamprecht, 2008). It is high in essential free fatty acids, particularly α-linolenic acid
and lignan-type phytoestrogens, of which the main component is secoisolaricires-
inol diglucoside (SDG) (Degenhardt, Habben, and Winterhalter, 2002). Flaxseed
extracts have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity due to
396 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

the presence of lignins and α-linolenic acid (Saleem et al., 2005). The primary use of
flaxseed is to improve hair and coat quality, which is particularly important in show
pets. It is commonly added into the newer scientifically formulated pet foods because
of the high concentration of α-linolenic acid and soluble and insoluble fiber, which
make it of high nutritional value.
Yucca schidigera, native to the southwestern United States and northern Mexico,
is traditionally used for treating pain (Cheeke, Piacvente, and Oleszek, 2006). It
has phenolics that inhibit nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), resulting in suppression
of nitric oxide, an inflammatory agent. Yucca extracts are currently used in feed
additives for livestock and poultry in the United States for their growth-promoting,
nematocidal, and antiprotozoal effects and in horses and dogs for antiarthritic indi-
cations (Cheeke, Piacvente, and Oleszek, 2006).
Arnica montana, native to central Europe and Scandinavia, is a popular homeo-
pathic remedy that has shown good effect in acute inflammation (Macêdo et al.,
2004). The sesquiterpene lactones were found to inhibit NFκB (Klaas et al., 2002).
Arnica preparations, however, should not be used on broken skin as it contains for-
mic acid and arnicine, which may cause cardiac damage and hepatoenteric inflam-
mation (Harman, 2002).

17.5 Herbs for Intestinal Worms


Helminths are an important cause of disease in both dog and horse, and infection
may result from in utero and in milk exposure in puppies or from environmental
exposure. For the latter, it may involve the active penetration of the immature lar-
vae into the skin of the animal (e.g., hookworm in dogs) or through the ingestion of
immature larvae during normal feeding or, in the case of dogs, through the ingestion
of beetles or lizards carrying the parasite. While most worms will be present in the
gastrointestinal tract, this is not always the case as some worms live in the blood, the
airways, and the trachea. Clinical signs in affected animals will vary according to
the location and type of parasites; for example, blood-sucking parasites tend to cause
severe anemia, while other worms cause loss of appetite, weight, and general health.
Lung worms cause coughing, while esophageal worms may cause nausea and vomit-
ing, among other symptoms.
The allopathic treatment of these animals is simply to deworm them with one of
many available commercial remedies. These remedies may be specific not only for
the parasite but also for the animal being treated.
Neem (Azadirachta indica) belongs to the Meliaceae family and widely used in
traditional medicine to treat various diseases including elimination of nematodes
(Biswas et al., 2002). It has also been shown to be effective against ectoparasites
such as Bovicola ovis (Heath et al., 1995) and Hyalomma anatolicum excava-
tum (Abdel-Shafy and Zayed, 2002). Leaf extracts of A. indica were shown to
have ovicidal and larvicidal actions against Haemonchus contortus (Costa et al.,
2008), while azadirachtin, a chemical compound extracted from A. indica seeds,
inhibited 68% of H. contortus egg hatchi. Ground leaves of neem are put into
food or water for dogs in Trinidad and Tobago for deworming purposes (Lans
et al., 2000).
Herbal Medicines for Pet and Companion Animals 397

Various other herbs have been cited. In Canada, wormwood (Artemisia absinthium),
rue (Ruta graveolens), peppermint (Mentha piperita), sage (Salvia officinalis), and mug-
wort (Artemisia vulgaris) are recommended for the control of endoparasites in pets,
while worm grass (Chenopodium ambrosioides) is used as an anthelmintic in horses
(Lans et al., 2006; Lans et al., 2007). Other remedies used in horses include aerial parts
of the elecampane (Inula helenium) or wormwood powdered and added to the feed daily
for 1 week. Alternatively, wormwood was given in equal combination with elecampane
(Inula helenium) and thyme (Thymus sp.). Artemisia species have a long history of use
from the time of the Roman Empire, when they were used for Ascaris, Enterobius, and
tapeworm infections (Grove, 1990). The sesquiterpene santonin from Artemisia has been
shown to be active against these worms but not against Oxyuris spp. and cestodes.
Papaya (pawpaw) preparations have a long history of use as human anthelmintic
remedies originating from South America (Behnke et al., 2008). Seeds of papaya
are used for human and farm animal intestinal worm treatment in the West Indies
and India (Quinlan, Quinlan, and Nolan, 2002), and extracts have shown in vitro
activity against Caenorhaditis elegans and other helminths (Wilson et al., 2002).
The anthelmintic activity of papaya, ficus (fig), and pineapple (Ananas comosus)
extracts is attributed to the actions of cysteine proteinase (CP) enzymes (Behnke
et al., 2008). Kermanshai et al. (2001) also suggested that benzyl isothiocyanate may
be the phytoconstituent responsible for activity.
A popular anthelmintic in livestock in Nordic countries stretching back to Greek
times is the powdered rhizome of the male fern (Dryopteris flix-mas) for the treat-
ment of tapeworm infections (Waller et al., 2001). Filicic acid has been identified as
the active compound.
Garlic extracts have shown broad antiparasitic activity against human and non­
human parasites. Allicin, diallyl trisulfide, and ajoene have activity against tropho-
zoite, protozoan, plasmodium, trypanosome, coccidian, and flagellate species, and
various mechanisms have been elucidated to explain this broad-spectrum effect
(Williams and Lamprecht, 2008).
Commonly consumed vegetables (e.g., carrot, brassica, pumpkin, and cucum-
ber seeds) also have a long history of use against intestinal worms (Waller et al.,
2001). Tanniferous plants have shown anthelmintic activity that has been attributed to
improved host resistance from better protein absorption as a result of tannin ingestion
or direct nematodicidal activity in both the animal and on the free-living fecal stage.
Feeding culinary herbs with medicinal properties to pets is also feasible, par-
ticularly if they are herbivores, for example, caraway (Carum carvi), parsley
(Petroselinium crispum), chicory (Cichorium intybis), chervil (Anthriscus cerefo-
lium), and dill (Anethum graveolens) (Waller et al., 2001) are used. Some of the spices
(e.g., caraway, thyme, and mint) have shown activity against Trichostronglus larvae
in vitro and in sheep. Their use in pets still has to be scientifically documented.

17.6 Herbs for Immunomodulation


The immune system is divided into B cell (which includes circulating antibodies
such as immnoglobulins [Igs] IgG, IgM, and IgE) and T cell or cell mediated (which
involves the lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen and operates via the helper, cytotoxic,
398 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

and suppressor cells) (Dodds, 2002). Immune modulators may have beneficial effects
in the prevention and treatment of cancer, infections, and inflammatory diseases
(Plaeger, 2003; Patwardhan and Gautam, 2005). There are various natural products
offered for immune support, such as Panax ginseng (ginseng), Artemisia annua
(annual wormwood), Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice), Uncaria tomentosa (cat’s claw),
Viscum album (common mistletoe), and Echinacea species, among others (Patwardhan
and Gautam, 2005). There is increasing interest in the use of herbal products for this
purpose in human medicine, but there is little or no research for equivalent veterinary
application.
Various compounds have been shown to influence immunostasis, among them the
phytosterols, lectins, polysaccharides, alkaloids, flavonoids, and terpenoids (Reis et al.,
2008; Mishra, Singh, and Dagenais, 2000; Shao et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2004). The
phytosterols have been shown to improve T-lymphocyte and natural killer cell actions.
In a clinical trial with cats infected with the feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV),
phytosterol-rich supplementation slowed the progression of the disease (Bouic, 1997).
Flavonoids are also known to play a part in immune modulation, although dif-
ferent ones may be immunosuppressive or immunostimulatory (Ielpo et al., 2000).
Quercetin, for example, has shown potent inhibition of the release of lysosomal
enzymes in polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs), which are also called neu-
trophils or granular leukocytes. The immunomodulatory effects of flavonoids are
linked to their antioxidizing effects (Ielpo et al., 2000)
The best-known herb for immune modulation is Echinacea (purple coneflower),
and it is used for the treatment of colds, coughs, and upper respiratory infections in
humans. Polysaccharides from Echinacea have been shown to increase phagocy-
tosis, chemotaxis, and the oxidative burst in neutrophils and macrophages in both
healthy and immunosuppressed animals (Dodds, 2002; Barrett, 2003). The use of
Echinacea in horses is now widespread and has been covered in Chapter 9.
Some mushroom species, such as Grifola frondosa (maitake), Ganoderma lucidum
(reishi), and Lentinula edodes (shitake), enhance macrophage and T-cell function
(Dodds, 2002; Shao et al., 2004). This immunostimulatory activity has been attributed
to polysaccharides and lectins (Singh, Singh, and Singh, 2004; Chen et al., 2004).
As discussed, the use of botanical immunodrugs is of immense interest in human
medicine but is hardly applied at all at the moment in veterinary medicine.

17.7 Herbs for Behavioral and Cognitive Disorders


Behavioral diseases in dogs and horses are wide ranging. They include disorders
such as excessive barking, aggression, noise phobia, separation anxiety, boredom
(wind sucking and crib biting), and so on. The management of these diseases usually
involves the blunting of the behavior of the animal through the use of specific seda-
tives, tranquilizers, or antidepressants. The role of behavioral modification through
nonmedical means has also been used as an alternate to medical management of
behavioral problems in patients.
One commonly used commercial remedy in the management of behavioral prob-
lems in cats and dogs is the homeopathic Rescue Remedy®, formulated by Edward
Bach in 1930 by mixing the essence of floral extracts of rock rose (Cistus spp.), star
Herbal Medicines for Pet and Companion Animals 399

of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum umbellatum), impatiens, cherry plum (Prunus ceras-


ifera), and clematis. At present, this commercial remedy is recommended for the
management of various behavioral problems, which include excessive barking in
dogs, stress due to being left alone, shock, trauma or mistreatment, anxiety when
adapting to new surroundings, and the fear of loud noises. The product is not specifi-
cally formulated for animals and as such is also sold for use in humans.
Canine cognitive dysfunction syndrome describes a neurological condition of
older dogs (>7 years) that is characterized by a gradual decline in learning, memory,
perception, and awareness and is akin to Alzheimer’s disease in humans (Landsberg,
2005). A number of different remedies have been recommended for the management
of this condition, extending from commercial ethical products to the use of dietary
supplements or complementary medicines.
Clinical trials have shown that nutraceutical supplementation can ameliorate
the effects of canine cognitive dysfunction (Heath, Barabas, and Craze, 2007;
Cotman et al., 2002). The protective effects of flavonoids and polyphenolic com-
pounds against neurodegenerative disease have been demonstrated in numer-
ous experimental animal models (e.g., dietary supplementation with spinach or
berry fruit have been reported to reduce neurological deficits in animal models)
(Ramassamy, 2006).
A specific commercial diet containing supplements is currently marketed by a
leading pet nutrition company following clinical trials indicating the value of the
diet in managing the condition. This formulation makes use of antioxidants and
mitochondrial cofactors as a means of improving antioxidant defenses and possi-
bly decreasing the toxic damage induced by free radicals specifically in the brain
(Cotman et al., 2002). The latter is important as the brain is particularly susceptible
to free-radical damage due to a combination of its rapid metabolism and its high
lipid content. Their diet is currently fortified with vitamins E and C, beta-carotene,
selenium, α-lipoic acid, flavonoids, and carotenoids of plant origin as antioxidants.
In addition to exerting an antioxidant action, flavonoid-rich extracts also lower
levels of NFκB and hence influence apoptosis and the regulation of cell signaling
(Ramassamy, 2006). In addition, L-carnitine and α-lipoic are included to enhance
mitochondrial function. In experiments with aged dogs, an antioxidant-rich diet was
shown to significantly reduce cognitive decline (Osella et al., 2007; Zicker, 2005).
A number of complementary therapies have also been recommended and include
melatonin, valerian root, phosphatidylserine, Gingko biloba, pyridoxine, and vita-
min E, vitamin B, ginseng, bilberry, α-lipoic acid, folic acid, n-acetylcysteine,
grapeseed, rosemary, sage, choline, lecithin, and essential fatty acids. As mentioned,
vitamin E, flavonoids, and carotenoids are most likely effective due to their antioxi-
dant effect, while the B vitamins may have a neuroprotective effect (Zicker, 2005).
Ginkgo biloba extracts (mainly the standardized form called EGb 761) are a mixture
of sesquiterpenes and flavonoids and possess a combination of antioxidant, antiamy-
loidogenic, and antiapoptotic effects that reduce cerebral ischemia, protect dopamin-
ergic neurons, and prevent amyloid β peptide toxicity (Ramassamy, 2006). Vitamin E
is important in maintaining neuronal integrity and preventing cell loss (Cantuti-
Castelvetri, Shukitt-Hale, and Joseph, 2000). However, studies are still ongoing to
establish whether this effect leads to improved behavioral and cognitive function.
400 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

α-Lipoic acid, a dithiol that exists in two enantiomeric forms, the naturally occur-
ring form (R) and the synthetic S, is a good scavenger of hydroxyl, peroxy radicals,
and nitric oxide (Cantuti-Castelvetri, Shukitt-Hale, and Joseph, 2000). It has been
shown to improve memory in aged mice and protect neurons in vitro against hypoxic,
glutamate-, and iron-induced insults. Phosphatidylserine, a phospholipid, has been
reported to improve memory and learning and to offer neuroprotection (Osella et al.,
2008). The fatty acids are required for maintenance of normal brain cell function,
most likely due to their structural importance for cell membrane integrity (Youdim,
Martin, and Joseph, 2000; Calon and Cole, 2007).

17.8 Herbs for Coughing


Coughing may be defined as the forced expiration of air from the lungs against a
closed glottis. Coughing in animals, as in humans, is controlled by the cough center
in the brain after a stimulus is conducted there through afferent fibers. The stimulus
for coughing arises from receptors in the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and
smaller airways through chemical or mechanical irritation (Anderson-Wessberg,
2005). The stimulation of these receptors can be vast and includes airway inflamma-
tion, mechanical irritation from congestive heart failure, allergic response, trauma,
and even parasitic diseases.
Allopathic management is diverse and depends on the etiology of the disease and
whether the cough is productive or dry. Airway inflammation in pets is most com-
monly caused by infectious agents such as viruses, fungi, bacteria, or mycoplasma.
The treatment of this relies on the use of pathogen-specific antimicrobial agents if
available. In addition, the degree of airway irritation may be eased through the use
of specific demulcents (e.g., pectin, glycerin, and honey) that soothe the irritated
mucosa and blunt the stimulus to cough. Common herbal demulcents include com-
frey (Symphytum officinale), corn silk (Zea mays), couchgrass (Agropyrum repens),
flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum), mallow (Malva sylvestris), oatmeal (Avena sativa),
and liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra).
Congestive heart failure may result in a persistent dry cough due to the increased
heart placing pressure on the aorta. Management of the diseased heart tends to alle-
viate the respiratory irritation. Central active antitussives, which inhibit the cough
center directly and include drugs such as diphenhydramine and codeine, may also
be of use.
Allergies in all animal species but notably the cat and horse may manifest as
coughs and sneezes. The management of allergies involves therapy with drugs
with various modes of action. This includes blunting of the histamine pathway
by using drugs such as antihistamines and mast cell stabilizers (the latter tend to
produce better results in horses than dogs), decreasing local inflammation by using
corticosteroids, and stimulating bronchodilation by using bronchodilators such as
the β2-agonists or the methylxanthines (e.g., theobromine and theophylline from
green tea Camellia sinensis).
Parasitic disease in the dog may result in coughing. The solution would be to
control the offending parasite with drugs.
Herbal Medicines for Pet and Companion Animals 401

In general, with coughs, the dry coughs should be treated with antitussive agents,
which act to inhibit the cough reflex in the cough center, while for productive coughs,
in which animals produce large qualities of phlegm, the cough can be managed
by allowing for better expression of the inspissated mucus. Treatments include the
expectorants, mucolytics, and simple nebulization with plain water.
There is little in the literature that addresses the use of medicinal plants in treat-
ing coughs and related conditions in domestic animals and pets. Lans et al. (2000)
documented some products used in Canada. A commercial herbal product con-
taining lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis), bioflavonoids, and vitamin K was rec-
ommended for the management of exercise-induced pulmonary congestion, while
elecampane (Inula helenium) mixed with cranberry bush (Virbunum opulus), root
of liquorice, and thyme (Thymus sp.) was used for the management of stable cough.
Another remedy for coughing included cloves of crushed garlic (Allium sativum)
added to the feed. Treatment for a runny nose included pure garlic powder and mul-
lein (Verbascum thapsus) fed in grain until recovery (Lans et al., 2000).

17.9 Pitfalls in the Use of Herbs for Companion Animals


The use of herbs is not without problems, as discussed in greater detail in the previous
chapters of this book. One of the biggest problems is that, despite their widespread
adoption, there are few clinical studies to validate herbal use in domestic animals. Much
of the use and evidence of use is adopted from anecdotal evidence and human uses. For
example, products containing aloe may be marketed variously for “detoxifying” or con-
stipation. This use is based on the human use of aloe powders as laxatives and purga-
tives. Similarly, devil’s claw (Harpagophytum procumbens) is marketed in combination
with glucosamine and chondroitin for arthritic and joint pain. Similar products have
been in use by humans for many decades. The lack of clinical studies presents problems
with selecting a rational and safe dosing regimen in the various target species.
With the burgeoning of the market in herbal products for companion animals,
there is increasing interest in clinical studies. One such study was described by Wynn
and Chalmers (2002). It was an intriguing clinical trial of a traditional Chinese med-
icine formula patented for atopic eczema in adult humans. When the product showed
good effect and few side effects, some of its constituent species were formulated into
a similar product for the same condition in dogs. It was found to be effective when
tested in a randomized clinical trial in dogs and has now been commercialized. This
example gives credence to those like Mathias and Perezgrovas (1997), who argued
that because of the overlap between medicinal plants used for humans and animals,
the pharmacognosy of many ethnoveterinary plants is already well studied in the
human context and therefore does not have to be repeated in animals.
The adverse effects of commonly used herbs should also be of concern, and
there is a need to generate good pharmacovigilence data in this regard. Herbal
products with chamomile, echinacea, garlic, ginger, and so on have all been shown
to have some adverse effects in humans (Miller, 1998), but few studies have docu-
mented such effects in animals. The use of garlic may affect spermatogenesis and
decrease platelet aggregation, ginkgolide B from Ginkgo biloba is a potent inhibitor
402 Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

of platelet-activating factor, and ingestion has resulted in hematoma in an elderly


man, while the persistent use of echinacea may increase the risk of hepatotoxicity
(Miller, 1998). Herb–drug interactions are also important considerations that may
limit the use of herbal products. Ginger, garlic, and gingko have been shown to
enhance the anticoagulant effects of aspirin and warfarin, while tannin-rich herbs
such as chamomile, hawthorn, and green tea may reduce iron absorption (Miller,
1998).
One of the greatest pitfalls in the use of veterinary botanicals (and herbal medi-
cine in general) is the ever-present risk of opportunistic quackery (Schillhorn van
Veen, 1997). This results in the marketing of products that may be unsafe or with-
out any proven anecdotal or scientific efficacy. Much of the marketing peddles the
mysticism that is associated with traditional herbal use in humans (e.g., ayurverda or
homeopathy). However, evidence to support these uses remains elusive. Unscrupulous
botanical manufacturers and traders abound because the regulatory regime of com-
mercial herbal products is still in its infancy in many territories, and many phyto-
medicines are classified as dietary supplements.
This lack of regulation of the CAM sector has led to confusion. In the United
Kingdom, herbal remedies are classified as either licensed veterinary “herbal
medicines” or “herbal supplements,” and their advertising, labeling, and selling
are proscribed by law. Herbal medicines are licensed by the Veterinary Medicines
Directorate, a government agency, and treated the same as allopathic drugs; herbal
supplements, on the other hand, cannot make a therapeutic claim.
There are also other potential problems, such as the identity and authenticity of
herbs used not being verified or confirmed. Further adulteration, especially of high-
value raw materials, has been documented in several studies. Such adulteration ren-
ders the product inefficacious or, worse, toxic (Ernst, 2002).
Contamination of herbs with heavy metals, bacteria, mycotoxins, and phar-
maceuticals have all been reported in the past. Contamination with arsenic, cad-
mium, and lead have been reported in African (Obi, Akunyili, and Orisakwe,
2006), European (Arpadjan et al., 2008), and Asian (Ernst, 2002) herbal prod-
ucts. Undeclared pharmaceuticals (e.g., antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, etc.)
have also been shown to be common contaminants in botanicals. The adulteration
may be intentional and aimed at increasing potency or accidental (Ernst, 2002).
Contamination with mycotoxins, which are potent mutagenic and carcinogenic
compounds or which may be estrogenic and have neurotoxic effects, is also of
major concern (Katerere et al., 2008). Animals are particularly prone to acute
mycotoxicosis.

17.10 Conclusion
Ethnoveterinary research in the pet industry will become increasingly important in the
future. This is mainly because of a shift in human–pet relations (the so-called human-
ization trend) that started in the United States and Europe and now is occurring in the
emerging markets of China and India, where the nouveau riche regard pets as part of
the family and spending and self-medication habits for pets increasingly mirror those
of the owners (Reportbuyer, 2009). The pet industry is a major segment of the U.S.
Herbal Medicines for Pet and Companion Animals 403

economy and is estimated to be worth US$45 billion in 2009, having doubled in value
since 1998 (American Pet Products Association, 2009). Nearly 90% of this money is
spent on food and medicines, and as with humans, there is a trend toward functional,
condition-specific, or novel ingredient types of foods.
While commonality of use in animals mirrors that of herbal drug therapy in peo-
ple, their use needs to be scientifically validated. This is important to rule out factors
such as species-specific toxicity and to eradicate noneffective medication and quack-
ery. There is widespread acceptance among veterinarians and pet owners regarding
the use of herbal products, but there is a need for greater regulatory oversight to
ensure safety and quality.

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Ethnoveterinary
Botanical Medicine
Herbal Medicines for Animal Health
Ethnoveterinary
Botanical Medicine
Herbal Medicines for Animal Health

Edited by
David R. Katerere n Dibungi Luseba
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC


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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ethnoveterinary botanical medicine : herbal medicines for animal health / edited by


David R. Katerere and Dibungi Luseba.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4200-4560-4 (alk. paper)
1. Herbs--Therapeutic use. 2. Alternative veterinary medicine. 3. Traditional
veterinary medicine. 4. Ethnobotany. I. Katerere, David R. II. Luseba, Dibungi.
[DNLM: 1. Animal Diseases--drug therapy. 2. Phytotherapy--veterinary. 3. Medicine,
Traditional. 4. Plants, Medicinal. SF 918.H47 E84 2010]

SF918.H47.E84 2010
636.089’5321--dc22 2009043655

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at


http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at


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Dedication

To those who went before us,


their knowledge makes us who we are,
and those who will tread after us
that they may keep and own it, too.
Contents
Foreword....................................................................................................................ix
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................xi
Contributors............................................................................................................ xiii

Chapter 1. Methods for Evaluating Efficacy of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal


Plants.....................................................................................................1
Lyndy J. McGaw and Jacobus N. Eloff

Chapter 2. Logistical and Legal Considerations in Ethnoveterinary


Research..............................................................................................25
Mary Chikombero and Dibungi Luseba

Chapter 3. Phytochemical Methods...................................................................... 43


Bukirwa Irene Kamara

Chapter 4. Preclinical Safety Testing of Herbal Remedies................................... 69


Vinny Naidoo and Jurgen Seier

Chapter 5. Revitalizing Ethnoveterinary Medical Traditions:


A Perspective from India..................................................................... 95
M. N. Balakrishnan Nair and P. M. Unnikrishnan

Chapter 6. Inventory of Traditional Veterinary Botanicals from around


the World........................................................................................... 125
Zafar Iqbal and Abdul Jabbar

Chapter 7. The Current Status and Future Prospects of Medicinal and


Aromatic Plants in Veterinary Health Care in Southeast Asia......... 165
Shanmugavelu Sithambaram, Murugaiyah Marimuthu, and
Chandrawathani Panchadcharam

Chapter 8. Evidence-Based Botanicals in North America................................. 195


Wendy Pearson and Michael I. Lindinger

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 9. The Medicinal Use of Native North American Plants


in Domestic Animals......................................................................... 213
Ronette Gehring and Kelly Kindscher

Chapter 10. Plants Used in Animal Health Care in South and Latin
America: An Overview..................................................................... 231
Rômulo Romeu da Nóbrega Alves, Raynner Rilke Duarte
Barboza, and Wedson de Medeiros Silva Souto

Chapter 11. Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Southern Africa................................. 257


Viola Maphosa, Peter Tshisikhawe, Kaizer Thembo,
and Patrick Masika

Chapter 12. Ethnoveterinary Plants Used in East Africa..................................... 289


John B. Githiori and Peter K. Gathumbi

Chapter 13. Herbal Medicines for Animal Health in the Middle East
and North Africa (MENA) Region................................................... 303
Laïd Boukraa, Hama Benbarek, and Mokhtar Benhanifia

Chapter 14. Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock


Management in West Africa............................................................. 321
Ifeanyi Charles Okoli, Hamidou Hamadou Tamboura,
and Mawena Sylvie Hounzangbe-Adote

Chapter 15. Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine......................................... 353


Lida Teng, Debbie Shaw, and Joanne Barnes

Chapter 16. Ethnoveterinary Medical Practice in the European Union (EU):


A Case Study of the Netherlands...................................................... 373
Tedje van Asseldonk

Chapter 17. Herbal Medicines for Pet and Companion Animals......................... 389
David R. Katerere and Vinny Naidoo
Index.......................................................................................................................409
Foreword
From before written history, plants have been known as sources of medicines for
treating human beings. In practically every human culture, there exists a vast trea-
sury of information of this type, and in some civilizations, notably in China and
India, this has developed into a sophisticated system of diagnosis, treatment, and
preparation of the medicine.
As far as “Western” scientific medicine is concerned, natural substances were,
and still are, the source of many isolated chemicals that are incorporated as the
active constituents into familiar pharmaceutical dosage forms such as tablets, cap-
sules, injections, and topical applications such as creams and ointments. The rise and
application of pharmaceutical chemistry enlarged the potential of naturally occur-
ring compounds for use as drugs since they could also be used as “lead molecules” to
improve their efficacy or reduce toxicity by chemical manipulation of the structures.
Traditional plant-based extracts became very marginal in most countries where “sci-
entific” medicine became the norm.
However, in spite of the undoubted successes of such a scientific approach to phar-
maceuticals, the last few decades have witnessed a spectacular rise in interest and
use of “herbal medicinal products” (i.e., plant material or its crude extracts) in those
places where sophisticated technologically advanced medicine was common, as well
as in countries where it has long formed the mainstay of medicines used by ordinary
people. This general interest has been followed by increasing scientific and commer-
cial interest in traditional medicines, and in 1967 the term ethnopharmacology was
coined to describe the scientific discipline investigating the use of these products.
Since that time, scientific investigations in this area have grown apace, as wit-
nessed by the success of scientific journals such as Journal of Ethnopharmacology
and Phytotherapy Research, as well as by good attendance at international confer-
ences dealing with such matters and introduction of university courses. This has
been fueled partly by the pharmaceutical industry seeking new lead compounds but
also by an awakened interest and patrimonial pride in their traditions by many coun-
tries emerging from their colonial past. At one level, such research gives substance
to traditional claims and reinforces the value of the cultural heritage, but if it dem-
onstrates efficacy and safety, it might also lead to substitutes for expensive imported
Western drugs. Since Western drugs are often beyond economic or geographical
reach of many of the inhabitants of these places anyway, scientific study can also lay
the basis for improving the quality of the traditional remedies, thus providing better
grounds for efficacy and safety.
As far as the industrially developed countries are concerned, intensive farming
has been widely practiced but has raised not only food production, but also many
ethical and health concerns, giving rise to the “organic” preference of many consum-
ers. Hence, the investigation of these traditional “natural” medicines might provide
alternatives to current treatments of animals that have caused much concern, such
as the widespread use of antibiotics in young animals, producing residues in food

ix
x Foreword

and thereby the buildup of resistance in humans and other animals. The entry into
the food chain of hormones and other steroids for building muscles and stimulating
growth may affect human metabolism and health. The study of traditional medicines
might provide compounds or extracts with novel structures or different mechanisms
of action, with less-acute or chronic side effects, which would make good substitutes
for the currently used drugs that are raising concern.
This interesting, and in some ways surprising, explosion of scientific interest
and study into traditional materials for helping human health care has only fairly
recently been enlarged to encompass use of traditional medicines for treating ani-
mals. Urbanized and relatively affluent members of society have a mainly emotional
attachment to domestic “companion” animals, on which they are willing to spend
considerable amounts of money, and it is not surprising that herbal products to treat
domestic animals sell well. However, it should not be forgotten that, for most rural
parts of the world, animals are important sources and symbols of wealth and liveli-
hood. When the animal becomes sick or dies, it may mean the loss of transport, aid
to farming, dairy products, meat, and other products such as wool or hair, which
provide extra income or clothing. The death of a single animal may spell the begin-
ning of poverty for a whole family.
It is therefore not surprising that in many societies there is a pharmacopoeia of
substances used to treat livestock and poultry. The growing interest in this from sci-
entists was reflected in a session dedicated to veterinary ethnopharmacology at the
Congress of the International Society for Ethnopharmacology in São Paulo, Brazil,
in September 2008. This book is another indication and is the first, to my knowledge,
to bring together a considerable amount of information about ethnoveterinary medi-
cines from a wide variety of countries. As well as listing plants used, the conditions
for which they are used, and the ways that the plant material is treated prior to use,
this book covers useful topics such as general research methods for testing claimed
effects and safety and the chemical examination of extracts. The inclusion of a chap-
ter on benefit sharing is particularly praiseworthy since it is all too easy for a culture
to have its traditional knowledge “stolen” to be used commercially by an outside
body that returns no benefits.
Dr. Katerere and Dr. Luseba have been fortunate enough to persuade leading
authorities in this field to contribute chapters, and I am sure that it not only will prove
to be a valuable reference source but also will stimulate further research into this
fascinating area, with the end result of improving not only the health of animals and
domestic birds, but also the well-being of their owners and farmers.

Peter Houghton
Emeritus Professor in Pharmacognosy,
Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Division,
King’s College London
Editor, Journal of Ethnopharmacology
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank God for seeing this project through and for the support of PROMEC
Unit, South African Medical Research Council (MRC) and Tshwane University of
Technology (TUT), our employers. We are much obliged to Trish Flaster, Dr. Ronette
Gehring, and Nontuthuko Chamane for proofreading edits and providing some much
needed peer review and scientific input.
We also want to thank John Sulzycki, our editor, and Pat Roberson and Stephanie
Morkert, our project coordinators, and many other dedicated people at Taylor &
Francis, none of whom we have met physically, but who have expertly guided this
project and brought to our dreams to fruition.
We acknowledge the immense contribution that all the authors who are part of
this book have made. Without them, this book would not have known the light of
day, and we hope that this project will be the start of further collaborations among
them in the future.
Last, we thank our families for the obvious sacrifices they have had to make dur-
ing the duration of this project. Tinotenda.

xi
Contributors
Joanne Barnes Raynner Rilke Duarte Barboza
School of Pharmacy Pós-Graduação em Ciência e Tecnologia
University of Auckland Ambiental
Auckland, New Zealand Universidade Estadual da Paraíba
Campina Grande
Hama Benbarek Paraíba, Brazil
Department of Veterinary Sciences Jacobus N. Eloff
Faculty of Agro-Veterinary Sciences Phytomedicine Programme
Ibn-Khaldoune University of Tiaret Faculty of Veterinary Sciences
Tiaret, Algeria University of Pretoria
Onderstepoort, Republic of South Africa
Mokhtar Benhanifia
Department of Veterinary Sciences Peter K. Gathumbi
Faculty of Agro-Veterinary Sciences Department of Veterinary Pathology,
Ibn-Khaldoune University of Tiaret Microbiology, and Parasitology
Tiaret, Algeria University of Nairobi
Nairobi, Kenya
Laïd Boukraa Ronette Gehring
Department of Veterinary Sciences Department of Clinical Sciences
Faculty of Agro-Veterinary Sciences (Agricultural Practices)
Ibn-Khaldoune University of Tiaret College of Veterinary Medicine
Tiaret, Algeria Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas, USA
Mary Chikombero
Marine and Coastal Management John B. Githiori
Department of Environment and International Livestock Research
Tourism Institute (ILRI)
Cape Town, Republic of South Africa Nairobi, Kenya

Mawena Sylvie Hounzangbe-Adote


Wedson de Medeiros Silva Souto Animal Production Department
Bolsista do DAAD (Deutscher Faculty of Agricultural Sciences
Akademischer Austausch Dienst) Cotonou University of Agriculture
Programa Regional de Pós-Graduação Cotonou, Benin Republic
em Desenvolvimento e Meio
Ambiente (PRODEMA) Zafar Iqbal
Universidade Estadual da Paraíba Department of Veterinary Parasitology
Campina Grande University of Agriculture
Paraíba, Brazil Faisalabad, Pakistan

xiii
xiv Contributors

Abdul Jabbar Lyndy J. McGaw


Department of Veterinary Parasitology Phytomedicine Programme
University of Agriculture Faculty of Veterinary Sciences
Faisalabad, Pakistan University of Pretoria
Onderstepoort, Republic of South Africa
Bukirwa Irene Kamara
Sasol Technology (Pty) Limited Vinny Naidoo
Sasolburg, Republic of South Africa Department of Paraclinical Studies
Faculty of Veterinary Sciences
David R. Katerere University of Pretoria
PROMEC Unit/SAMRC Onderstepoort, Republic of South Africa
Cape Town, Republic of South Africa
M. N. Balakrishnan Nair
Kelly Kindscher Foundation for Revitalisation of Local
Kansas Biological Survey Health Traditions (FRLHT)
College of Veterinary Medicine Bangalore, India
Kansas State University
Ifeanyi Charles Okoli
Manhattan, Kansas, USA
Department of Animal Science and
Technology
Michael I. Lindinger
Federal University of Technology
Department of Human Health and
Oweer, Nigeria
Nutritional Sciences
University of Guelph Chandrawathani Panchadcharam
Guelph, Canada Veterinary Research Institute
Ipoh, Perak
Dibungi Luseba Malaysia
Department of Animal Sciences
Tshwane University of Technology Wendy Pearson
Pretoria, Republic of South Africa CanTox Health Sciences International
Mississauga, Canada
Viola Maphosa
Agricultural and Rural Development Rômulo Romeu da Nóbrega Alves
Research Institute (ARDRI) Departamento de Biologia
University of Fort Hare Universidade Estadual da Paraíba
Alice, Republic of South Africa Campina Grande
Paraíba, Brazil
Murugaiyah Marimuthu
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Jurgen Seier
University Putra Malaysia Primate Unit/SAMRC
Serdang Selangor, Malaysia Cape Town, Republic of South Africa

Patrick Masika Debbie Shaw


Agricultural and Rural Development Traditional and Herbal Medicine
Research Institute (ARDRI) Medical Toxicology Unit
University of Fort Hare Guy’s and St Thomas’ Hospital Trust
Alice, Republic of South Africa London, UK
Contributors xv

Shanmugavelu Sithambaram Peter Tshisikhawe


Strategic Livestock Research Centre Department of Biological Sciences
MARDI University of Venda for Science and
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Technology
Thohoyandou, Republic of South
Hamidou Hamadou Tamboura
Africa
INERA-CNRST
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Lida Teng P. M. Unnikrishnan
Centre for Pharmacognosy and Foundation for Revitalisation of Local
Phytotherapy Health Traditions (FRLHT)
School of Pharmacy Bangalore, India
University of London
London, UK
Kaizer Thembo Tedje van Asseldonk
School of Pharmacy Institute for Ethnobotany and
University of Limpopo Zoopharmacognosy (IEZ)
Turfloop, Republic of South Africa DG Beek-Ubbergen, The Netherlands

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