MANUFACTURING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY- I

Introduction
Manufacturing, in the broadest sense, is the process of converting raw materials into products; it includes

 Design of the product

 Selection of raw materials and
 The sequence of processes through which the product will be manufactured.

Manufacturing is extremely important for the national and global economies.

Manufacturing may produce discrete products, meaning individual parts or pieces, such as nails, rivets,
gears, steel balls, and beverage cans. On the other hand, wire, sheet metal, tubing, and pipe are continuous
products that may be cut into individual parts and thus become discrete products.

Manufacturing is generally a complex activity involving people who have a broad range of disciplines
and skills, together with a wide variety of machinery, equipment, and tools with various levels of
automation and controls, including computers, robots and material-handling equipment. Manufacturing
activity must be responsive to several demands and trends:

i) A product must fully meet design requirements and specifications and standards.
ii) It must be manufactured economically and by environmental friendly methods.
iii)Production methods must be sufficiently flexible to respond to changes
iv) New materials, methods and integration with computers must be continuously evaluated and
adopted.
v) Manufacturers should work with customers for timely feedback.
vi) Constantly strive for higher productivity.

Selecting Manufacturing Processes

Wide range of manufacturing processes is used to produce a variety of parts, shapes, and sizes. Also there
is usually more than one method of manufacturing a part. Each of these processes has its own advantages,
disadvantages, limitations, production rates and cost. The broad categories of processing methods for
materials can be listed as follows:

• Casting: Expendable molding and permanent molding

• Forming and Shaping: Rolling, Forging, Extrusion, Drawing, Sheet Forming, Powder
metallurgy, molding.
• Machining: Turing, Boring, Drilling, Milling, Planing, Shaping, Broaching, Grinding, Ultrasonic
machining, chemical, electrical, and electro chemical machining, and high energy beam
machining.
1
 • Joining: Welding, Brazing, Diffusion Bonding, Adhesive bonding, and mechanical joining.
• Micro-manufacturing and Nano-manufacturing: Surface micromachining, dry and wet
etching and electroforming.
• Finishing: Honing, Lapping, Polishing, Burnishing, Deburring, Surface Treating, Coating and
plating.

It should be noted that no component can be produced entirely by one single category of manufacturing
process For ex: Coin preparation: Ingots or plates are cast, rolled into sheets, and blanked in presses and
coated, if necessary.

All manufacturing processes can be grouped into 2 major categories:

i. Primary manufacturing processes: Involved in the initial breakdown of the original material
to shapes that can be processed into final products. Ex: Casting Rolling, Extrusion, etc
ii. Secondary manufacturing processes: These processes take the products of some primary
process and change the geometry and properties to the semi-finished or finished stage. Ex:
metal removing processes, metal forming processes.

The selection of a manufacturing process depends on

i. Type and nature of the starting material
ii. Volume of production
iii. Expected quality and properties of the material
iv. Technical viability of the process
v. Economy
vi. Geometrical shape, jigs, fixtures, gauges, equipment available
vii. Delivery dates

2
 UNIT I
METAL CASTING PROCESSES

Sand casting – Sand moulds - Type of patterns – Pattern materials – Pattern allowances – Types of
Moulding sand – Properties – Core making – Methods of Sand testing – Moulding machines – Types
of moulding machines - Melting furnaces – Working principle of Special casting processes – Shell –
investment casting – Ceramic mould – Lost Wax process – Pressure die casting – Centrifugal casting –
CO2 process – Sand Casting defects.

Casting
Casting is one of the oldest methods and was first used around 4000 B.C. to make ornaments,
arrowheads, and various other objects. Casting is the process of producing metal parts by pouring molten
metal into the mould cavity of the required shape and allowing the metal to solidify. The solidified metal
piece is called as “casting”. This process is capable of producing intricate shapes in a single piece,
ranging in size from very large to very small, including those with internal cavities. Typical cast products
are engine blocks, cylinder heads, transmission housings, pistons, turbine disks, railroad and automotive
wheels etc. The steps in this process are :

1. Place a pattern, having the shape of the desired casting, in sand to create a mold.
2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
5. Allow the metal to cool.
6. Break away the sand mold
7. Remove the casting and finishing it.
8. Inspect and testing
9. Removal of defects if any
10. Heat treatment for stress relief
11. Inspect the casting
12. Ready for use.

3
SAND CASTING

Types of Sand Mold Casting Process:

 Hand Molding:- Bench (small objects), Floor (Medium sized castings), and Pit molding
(heavy)
 Machine Molding:

Example of hand molding operation- using two molding boxes

Casting Terms
1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by various
names such as drag - lower molding flask, cope - upper molding flask, cheek – intermediate
molding flask used in three piece molding.
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the help
of pattern.
3. Parting Line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the mold.
4. Bottom Board: This is a board normally made of wood which is used at the start of the mould
making. The pattern is first kept on the bottom board, sand is sprinkled on it and then the
ramming is done in the drag.
5. Molding Sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a
mixture of silica sand, clay and moisture in appropriate proportions.
6. Facing Sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the
mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
7. Backing Sand: it is what constitutes most of the refractory material found in the mould. This is
made up of used and burnt sand.

4
 8. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create
openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
9. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal
is poured.
10. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mold
cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.
11. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
12. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
13. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its own
weight and overcome the metallostatic force.
14. Chill: These are metallic objects which are placed in the mould to increase the cooling rate
of castings to provide uniform or desired cooling rate.
15. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and
solidifies. Also known as "feed head".
16. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases

Sand Molding Methods

Green Sand Molding:

It involves ramming sand around a pattern inside a container called flask. The various steps are:

1. The bottom half of the flask (drag) is placed upside down on a molding board and then drag half
of the pattern is placed inside the flask.
2. Parting Compound is dusted over the exposed surface. A layer of sand is riddled over the pattern
and rammed. The drag is then filled, rammed and struck off.
3. Bottom board is placed on the drag and they are turned over. Molding board is removed and the
top (cope) half of the flask is positioned using aligning pins. The cope half of the pattern is
inserted.
4. Gating system is formed using sprue and riser pins. Risers and sprues are formed during ramming
of the cope. Runners or gates are also formed during the molding process. The sprue is an
opening through which the metal enters, the runner leads the metal into the mold cavity and the
gate controls the floor of the metal into the cavity. Riser is a reservoir connected to the cavity,
which provides metal during solidification and for offsetting shrinkage, Venting is often done at
this point.
5. The flask is separated and the two pattern halves are removed. Cores needed for added details are
placed in the mold cavities.
6. Mold is closed and metal is poured slowly into the mold and allowed to solidify.
7. The mold is destroyed to recover the casting.

5
 Dry Sand Molding

It is similar to green sand molding except that a different sand mixture is used and all parts of the mold
are dried in an oven before being reassembled for casting. The green sand retains its shape depending
upon moisture and the natural clay binder in the sand. But he sand used in dry sand molds depends upon
added binding materials such as resin, clay, molasses and flour.

The materials are mixed thoroughly and tempered with thin clay water. The amount of binder is
determined by the size of the casting. Metal flasks are used to withstand heat in the oven.

Before drying, the inside surfaces of a dry sand mold are coated with wet blacking, a mixture of carbon
black and water, with a small addition of gum, to smoothen the surface of the casting.

Skin Dried Molding

This is similar to dry sand molding but instead of the whole mold, the skin of the mold, to a depth of 0.5
inch is dried using gas torches or heaters. Method is applicable for very large molds.

General Steps in Making Sand Castings process

There are six basic steps in making sand castings: 1. Patternmaking 2. Core making 3. Molding
4.Melting and pouring 5. Cleaning

PATTERN
Pattern is a replica of the product needed, with some allowances to compensate for the solidification and
withdrawal of pattern after preparing the mold. The quality of the casting mainly depends on the material
of the pattern, dimensional allowances given and technology used for pattern making.

Various factors affecting the selection of pattern materials are:

1. Accuracy and surface finish requirements in the casting ( Metal and plastic patterns used)
2. Type of casting process and molding methods (machine molding- metal patterns, loam molding-
plaster of Paris)
3. Possibility of frequent design changes (economical pattern-wood)
4. Number of casting to be produced (more quantity-repeated usage- metal pattern)
5. Intricacy of the casting (complicated shapes- metal pattern).

6
 Requirements of a good pattern:

Easily available, Hard and durable,

Easy to machine, Dimensionally stable,
Light weight, Repairable and reusable,
Strong Facilitate good surface finish after machining

PATTERN MATERIALS

Sl.No Pattern material and properties Advantages Limitations

1 Wood- Widely used when small Cheaper, easy to work, takes good Cannot be used in
numbers of castings are made. Teak surface finish and light in weight. machine molding as
wood, mahogany and easily affec ted by
impregnated wood laminates are moisture and abrasion
used of sand.
Metal: Used when large number of Dimensional stability, accuracy Costly, heavier than
castings are needed. The metal and strength. Not affected by wooden pattern and
pattern is itself cast from a wooden moisture. Used for machine relatively difficult to
pattern called master pattern. molding work.
Cast-Iron Strong, takes smooth surface, Heavy, easily broken
resistance to abrasion rusted by moister
Brass Strong, does not rust, takes good Costlier, heavier
surface finish and withstands wear
and tear
2 Aluminium Light, easy to work, resistant to Soft and easily
corrosion, melts at low damaged
temperature, takes good surface
finish, more accuracy
White Metal -Used for making Low melting point, dimensionally Soft and easily
complicated and fine shapes in die- stable, can cast intricate shapes damaged
casting process
3 Plastic:- Cast from master wood Does not absorb moisture, strong
pattern. Both thermosetting plastics and dimensionally stable, ability to
and thermoplastic are used. acquire glossy surface, light in
Thermoplastics can be reused but weight and resistance to wear and
not thermosetting plastics. tear. Can be withdrawn without
affecting the mold.
4 Rubber:- Dies for forming
operations are normally done used
for investment castings. Silicon
rubber is commonly used.
5 Plaster- plaster of paris Has high compressive strength ( Can be used for small
300kg/sqm). Need a master pattern patterns only.
6 Wax: Excellent material for Takes a high degree of surface
investment casting. Additives are finish. High tensile strength,
used for polymerizing and hardness and weld strength.
stabilizing.

7
PATTERN ALLOWANCES
To compensate for any dimensional and structural changes which will happen during the casting
or patterning process, allowances are usually made in the pattern. A pattern is different from the casting in
dimensions and shape. The various allowances given in patterns to obtain the correct size and shape in the
finished casting are:
1. Shrinkage allowance
2. Distortion allowance
3. Finish allowance
4. Shake allowance
5. Draft allowance

Shrinkage allowance

As the molten metal solidifies, it shrinks and contracts in size. To compensate for this, the pattern
is made larger than the required casting by giving contraction / shrinkage allowances. This is done by
using shrinkage/ contraction rule like 10 mm/m length of the casting. Different materials has
different/varying shrinkages hence according to the metal, it will be applied on pattern making.

Draft allowance

When the pattern is to be removed from the sand mold, there is a possibility that any leading
edges may break off, or get damaged in the process. To avoid this, a taper is provided on the pattern, so as
to facilitate easy removal of the pattern from the mold, and hence reduce damage to edges. The taper
angle provided is called the Draft angle. The value of the draft angle depends upon the complexity of the
pattern, the type of molding (hand molding or machine molding), height of the surface, etc. Draft
provided on the casting 1 to 3 degrees on external surface ( 5 to 8 internal castings).

Machining/ Finishing allowance

Rough surfaces of casting are to be machined to get exact dimension, surface finish etc. Extra
metal provided on the surfaces is called machine finish allowance. Amount of machine finish allowance
depends on

1. Type of metal used in casting

2. Size and shape of pattern
3. Method of moulding

Shake allowance
Usually during removal of the pattern from the mold cavity, the pattern is rapped all around the faces, in
order to facilitate easy removal. In this process, the final cavity is enlarged. To compensate for this, the
8
 pattern dimensions need to be reduced. There are no standard values for this allowance, as it is heavily
dependent on the personnel. This allowance is a negative allowance, and a common way of going around
this allowance is to increase the draft allowance.

Distortion or Camber Allowance

Sometimes castings, because of their size, shape

and type of metal, tend to warp or distort during
the cooling period depending on the cooling
speed. This is due to the uneven shrinkage of
different parts of the casting. Expecting the
amount of warpage, a pattern may be made with
allowance of warpage. It is called camber.

TYPES OF PATTERNS

There are various types of patterns depending upon the complexity of the job, the number of castings
required and the molding procedure adopted.

Single Piece Pattern

The one piece or single pattern is the most inexpensive of all types
of patterns. This type of pattern is used only in cases where the job is
very simple and does not create any withdrawal problems. It is also used
for application in very small-scale production or in prototype
development. This type of pattern is expected to be entirely in the drag
and one of the surfaces is expected to be flat which is used as the parting
plane. A gating system is made in the mold by cutting sand with the help
of sand tools. If no such flat surface exists, the molding becomes complicated

Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern

Split or two piece pattern is most widely used type of pattern for intricate castings. It is split along the
parting surface, the position of
which is determined by the shape
of the casting. One half of the
patternis molded in drag and the
other half in cope. The two halves
of the pattern must be aligned
properly bymaking use of the
dowel pins, which are fitted, to the
cope half of the pattern. These dowel pins match with the precisely made holes in the drag half of the
pattern.

Gated Pattern
This is an improvement over the simple pattern where the gating and runner system are integral with the
pattern. This would eliminate the hand cutting of the runners and gates and help in improving the
productivity of a molder.

9
Cope and Drag Pattern
These are similar to split patterns. In addition to splitting the pattern, the cope and drag halves of the
pattern along with the gating and risering systems are attached separately to the metal or wooden plates
along with the alignment pins. The cope and drag moulds may be produced using these patterns
separately by two molders but they can be assembled to form a complete mould. These types of patterns
are used for castings which are heavy and inconvenient for handling as also for continuous production.

Match Plate Pattern

These are generally used for small castings with higher dimensional accuracy and large production.
Several patterns can be fixed to a single match plate, if they are sufficiently small in size. These are used
for machine molding.

Loose Piece Pattern

This type of pattern is used when the contour of

the part is such that withdrawing the pattern from
the mould is not possible. Hence during moulding
the obstructing part of the contour is held as a
loose piece by a wire. After molding is over, first
the main pattern is removed and then loose pieces
are recovered through the gap generated by
the main pattern. Molding with loose pieces is a
highly skilled job and is generally expensive and
therefore, should be avoided wherever possible.

Follow Board Pattern

This type of pattern is adopted for

those castings where there are
some portions which are
structurally weak and if not
supported properly are likely to
break under the force of ramming.
Hence the bottom board is
modified as a follow board to
closely fit the contour of the weak pattern and thus support it during the ramming of the drag.
10
 Sweep Pattern

It is used to sweep the complete casting by means of a plane sweep. These are used for generating
largeshapes which are axi-symmetrical or prismatic in nature such as bell shaped or cylindrical. This
greatlyreduces the cost of a three dimensional pattern. It is suitable for very large castings such as the
bells forornamental purposes used which are generally cast in pit moulds..

Skeleton Pattern

It is made of strips of wood and is used for building the final pattern by packing sand around the skeleton.
After packing the sand, the desired form is made with the help of a strickle. This type of pattern is useful
for large castings, required in small quantities where large expense on complete wooden pattern is
not justified.

MOLDING SAND

Molding sand is principle raw material used in sand molding because it possesses several
major characteristics. Sand is formed by the breaking up of rocks due to the action of natural forces such
as frost, wind rain, heat and water currents. The principle ingredients of molding sand are:

1. Silica sand grains

2. Clay
3. Moisture
4. Miscellaneous materials

11
Silica sand grains

Silica sand grains are the basic components of the molding sand. Molding sand contains 80-90% of silica,
silica is obtained from quartz rocks or by decomposition of granite composed of quartz and feldspar.
Silicon oxide imparts refractoriness, chemical receptivity and permeability.

Clay

Clay can be defined as those particles (below 20 µm in dia.) that fail to settle at a rate of 25 µm per
minute, when suspended in water. It holds the sand together (bonds). The bonding depends on amount
and quality of clay- normally 5 -20% of clay is used.

Moisture:

Clay imparts bonding action and strength to the molding sand in the presence of moisture, Generally 2-
5% of water is added to sand. When water is added to the mixture, it penetrates and forms a microfilm
coating on each particle.

Miscellaneous

Oxides of iron, limestone, magnesia, soda and potash, and other substances are found in the molding
sand. Good molding sand contains less than 2 % impurities.

TYPES OF MOLDING SAND

General Classification

Natural molding sand Synthetic sand Special sand

According to use

1. Green sand
2. Dry sand
3. Loam sand
4. Facing sand
5. Backing sand
6. System sand
7. Parting sand
8. Core sand

12
 Sl.No Type of Sand Details

1 Natural Molding It is obtained from natural resources like riverbeds. It has the required
Sand amount of clay to act as a bond between particles. It can also be obtained
by crushing and milling yellow sand stone and carbiniferrous rocks.
Advantages are – Ease of availability, Low cost and High Flexibility.
2 Synthetic Sand Also called high silica sand, containing little or no binder in natural form
and is also obtained by crushing quartzite sandstone. Binding is obtained
by the addition of bentonite, water and other materials. Advantages of
synthetic sand over natural sand are more flexibility, low maintenance cost
and improved permeability. High cost and needs more control while use.
3 Special Sand Used when special characteristics are needed. Zircon, Olivine, Chamotte,
Chromate and chrome-magnatite.

4 Green Sand Mixture of silica sand with 18-30% clay and 6-8% water. Contains water
and is moist in natural state. Fine, soft, light and porous.Has sufficient
plasticity and retains shape.
Used for small and medium sized castings. Coal defects are mixed in green
sand to prevent defects in castings. Molds prepared using green sand are
called green sand molds.
5 Dry Sand Does not contain water. Green sand is baked to remove all moisture.
Suitable of large castings. Very strong and compact when compared to
green sand molding. Blow holes will not occur. Dry sand molds are
prepared thro this.
6 Loam Sand Mixture of clay and sand, which is milled into plastic state. Loam sand
contains up to 50% of clay. When it is applied to vertical surfaces it
adheres to the surface. Loam sand moulds are prepared by sweeping the
pattern over the sand. When dried, loam sand becomes hard.
7 Facing Sand It contains silica sand and clay-not mixed with used sand. Has high
strength and refractoriness. Different forms of carbon are added to prevent
the metal from burning with sand. The thickness of the layer is 20-30mm
and is usually 10-15% of the whole amount of molding sand.
8 Backing Sand or Repeated used old sand. Used to fill behind the facing layer. Also called
Floor Sand black sand due to presence of coal and burning when sand comes in
contact with hot metal.
9 System Sand Used in mechanized foundries. It is the used sand which is rejuvenated or
reactivated by the addition of water, binder and special additives. No
facing sand is used. Whole flask is filled with this sand.
10 Parting Sand Dry and clean, clay- free silica sand. Used to prevent green sand from
sticking to the pattern and also to prevent clinging of sand on cope and
drag. When oil is used in molding sand, lycopodium is used as parting
compound.
11 Core Sand or Used of making core. It is the mixture of silica sand, linseed oil, light
Oil Sand mineral oil, resin and other binding materials. Pitch or floor and water are
used in making large cores.

13
SAND PROPERTIES

Molding sands, also known as foundry sands, are defined by eight characteristics: refractoriness, chemical
inertness, permeability, surface finish, cohesiveness, flowability, collapsibility, and availability/cost.

Refractoriness — This refers to the sand's ability to withstand the temperature of the liquid metal being
cast without breaking down. For example some sands only need to withstand 650 °C (1,202 °F) if casting
aluminum alloys, whereas steel needs sand that will withstand 1,500 °C (2,730 °F). Sand with too low a
refractoriness will melt and fuse to the casting.

Chemical inertness — The sand must not react with the metal being cast. This is especially important
with highly reactive metals, such as magnesium and titanium.

Permeability — This refers to the sand's ability to exhaust gases. This is important because during the
pouring process many gases are produced, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and steam, which
must leave the mold otherwise casting defects, such as blow holes and gas holes, occur in the casting.
Note that for each cubic centimeter (cc) of water added to the mold 16,000 cc of steam is produced.

Surface finish — The size and shape of the sand particles defines the best surface finish achievable, with
finer particles producing a better finish. However, as the particles become finer (and surface finish
improves) the permeability becomes worse.

Cohesiveness (or bond) — This is the ability of the sand to retain a given shape after the pattern is
removed.

Adhesiveness — The sand particles must be capable of adhering to another body. It is due to this
property that the sand mass does not fall out of the molding box but is held firmly in it when the mold is
removed or the molding box is lifted.

Flowability – The ability for the sand to flow into intricate details and tight corners without special
processes or equipment.

Collapsibility — This is the ability of the sand to be easily stripped off the casting after it has solidified.
Sands with poor collapsibility will adhere strongly to the casting. When casting metals that contract a lot
during cooling or with long freezing temperature ranges, a sand with poor collapsibility will cause
cracking and hot tears in the casting. Special additives can be used to improve collapsibility.

Availability/cost — The availability and cost of the sand is very important because for every ton of metal
poured, three to six tons of sand is required. Although sand can be screened and reused, the particles
eventually become too fine and require periodic replacement with fresh sand.

In large castings it is economical to use two different sands, because the majority of the sand will
not be in contact with the casting, so it does not need any special properties. The sand that is in contact
with the casting is called facing sand, and is designed for the casting on hand. This sand will be built up
around the pattern to a thickness of 30 to 100 mm (1.2 to 3.9 in). The sand that fills in around the facing
sand is called backing sand. This sand is simply silica sand with only a small amount of binder and no
special additives.
14
CORES AND CORE MAKING

Many cast parts have interior holes (hallow parts), or other cavities in their shape that are not
directly accessible from either piece of the mold. Such interior holes are generated by inserts called cores.
A core is a device used in casting and molding processes to produce internal cavities and reentrant angles.
The core is normally a disposable item that is destroyed to get it out of the piece. They are most
commonly used in sand casting, but are also used in injection molding.

Cores are useful for features that cannot tolerate draft or to provide detail that cannot otherwise be
integrated into a core-less casting or mold. The main disadvantage is the additional cost to incorporate
cores.

Core are made by baking sand with other binder so that they retain their shape when handled.
Binders added to the sand are linseed oil, phenol, bentonite, urea and water. To improve the properties of
the sand, additives, such as pitch corn flour, straw, graphite, core dung and sea coal are also added.

Core Print

For supporting the molds in core cavity, an impression in the form of a recess is made in the mold with
the help of a projection suitably placed in the mold. This projection on the pattern is called the core print.

The core print design should consider the following

 The print must balance the body, so that the core stays in place during mold assembly.
 The Print must withstand the buoyancy force of the metal and not get crushed.
 The print must not shift during mold filling
 The print should minimize the deflection of the core.
 The print should maximize heat transfer from the core to the mold.
 The print should allow the internal gases generated in the core to escape to the mold.
 Asymmetrical holes should have foolproof prints to prevent incorrect assembly.
 The prints of adjacent cores may be combined into one.

Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its own weight and
overcome the metallostatic force. These are small metal supports that bridge the gap between the mold
surface and the core, but because of this become part of the casting. As such, the chaplets must be of the
same or similar material as the metal being cast. Moreover, their design must be optimized because if they
are too small they will completely melt and allow the core to move, but if they are too big then their
whole surface cannot melt and fuse with the poured metal. Their use should also be minimized because
they can cause casting defects or create a weak spot in the casting.

15
CORE MAKING

Core making consists of the following operation:

1. Core sand preparation
2. Core molding
3. Baking
4. Core Finishing

Core Sand Preparation:

The core sand mixture must be homogenous so that the core has uniform strength throughout. Core sands
are generally mixed in roller mills and core mixers.

Core Molding:
Normally a core box is required for the preparation of cores. Green sand cores are made by ramming the
sand mixtures into boxes, the interior of which have desired shapes and dimensions. Ramming is done by
machines. Core making machines can be broadly classified as ( I ) core blowing machines and ( 2) core
ramming machines e.g., jolting, squeezing, slinging,. The degree of compactness needed for a core
depends on the type of binder used and the on the size and shape of core.

Fragile and medium sized cores are normally reinforced with steel wires or rods. In large cores, perforated
pipes or arbors are provided for reinforcement and for venting.

Core Baking:

Cores are placed on metal plates or carriers and are baked in core ovens at a temperature of 150º C to
400ºC depending on the type of binder to remove the moisture and to improve strength of the binder used
in the core, size of the core and the length of the baking time. As a rule one or more vents are provided in
the core to assist in discharge of gases.

Core Finishing:
After baking operation, cores are smoothened and rough places and unwanted fins are removed. A fine
refractory coating or core wash is applied to the surface to prevent the metal from penetration into the
core and to provide a smoother surface to the casting.

16
Types of Cores

Green Sand Core: This core is made by the pattern itself. When a pattern
leaves a core as a part of the mold, that body of sand used to make the core
is called the green sand core. It is made out of the same sand as that of the
Mold.

Horizontal Core: This core is positioned horizontally in the mold and is

commonly used in foundries. It is usually cylindrical shape. It may also
have other shapes depending on the cavity needed. It is seated in the
mold in the cavities made by the core prints.

Vertical Core: Core is placed vertically in the mold. The upper end of
the core is forced into the cope and the lower end into the drag. On the
cope the core needs more taper (15°) so that it does not damage the mold in
the cope while the cope and drag are assembled

Balanced Core: Core is supported

and balanced at one end only. It
extends horizontally in the mold.
The core needs only one core print
and produces an opening at only
one side of the casting.

Hanging and Cover Core: This core hangs from the

cope. It is supported from the top and hangs vertically
in the mold. It has no support at the bottom. The cover
is also known as cover core as it covers the mold.

Wing Core: It is used to form a hole or recess in the casting,

which is not in line with the parting line. Depending on the usage it
is also called drop core.

Ram-up Core: This core is set in the mold with the pattern
before ramming. It is used when the cored detail is located in an
inaccessible position.

Kiss Core: When the

pattern is not provided
with core prints, and no
seat is available for the
core to rest, the core is
held in position between
the cope and drag simply
due to pressure of the cope.
17
 Preparation of Sand
Preparation of sand includes
1. Mixing of sand
2. Tempering of sand
3. Sand conditioning

Mixing of sand
4 to 5 m3 of molding sand is expended to make one tonne of casting. As very few molding
sands have all the properties required for molding, the deficiency is made up by mixing it with other
materials such as clay, lime, magnesia, potash, soda, horse manure, saw dust, cow dung, coal dust etc., in
small quantities. Silica has high temperature withstanding capability but for bonding, clay is used.
Additives are added to make the casting soft.

Coal dust is most widely used as it helps to cool the mold after it has been poured. The coal
dust, immediately after coming in contact with the molten metal, gives off CO 2 and water in mold gets
converted into steam. The CO2 /CO separate the molten metal from the mold.

Mixing of molding materials should ensure uniform distribution of clay, moisture and other
constituents between the sand grains ensure better qualities in the sand.

Tempering of sand

To prepare foundry sand it should be tempered and cut through. The process by which
sufficient moisture is added to the molding sand is known as sand tempering. To temper the sand, water is
thrown over the heap in a sheet by giving a backward swing to the pail as the water leaves it. Then the
sand is cut through layer by layer letting the air through the clay in the sand.

Sand conditioning
New sand as well as used sand must be properly conditioned before being used. Proper sand
conditioning accomplishes uniform distribution of the binder around the sand grains, controls the
moisture content, eliminates foreign particles, and aerates the sand so that it flows readily around and
takes up the detail of the pattern. It renders sand suitable for ramming.

SAND TESTING METHODS

Foundry sand testing is a foundry process used to determine if the foundry sand has the correct
properties for a certain casting process. The sand is used to make moulds and cores via a pattern. In a sand
casting foundry there are broadly two reasons for rejection of the casting — metal and sand — each of
which has a large number of internal variables. The defects arising from the sand can be prevented by
using sand testing equipment to measure the various properties of the sand.

A basic set of parameters to test are:

A. Moisture content in the mixture (ranges from 2-7% depending on the casting method)
B. Clay content (dust content)
C. Fineness number (grain size/AFS Number) of the base sand
D. Permeability (ability of compacted mould to pass air through it)
E. Strength
18
 i. Green and Dry compression
ii. Green Tensile
iii. Green and Dry Sheer
iv. Bending

F. Hot Strength
G. Refractoriness
H. Mold Hardness

SAND TESTING METHODS

The moulding sand should be tested for its composition and properties.

The essential tests are:

1. Grain fineness test

2. Moisture content test
3. Clay-content test
4. Permeability test
5. Compression strength test
6. Mould and core hardness test

Grain Fineness test

Grain fineness is designated by a number

called grain fineness number. Grain fineness
number corresponds to the number of meshes in a
standard diameter sieve. The test is conducted with
the standard set of sieves, which are numbered
according to their fineness of mesh. These sieves
are fixed into a motor-driven shaker in the order of
coarse sieve to fine (Figure).A sample of dry sand,
free from clay is placed on the upper sieve and the
sieve is vibrated for 15 min. The amount retained in
the sieve is computed on a percentage basis. This
percentage figure is multiplied with multiplier
(which is given to each sieve). The product of this
multiplication is added to obtain the total product.
Then the grain fineness number is calculated as follows:

Total product
Grain fineness number =
Total percentage of sand retained on each sieve

19
Moisture Content test

The moisture content is calculated by measuring the

difference in weight between moist and dry sand. The drying of
moist sand is carried out at 105 º C and 110º C in a heated oven
and then cooled to room temperature. Figure shows the sand
moisture drying device.

As the conventional method is time consuming and

cumbersome, direct reading instruments are often used to
quickly assess the moisture content such as:

1. Moisture teller
2. Moisture meter

Moisture Teller

This instrument blows hot air for 3 min through the 5g moist
sand, which is placed in a pan. The bottom of the pan is a 500-
mesh metal screen. Moisture is effectively removed and a
precision balance determines the loss of weight of the sample
(Figure).

Moisture Meter

This instrument shows the moist content of the

sand instantly. The instrument contains two arms. These
arms are inserted into the moist sand and the electric
current is passed through (via arms) the sand. The
current flows easily when the moist content is more and
gives the level of moist content. Another type of direct
reading instrument is shown in figure, which uses a fixed
weight for ramming the sand sample.

20
 Clay-content test

In this test, a sample of 50 g sand is agitated in water so as to separate clay from the sand
particles, and then remove the clay which fails to settle down within the period of 5 min in
distilled water at room temperature. The equipment consists of a drying oven, a balance and
weights, and a sand washer. Fifty grams of dry sand is taken in a wash bottle. Then 47cc of
distilled water and 25 cc of a 3% caustic soda solution are added to this sand. This mixture is
stirred for 5 min in a rapid sand stirrer for 1 h in a sand washer (rotating type). Then it is allowed
to rest .after 5 min, the material on top of the water is collected. This process is repeated until the
water is clear after 5 min settling period. Then the bottle is placed in an oven. After the sand is
dried, the difference in weight shows the amount of clay.

Permeability Test

Permeability is measured by the quantity of air that passes through a standard specimen
of sand under the given pressure (p) at prescribed time (t).The arrangement for permeability test
is shown in fig. In this test a standard rammed
5.08 x 5.08 cm2 size test-piece is used. The
equipment consists of a water tank on which an
inverted bell or air holder is floating. The
specimen tube is connected to a manometer and
air holder by tube. Mercury is used at the bottom
of the specimen to provide an airtight seal. When
the pressure in the manometer reaches 10 gm/cm2
it is closed. Permeability number is defined as
the volume of air (v) in 2000 cc air that will pass
under pressure (p) of 10 gm/cm2 through 5.08
cm2 area (a) specimen.

MOLDING MACHINES

The use of molding machines are advisable when large number of repetitive castings are to be produced
since hand molding is more time consuming. Molding machines are classified according to

1. The method of compacting the molding sand

2. The method of removing the pattern

Methods for compacting the molding sand

1. Squeezer machine
a. Top Squeezer
b. Bottom Squeezer
2. Jolt machine

21
 3. Jolt-Squeezer machine
4. Sand -Slinger

Squeezer machine: The molding sand in the flask is squeezed between the machine table and the
overhead squeeze pneumatically or hydraulically until the mold attains the desired density.

Top Squeezer: The principle of operation of a top squeezer is

illustrated in the figure. The pattern 2 is placed on a mold board which
is clamped on the table 1. The flask 3 is then placed on the mold board
and the sand frame 4 on the flask. The flask and frame are filled with
molding sand and leveled off. Next the table is raised by the table lift
mechanism against the platen 5 on the stationary squeezer head 6. The
platen enters the sand frame up to the dotted line and compacts the
molding sand. After the squeeze, the table returns to the initial position.

Bottom Squeezer: The pattern is placed on the mold board which is

clamped to the table. The flask 3 is placed on the frame 7 and is filled
with sand. Next the squeeze head is brought against the top of the flask
and the table with the pattern is raised upon the dotted line. After
squeezing, the table returns to the initial position.

Limitation: Sand is packed more densely on the top of the mold from which the pressure is applied, and
the density decreased uniformly with the depth. At the parting plane, density is the lowest.

Jolt Machine: The flask is first filled with the molding sand
and then the table supporting the flask is mechanically raised
and dropped in succession. Due to the sudden change in inertia at
the end of each fall, the sands get packed and rammed. The
action of raising and sudden dropping is called jolting.

The principle of jolting machine is illustrated in the figure in

which the table 1, with the platen and flask 3, filled with
molding sand, is raised to 30 to 80mm at short intervals by the
plunger 8 when compressed air is admitted through the hose 9
and the channel 10. The air is next released through the opening 11 and the table drops down suddenly
and strikes the guiding cylinder 12 at the bottom. This sudden action causes the sand to pack evenly
around the pattern. Springs 13 are used to cushion the table blows and thus reduce noise and prevent
destruction of the mechanism and the foundation.

Limitation: The sand is rammed hardest at the parting plane and remains less dense at the top. Therefore
after jolting hand ramming is done near the mold.

Jolt-Squeeze machine: In order to overcome the draw backs of both the squeeze and jolt principles of
ramming the sand, a combination of squeeze and jolt action is often employed. A jolting action is used to
consolidate the sand on the face of the pattern and it is followed by a squeezing action to impart the
desired density throughout the mass of the sand.
22
Sand Slinger: In this operation, the consolidation and ramming are obtained by the impact of sand which falls at a very high velocity.

The principle of sand slinger is shown in the figure. The overhead impeller head consists of the housing in which the
blade rotates at a very high speed. The sand is delivered to the impeller through the opening by means of conveyor
buckets. The impeller head by the rotation of the blade throws the sand through the outlet down the flask over the
pattern at a range of 500 to 2000kg per minute. The density of the sand can be controlled by the speed of the blade.

This is used for medium sized castings. Hardness can be controlled by sand velocity.

Methods of removing the pattern

1. Straight Draw molding machine

2. Stripping plate molding machine
3. Turn-over molding machine

Straight Draw molding machine: In this machine, the pattern 1 is fixed on the pattern plate 3 on the table 5
and the flask or molding box 2 is placed over it and filled with sand. It is then roughly rammed round the
edges of the box. The squeeze head is next swung over in a position and it squeezes the mold. The flask is
then lifted from the pattern by stripping pins 6.

Stripping plate molding machine: In this the stripping plate 4 arranged between the flask 2 and pattern plate 3.
The stripping plate has a recess whose contours equal those of the pattern 1. When the mold is ready the pattern
is withdrawn from the mold downwards through the stripping plate, which supports the mold when the pattern is
removed.

Turn-over molding machine: This is used for large size, high molds, having parts which might
easily break away. The flask 2 rests on the pattern plate 3 during the molding operation. Then the
flask together with the work table 5 is rotated 180° and pins 6 lift the table 5 together with the pattern
1 out of the mold.
 Gating system

In sand casting, the metal pouring system is extremely crucial because its layout affects the quality of the casting and reduces metal
wastage on the pouring system.
 What is the gating system in casting?
In the metal foundry, the gating system in casting is a metal pouring system that conducts molten metal into the mold cavity. Metal flows
down from the pouring basin into the sprue and passes through the runner and gates before entering the mold cavity.

Designing a gating system requires careful consideration according to the technology, materials, and castings.
This system determines the flow rate of metal to the mold cavity.

If the flow rate is too fast, there is a risk of corrosion while if the speed is too slow it can cause the metal to be cool before filling the
chamber, which directly affects the quality of the casting.
The shape and size of the gating system in casting are properly arranged when making the mold. If the gating system is not designed
properly, it can cause severe casting defects.
Functions of gating system in sand casting

The gating system in casting is designed to serve the following 4 main goals:
 Fill the mold cavity with enough metal in the shortest time without having to increase the metal temperature.
  The metal flows smoothly, minimizing turbulence that causes air trapping during casting.
 The gating system sets the appropriate temperature range so that during the metal cooling process, shrinkage will occur in the
gating system, not in the casting parts.
 Combined with metal impurities removal system.
Design requirements of the gating system

A well-designed gating system in casting should satisfy the following requirements:

 Good control of metal flow. No impact, no splashes, smooth and steady continuity.
 Do not carry slag, impurities and gases into the mold cavity.
 Fills the mold cavity quickly, does not reduce the dilution of metal.
 Controlling the temperature in the mold cavity to cool the metal stably.
 Capable of adding metal and not wasting much metal.
 Easy to disassemble after the casting has solidified.
 Economic and maximizing casting yield.
If the gating system is designed incorrectly, the following errors can occur:
 Oxidizing metals.
 Corrosive to mold.
 Causing shrinkage of objects in the mold.
 Make metal penetrate the mold wall.
 Cool uneven casting.
Gating system diagram

The gating system in sand casting includes:

1. Pouring basin or pouring cup

The Pouring basin is the funnel-shaped inlet, located on top of the system, where metal is poured from the ladles into the mold.
Pouring basin helps to regulate the flow rate of liquid metal and reduces turbulence at the sprue entrance, and helps to separate
sediment and slag before entering the sprue.

2. Sprue
Sprue casting is a vertical passageway from pouring basin down runner and gates. Liquid metal going down the vertical sprue loses
pressure but increases speed due to the effect of gravity.

The sprue cross section can be circular, square or rectangular (preferably circular). Sprue is designed to taper down to avoid air
aspiration. Bigger end above for metal pick-up, while smaller end connects to runner.
The foot of the sprue is rotated at a right angle to the runner to prevent free fall of liquid metal, known as the sprue well.

3. Cross gate or runner

Runner in casting is a horizontal channel connecting the sprue well to the gates. Liquid metal will flow from the sprue to the runner and
fill the mold cavity appropriately. Runner has the effect of slowing down the speed of liquid metal when it is free falling in a high speed
sprue.
Runner must be filled with molten metal to prevent slag from entering the cavity and ensure steady flow.
4. Ingate (or gate)

Ingate is the end of the path and where the mold cavity begins. It leads the liquid metal that flows from the runner into the mold cavity.
Depending on the characteristics of the casting, there are different number of ingates.
There are two types of gates: big gate and small gate. The small gate is used for slowing solid casting, while the large gate is for fasting
solid casting.

The gate should not have sharp edges as they can crack during pouring so that the sand can be caught in the molten metal into the
mold cavity.

Types of gates in casting:

Gate is divided into 3 categories:

Types of gate in casting

 Top gate: the gate is in the cope mold part.
The disadvantages of top gate are high metal flow turbulence, poor casting surface.

 Bottom gate: the gate is in the drag mold part. In the bottom gate, liquid metal fills the lower part of the mold cavity and gradually
increases into the mold wall.
The bottom gate has the advantage of less chaos and sand erosion than the top gate.
The downside of the bottom gate is that the metal flow can be clogged due to solidification before the mold is full. The temperature
range generated by the bottom gate is difficult to reach the standard causing uneven solidification.
 Parting line side gate: is the gate located along the parting line. The compartment below the parting line is filled with liquid metal
through top gating, while the compartment above the parting line is filled with the bottom gating. This gate type solves the
disadvantages of the two types above.
Types of gating system

There are two types of gating systems: Pressurized Gating System and Unpressurized Gating System. Choosing the right casting
system with the correct area ratio will define the quality of the casting.
1. Pressurized Gating System

Pressurized gating system

The Pressurized gating system is a gating system whose cross-sectional surface area decreases gradually towards the mold cavity
(smaller than the narrowest downsprue-runner area). The in-gate area is minimized to put pressure on the system. At the gates, the
flow rate of liquid metal is almost equal.
Sprue is always full of metal creating back pressure, which reduces air aspiration.

Here metal that is always running at high speeds becomes more chaotic and it is easy to create eddy currents in gates leading to
erosion.
This system gives special priority to injection molding with cast iron materials.

2. Un-Pressurized Gating System

Unpressurized gating system

The Un-Pressurized Gating System is a gating system whose total surface area of the doors increases gradually towards the mold
cavity (larger than the narrowest downsprue area). Liquid metal flow at gates are different.

Gating ratio

Gating ratio is the ratio between the cross-sectional area of the sprue to the total cross-sectional area of the runners to the total cross-
sectional area of the ingates.
The formula for the gating ratio is As: Ar: Ag.
With the Pressurized Gating System, the gating ratio is usually 1: 2: 1 or 1: 0.75: 0.5. This system is called a “Gate control system”
because ingates control the flow of the metal.
With the Unpressurized Gating System, the gating ratio is usually 1: 2: 2 or 1: 3: 3 or 1: 1: 3. This system is called a “Choke control
system” because the choke controls the flow of the metal.
Table of gating ratio for various of materials:

Materials Gating ratio

Aluminum 1:2:1
 1:1.2:2
1:2:4
1:3:3
1:4:4
1:6:6

Aluminum bronze 1:2.88:4.8

1:1:1
1:2:3
Brass 1.6:1.3:1

2:8:1
Copper 3:9:1

1.15:1.1:1
1.25:1.13:1
Ductile iron 1.33:2.67:1
Gating ratio of materials
 Solidification of Casting

• During solidification metal experience shrinkage which results

in void formation.
• This can be avoided by feeding hot spot during
solidification.
• Risers are used to feed casting during solidification.
 Solidification of Iron & Carbon
Steels

Figure 10.5 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm (7-in.) square casting. Note that
after 11 minutes of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes
about two hours for this casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in sand and
chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content increases.
 What Are Risers?

• Risers are added reservoirs designed to feed liquid metal to the

solidifying casting as a means for compensating for
solidification shrinkage.
• Riser must solidify after casting.
• Riser should be located so that directional solidification occurs
from the extremities of mold cavity back toward the riser.
• Thickest part of casting – last to freeze, Riser should feed
directly to these regions.
 Why Risers?
• The shrinkage occurs in three stages,
1. When temperature of liquid metal drops from Pouring to
Freezing temperature
2. When the metal changes from liquid to solid state, and
3. When the temperature of solid phase drops from freezing to
room temperature

• The shrinkage for stage 3 is compensated by providing

shrinkage allowance on pattern, while the shrinkage during
stages 1 and 2 are compensated by providing risers.
Riser Location & Types
 Solidification Time For Casting
• Solidification of casting occurs by loosing heat from the surfaces
and amount of heat is given by volume of casting .
• Cooling characteristics of a casting is the ratio of
surface area to volume.

• Higher the value of cooling characteristics faster is the cooling of

casting.
Chvorinov rule state that solidification time is inversely proportional to cooling characteristics.

Solidification time
Where
Ts = Solidification time V = Volume of casting
SA = Surface area K = mould constant
• A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand-casting mold.
The casting itself is a steel rectangular plate with dimensions
7.5 cm x12.5 cm x 2.0 cm. Previous observations have
indicated that the solidification time for this casting is 1.6 min.
The cylinder for the riser will have a diameter-to-height ratio as
1.0. Determine the dimensions of the riser so that its
solidification time is 2.0 min.
• V/A ratio = (7.5 x 12.5 x 2) / 2(7.5x12.5 + 12.5x2 +
7.5x2) = 187.5 / 267.5 = 0.7
 Methods of Riser Design

• Following are the methods for riser design:

1. Caine’s Method

2. Modulus Method
3. NRL Method
 Caine’s Method
• Caine’s equation +

Where
X = Freezing ratio
Y = Riser volume / Casting volume A,
b and c = Constant

Freezing ratio
 Constant For Caine’s Method
• Values of constants are given in table:
Example:1
 Choke Area

• Choke area is the main control area which meters the metal
flow into mould cavity.
• Normally choke area happens to be at the bottom of the sprue so
sprue should be designed first.
• Having sprue bottom as the choke area help in establishing
proper flow in the mould easily and early.
• Choke area can be calculated by Bernoulli’s equations
• Q= AV
• W =ρAV
• Choke area A = W/ ρV
= W/ ρ√2gH
= W/ ρ t c √2gH
 Effective Sprue Height
• Effective sprue height H, of a mould depends on the casting
dimensions and type of gating system.
• It can be calculated using following relations:

Values of h, P and c are shown in for various gating system

Where
h =Sprue height

p = Height of mould cavity in cope c = Total height of mould cavity

Efficiency Coefficient For
Gating Systems
 Pouring Time

• Time required for filling a mould is pouring time.

• Too long pouring time – Higher pouring temperature
• Too less pouring time – Turbulent flow & defective casting.
• It depends on casting material, complexity of casting, section
thickness and casting size.
• Pouring time is calculated by empirical formulas obtained by
experiments which differ from one material to another and one
casting to other.
• For non ferrous material, long pouring time would be beneficial
since they lose heat slowly and also tend to form dross if metal is
poured too quickly.
 Pouring Time
Grey cast iron, mass less than 450 kg

Grey cast iron mass less than 450 kg

Grey cast iron mass greater than 450 kg

Steel castings
Example
MELTING FURNACES

Cupola Furnace

A cupola furnace basically consists of a

cylindrical steel shell with both its top and bottom
being open. The inner walls of the shell are lined
with heat resisting materials such as the fire brick.
The bottom opening is closed by a cast iron drop
bottom door supported by a metal prop. This door
swings out after the melting when the metal prop
support is removed.

After closing the bottom door, a sloping

sand bed is prepared for giving the necessary heat
resistant bottom for the molten metal and the fuel.
Just above the sand bed is the metal tapping hole
through which the molten metal is taken out and
poured into the ladle. A spout called the tapping
spout is provided for guiding the molten metal out.
Above the tapping hole and opposite to it is a hole
with a spout for removing the slag generated
during the melting. It is called the slag hole.

Above the slag hole is the wind box which

surrounds the cupola shell and supplies air at a
given pressure and quantity. Air comes to the
wind box through the air blast pipe from the air
blower. Air enters into the cupola furnace through
the tuyeres which extend through the steel shell
and the refractory lining. The number of tuyeres
and their spacing along the circumference of the
shell varies with the size of the cupola furnace.

A cupola furnace is provided with a

charging platform or floor and a charging door for
feeding the charges. The charge consists of pig-
iron, scrap iron, coke and fluxes. At its top, the
cupola furnace has a metal shield or a spark
arrester. It arrests the spark or burning particles
from going outside while allowing the hot gases to
escape out.

54
 Zones of the Cupola furnace:-

A. Well: It extends up to the bottom of the tuyeres from the sand bed. It is a sort of well of molten
iron. Molten iron collects in this zone before tapping.

B. Combustion Zone ‘or’ Oxidizing zone:- (Super heating zone) . This zone starts from the tuyeres
and extends upto 15-30 cms above the top of the tuyeres. Combustion takes place in this zone
with the aid of oxygen from the air blast. Some exothermic reactions which occur in this zone are:

C + O2 CO2 + Heat

Mn + O2 MnO2 + Heat

Si + O2 SiO2 + Heat

The temperature of this zone varies from 1550 – 1850° C

C. Reducing Zone:- The reducing zone starts from the top of the combustion zone and extends up
to the bottom of the first metal charge. In this zone, the endothermic reaction of reducing CO2
to
CO takes place.

CO2 + C (coke) 2 CO – Heat

This reduces the heat in this zone and the temperature of the zone is around 1200°C.

D. Melting Zone:- Melting zone starts with the first layer of the metal charge and extends up to 90
cms or less. The metal charge melts in this zone and moves down the well. The temperature of
this zone is around 1600 and the following reaction which adds to up the carbon content of metal
takes place.

3Fe + 2CO Fe3 C + CO2

E. Pre-heating zone:- Preheating zone starts from the top of the melting zone and extends upto the
charging door. The charge in this zone is preheated by the hot gases such as CO 2, CO and N2.
Moving upwards from the combustion and the reducing zone.

F. Stack Zone:- Stack zone extends from the end of the preheating zone to the end of the cupola
shell and includes the spark arrester. Hot gases from the cupola pass though the stack zone and
escape to the atmosphere through the spark arrester.

G. At the top conical cap called the spark arrest is provided to prevent the spark emerging to outside

Advantages of Cupola:-

 Simple design and easier construction

 Low initial cost as compared to other furnaces of same capacity
 Simple to operate and maintain in good condition

55
  Economy of operation and maintenance
 Less floor space requirements as compared to those of other furnaces of same capacity.
 Cupola can be continuously operated for many hours.

Limitations of Cupola:-

Since molten metal and coke come in contact with each other, certain elements like Si and Mn are lost
while others like sulphur are picked up. This changes the final analysis of molten iron.

Direct fuel-fired furnaces

A direct fuel fired furnace contains a small open hearth in which the metal charge is heated by fuel
burners located on the side of the furnace. The roof of the furnace assists the heating action by reflecting
the flame down against the charge. The typical fuel is natural gas and the combustion products either the
furnace through the stack.
At the bottom of the hearth is a tap hole to release the molten metal. Direct fuel-fired furnaces are
generally used in casting for melting non-ferrous metals such as copper based alloys and aluminium.

Crucible furnace

These furnaces melt the metal without direct contact with the
burning fuel mixture. For this reason, they are sometimes called
indirect fuel-fired furnaces.
Different types of crucible furnaces are:
 Lift-out
 Stationary
 Tilting
They all utilize a container ( crucible) like pot made out of a
suitable refractory material ( ex: clay-graphite mixture or high temperature steel alloy) to hold the charge.

In lift out crucible furnace, the crucible is placed in a furnace and heated
sufficiently to melt the charge. Oil, gas and powdered coal are typical
fuels for these furnaces. When the metal is melted, the cruible is lifted out
of the furnace and used as a pouring ladle.

The other two-types, sometimes referred to as pot furnaces have the

heating furnace and containers as one integrated unit. In the stationary pot
furnace, the furnace is stationary and the molten metal is ladled out of the
container. In the tilting –pot furnace, the entire assembly can be tilted for pouring. Crucible furnaces are
used for non-ferrous metals such as bronze, brass and alloys of zinc and aluminium. Furnace capacities
are generally limited to several hundred pounds.

Electric Arc Furnace

An electric arc furnace is a system that heats charged

material by means of an electric arc struck between carbon
electrodes and the metal bar. Temperatures inside an electric
arc furnace can rise to approximately 2000°C.

26
Arc furnaces range in size from small units of approximately one ton capacity used in foundries for
producing cast iron products to about 400 tonnes units used for secondary steel making.

Electric arc furnaces may be categorized as direct arc or indirect arc. Both types of units are suited for
melting of high melting point alloys such as steel. They may be lined with acid or basic refractory
depending type of steel to be melted.

Induction Furnace

Induction heating is a heating method. The heating by

the induction method occurs when an electrically
conductive material is placed in a varying magnetic
field. Induction heating is a rapid form of heating in
which a current is induced directly into the part being
heated. Induction heating is a non-contact form of
heating.

The heating system in an induction furnace includes:

1. Induction heating power supply,

2. Induction heating coil,
3. Water-cooling source, which cools the coil
and several internal components inside the
power supply.

The induction heating power supply sends alternating current through the induction coil, which generates
a magnetic field. Induction furnaces work on the principle of a transformer. An alternative
electromagnetic field induces eddy currents in the metal which converts the electric energy to heat
without any physical contact between the induction coil and the work piece. A schematic diagram of
induction furnace is shown. The furnace contains a crucible surrounded by a water cooled copper coil.
The coil is called primary coil to which a high frequency current is supplied. By induction secondary
currents, called eddy currents are produced in the crucible. High temperature can be obtained by this
method. Induction furnaces are of two types: cored furnace and coreless furnace. Cored furnaces are used
almost exclusively as holding furnaces. In cored furnace the electromagnetic field heats the metal
between two coils. Coreless furnaces heat the metal via an external primary coil.

Advantages of Induction Furnace

 Induction heating is a clean form of heating

 High rate of melting or high melting efficiency
 Alloyed steels can be melted without any loss of alloying elements
 Controllable and localized heating

Disadvantages of Induction Furnace

 High capital cost of the equipment

 High operating cost

27
28
29
30
31
Casting of Complicated Shapes

Casting complicated shapes, especially with intricate geometries and fine details, is a sophisticated process in
metalworking. It is used in industries like aerospace, automotive, and manufacturing to create components with
complex designs that might be difficult or impossible to achieve through other manufacturing methods.

Introduction to Casting Complicated Shapes

Complex Shape Casting:

 This process involves creating parts with intricate geometries, such as thin walls, internal cavities,
undercuts, and detailed surface features.
 Methods like investment casting (lost-wax casting), die casting, and 3D printed molds are often used for
these purposes.
 The ability to cast complex shapes reduces the need for additional machining and assembly, which can
lower costs and improve the strength and integrity of the final product.

Industries and Applications:

 Aerospace: Turbine blades, complex housings, and structural components.

 Automotive: Engine blocks, cylinder heads, and intricate brackets.
 Medical Devices: Implants and prosthetics with precise geometries.
 Art and Jewelry: Sculptures, rings, and other decorative items.

Challenges in Casting Complicated Shapes

1. Mold Design and Fabrication:

o Issue: Designing a mold that can accurately replicate complex shapes is challenging. Molds must
account for shrinkage, flow dynamics, and the removal process.
o Impact: Poor mold design can result in defects such as misalignment, incomplete filling, or
excessive post-casting machining.
o Solution: Advanced computer-aided design (CAD) and simulation tools are used to optimize
mold design. Techniques like 3D printing of molds also allow for greater precision and
customization.
2. Filling of the Mold:
o Issue: Ensuring the molten metal flows evenly and completely fills the mold is difficult with
intricate geometries. Problems like turbulence, premature cooling, and trapped air can occur.
o Impact: This can lead to defects such as cold shuts, misruns, and porosity.
o Solution: Controlled pouring techniques, use of gating and riser systems, and the application of
vacuum or pressure-assisted casting can help improve mold filling.
3. Solidification and Shrinkage:
o Issue: Complex shapes may cool unevenly, leading to shrinkage defects such as cracks, voids,
and internal stresses. Thin sections and sharp corners are particularly susceptible to these
problems.
32
 o Impact: Uneven cooling can cause distortion, leading to dimensional inaccuracies and structural
weaknesses.
o Solution: The use of chills, controlled cooling environments, and precise alloy selection can
mitigate these issues. Simulation tools can also predict and compensate for shrinkage.
4. Surface Finish and Detail:
o Issue: Achieving a high-quality surface finish on complex shapes is challenging, especially with
features like fine details, undercuts, and internal passages.
o Impact: Poor surface finish may require additional machining or finishing operations, increasing
costs and time.
o Solution: Investment casting and the use of high-quality molds can produce better surface
finishes. Secondary processes like polishing or coating can also enhance the final product.
5. Removal of the Casting from the Mold:
o Issue: Complex shapes often have features like undercuts or internal cavities that make it difficult
to remove the casting from the mold without causing damage.
o Impact: Improper removal can lead to breakage or the need for redesigning the mold, increasing
production time and cost.
o Solution: Using collapsible cores, multi-part molds, or materials like wax in investment casting
that can be melted away, helps facilitate easier removal.
6. Internal Defects:
o Issue: Internal defects such as porosity, inclusions, and segregation are more likely in complex
castings due to the difficulty in controlling the solidification process uniformly throughout the
part.
o Impact: These defects can compromise the structural integrity and performance of the part.
o Solution: Advanced inspection techniques like X-ray and CT scanning are used to detect internal
defects. Process controls, such as vacuum casting and proper alloy treatment, help reduce their
occurrence.
7. Material Selection:
o Issue: Not all materials are equally suited for casting complex shapes. For instance, some alloys
may not flow well or may be prone to cracking.
o Impact: The wrong material choice can lead to casting failures, requiring redesign or material
substitution.
o Solution: Selecting materials with good fluidity, low shrinkage, and appropriate mechanical
properties is critical. Alloy modifications or the use of composite materials can sometimes be
employed.
8. Cost and Time Considerations:
o Issue: Casting complex shapes often involves higher costs due to the need for specialized molds,
longer production times, and potential for higher defect rates.
o Impact: This can make the process less economically viable for low-volume production runs.
o Solution: Advances in rapid prototyping, additive manufacturing for mold-making, and
automation can help reduce costs and improve production efficiency.
9. Thermal Management:
o Issue: Managing the thermal gradients during the casting of complex shapes is challenging. This
is critical for avoiding thermal stresses and ensuring uniform microstructure.
o Impact: Poor thermal management can result in residual stresses, warping, or undesirable
microstructures.
33
 o Solution: The use of thermal analysis software, optimized cooling systems, and controlled
solidification practices are important in managing these challenges.
10. Quality Control:
o Issue: Ensuring consistent quality in every cast part, especially with complex shapes, is difficult.
Variations in mold temperature, pouring technique, and alloy composition can all lead to
inconsistencies.
o Impact: Inconsistent quality can lead to high scrap rates and failure to meet stringent
specifications.
o Solution: Implementing rigorous quality control processes, including non-destructive testing
(NDT), process monitoring, and feedback loops for continuous improvement, is essential.

Casting complex shapes is a challenging but essential process in modern manufacturing. Overcoming these
challenges requires a combination of advanced technology, precise control, and a deep understanding of the
materials and processes involved.

Casting of light metal alloys

Casting of light alloys in a foundry is a specialized process used to create components from metals that are
typically lighter than other metal alloys, such as aluminum, magnesium, and titanium. These alloys are favored
in industries like automotive, aerospace, and electronics due to their high strength-to-weight ratios, corrosion
resistance, and good thermal conductivity.

Key Processes in Casting Light Alloys:

1. Sand Casting:
o Process: A pattern is made of the part to be cast, which is then pressed into sand to create a mold.
Molten metal is poured into this mold, solidifies, and the sand is removed to reveal the cast part.
o Applications: Used for larger components like engine blocks, housings, and other structural parts.
2. Die Casting:
o Process: Molten metal is forced into a die (a mold made of hardened steel) under high pressure.
This allows for high precision and the ability to produce complex shapes with good surface
finishes.
o Applications: Commonly used for producing smaller, high-volume parts such as gears, housings,
and brackets.
3. Investment Casting (Lost-Wax Casting):
o Process: A wax model of the part is created, then coated with a ceramic material to create a mold.
The wax is melted away, leaving the mold, into which molten metal is poured. After the metal
cools, the ceramic mold is broken away.
o Applications: Suitable for intricate parts with fine details, often used in aerospace and precision
engineering.
4. Permanent Mold Casting:
o Process: Similar to die casting, but without the use of high pressure. The molten metal is poured
into a reusable mold (often made of metal) by gravity or low pressure.
o Applications: Often used for components requiring good mechanical properties and dimensional
accuracy, like wheels and engine components.
34
 5. Centrifugal Casting:
o Process: The mold is rotated rapidly while the molten metal is poured in, forcing the metal to the
outer walls and creating a cylindrical shape.
o Applications: Commonly used for pipes, rings, and cylindrical parts where uniformity and high
density are important.

Considerations in Light Alloy Casting:

 Alloy Selection: Different light alloys have varying properties that affect their casting behavior, such as
fluidity, shrinkage, and solidification rate.
 Mold Material: The choice of mold material is crucial as it needs to withstand the high temperatures
and stresses of the casting process without degrading.
 Cooling Rate: The cooling rate can significantly influence the microstructure and, consequently, the
mechanical properties of the cast component.
 Defects: Common casting defects include porosity, shrinkage cavities, and inclusions. Proper process
control and design considerations are essential to minimize these.

Light alloy casting in foundries involves careful control of processes to produce high-quality components that
meet stringent performance requirements in demanding applications.

Casting light alloys presents several challenges due to the unique properties of these materials. Here are some of
the main challenges faced in the casting of light alloys:

1. High Reactivity:

 Issue: Light alloys like aluminum and magnesium are highly reactive with oxygen, leading to the
formation of oxides during the melting and pouring processes.
 Impact: Oxide formation can lead to inclusions, which weaken the final product and can cause defects
like porosity or compromised mechanical properties.
 Solution: Inert gas shielding, proper fluxing, and vacuum casting techniques are often employed to
minimize oxidation.

2. Shrinkage and Distortion:

 Issue: Light alloys typically have high thermal expansion coefficients and shrink significantly as they
cool, leading to internal stresses, warping, and dimensional inaccuracies.
 Impact: These can result in casting defects such as cracks, distortion, and misalignment of parts.
 Solution: Proper mold design, controlled cooling rates, and the use of chills (to control solidification)
help manage shrinkage and minimize distortion.

3. Porosity:

 Issue: Gas porosity is a common problem, particularly in aluminum casting, due to the solubility of
hydrogen in molten aluminum. Additionally, shrinkage porosity can occur during solidification.
 Impact: Porosity weakens the structural integrity of the casting and can lead to failure in service.

35
  Solution: Techniques like degassing, vacuum casting, and careful control of the alloy's temperature and
composition are used to reduce porosity.

4. Hot Tearing (Hot Cracking):

 Issue: Hot tearing occurs when a casting cracks during solidification due to the alloy's inability to
accommodate shrinkage stresses.
 Impact: This can lead to severe defects, rendering the casting unusable.
 Solution: Proper mold design, control of cooling rates, and the use of alloys with lower susceptibility to
hot tearing can help mitigate this issue.

5. Poor Fluidity:

 Issue: Light alloys like magnesium often have lower fluidity compared to other metals, making it
difficult to fill complex molds completely.
 Impact: This can lead to incomplete castings or defects such as cold shuts and misruns.
 Solution: Increasing the casting temperature, improving mold design, and using alloys or additives that
enhance fluidity can help address this challenge.

6. Surface Finish and Precision:

 Issue: Achieving a high-quality surface finish and dimensional accuracy is more challenging with light
alloys, particularly in sand casting or processes where the mold material may interact with the molten
metal.
 Impact: Poor surface finish or precision can necessitate additional machining, increasing production
costs.
 Solution: Die casting and investment casting techniques, as well as the use of better mold materials and
coatings, can improve surface quality and precision.

7. Sensitivity to Contamination:

 Issue: Light alloys, especially aluminum, are sensitive to contamination by other metals or non-metallic
inclusions, which can degrade mechanical properties.
 Impact: Contaminated alloys can lead to casting defects and poor performance in service.
 Solution: Strict control of the alloy composition, clean melting practices, and the use of refining
techniques help maintain alloy purity.

8. High Cost of Materials and Processing:

 Issue: Light alloys like titanium are expensive to produce and process due to their reactivity and the need
for specialized equipment.
 Impact: The high cost can be a limiting factor in the widespread use of these materials.
 Solution: Advances in alloy processing, recycling, and improved casting technologies are helping to
reduce costs over time.

9. Limited Recycling Options:

36
  Issue: Some light alloys, particularly magnesium, can be difficult to recycle due to their reactivity and
the potential for contamination.
 Impact: This can limit the sustainability of casting processes using these materials.
 Solution: Improved recycling techniques and alloy development are being pursued to address these
challenges.

10. Alloy Segregation:

 Issue: During solidification, there can be a tendency for the alloying elements to segregate, leading to an
inhomogeneous microstructure.
 Impact: This can cause variations in mechanical properties within the casting, leading to weak spots.
 Solution: Controlled solidification techniques and the use of grain refiners or modifiers can help reduce
segregation.

These challenges require careful consideration and optimization of the casting process to produce high-quality
light alloy components.

Slush casting
Slush casting is a specialized casting process used primarily for producing hollow, thin-walled metal objects.
Unlike traditional casting methods where the entire mold is filled and solidified, slush casting involves partial
solidification of the molten metal before the excess liquid metal is poured out, leaving behind a shell or "slush"
that forms the final product.

Process of Slush Casting

1. Mold Preparation:
o A mold, typically made from metal or other durable materials, is prepared to the desired shape of
the object. The mold can be simple or intricate, depending on the complexity of the design.
2. Pouring Molten Metal:
o Molten metal, often a low-melting-point alloy like zinc, tin, or lead, is poured into the mold.
These metals are commonly used because they solidify relatively quickly and are easier to
manage in a slush casting process.
3. Partial Solidification:
o The molten metal is allowed to sit in the mold for a short time, just long enough for a thin layer
of metal to solidify against the mold walls. The thickness of this solidified layer can be controlled
by adjusting the time the molten metal remains in the mold.
4. Pouring Off the Excess:
o After the desired thickness of the solidified shell is achieved, the remaining liquid metal in the
mold is poured out, leaving behind a hollow casting with a thin, solid outer shell.
5. Cooling and Removal:
o The hollow casting is left to cool and solidify completely. Once cooled, the casting is removed
from the mold, often requiring minimal post-processing.
37
 Applications of Slush Casting

 Decorative Items: Slush casting is widely used in the production of decorative items like statues,
figurines, and ornaments due to its ability to create lightweight, detailed shapes.
 Automotive Industry: It is sometimes used to create thin-walled automotive components where weight
reduction is important.
 Prototyping: The process is also used in rapid prototyping where quick production of hollow parts is
required without the need for complex mold design or expensive materials.

Advantages of Slush Casting

 Lightweight Products: The process produces hollow, thin-walled components that are lightweight,
making it ideal for decorative and non-structural parts.
 Cost-Effective: Because it uses less material and simpler molds, slush casting can be more cost-effective
than other casting methods, especially for low-volume production.
 Flexibility in Thickness: The ability to control the wall thickness by adjusting the solidification time
provides flexibility in product design.

Challenges and Limitations

 Limited Material Choices: Slush casting is typically limited to low-melting-point metals like zinc, tin,
and lead. It is not suitable for higher melting point metals like steel or aluminum.
 Surface Finish and Detail: The surface finish of slush-cast parts may not be as smooth or detailed as
those produced by other casting methods, requiring additional finishing work.
 Structural Integrity: Since slush-cast parts are hollow and thin-walled, they may lack the structural
strength required for load-bearing applications.
 Size Limitations: The process is generally limited to small to medium-sized objects. Large, complex
parts may be difficult to produce using slush casting.

Variants of Slush Casting

38
  Centrifugal Slush Casting: In this variant, the mold is rotated rapidly to ensure even distribution of the
molten metal along the mold walls, which can help produce more uniform thickness and improve the
surface finish.

Slush casting remains a valuable method in specific applications where lightweight, hollow, and decorative
items are needed. Its simplicity and cost-effectiveness make it a practical choice for producing a wide range of
products.

stir casting

Stir casting is a popular and relatively straightforward method for producing metal matrix composites (MMCs).
In this process, a molten metal matrix is mixed with reinforcing particles or fibers to create a composite material
with enhanced mechanical properties. Stir casting is widely used in industries such as aerospace, automotive,
and defense for producing lightweight, high-strength materials.

Process of Stir Casting

1. Melting the Metal Matrix:

o The process begins by melting the metal matrix material, typically aluminum, magnesium, or
other lightweight metals, in a furnace. The matrix is the continuous phase in the composite.
2. Addition of Reinforcements:
o Once the metal matrix is fully melted, reinforcing particles or fibers (e.g., silicon carbide,
alumina, graphite) are introduced into the melt. These reinforcements are the dispersed phase that
provides enhanced properties like increased strength, stiffness, or wear resistance.
3. Stirring the Mixture:
o A mechanical stirrer or an electromagnetic stirrer is used to mix the molten metal and the
reinforcing materials. The stirring action ensures uniform distribution of the reinforcements
throughout the metal matrix, minimizing agglomeration and promoting better bonding between
the metal and the particles or fibers.
4. Casting the Composite:
o After sufficient stirring, the composite mixture is poured into a mold to solidify. The mold can be
of various shapes and sizes depending on the desired final product.
o As the mixture cools and solidifies, the reinforcing materials become embedded within the metal
matrix, forming the metal matrix composite.
5. Post-Processing:
o The solidified composite may undergo further processing, such as heat treatment, machining, or
surface finishing, to achieve the desired properties and dimensions.

39
Applications of Stir Casting

 Automotive Industry: Components like engine pistons, brake rotors, and drive shafts are often made
using stir casting to improve their wear resistance and reduce weight.
 Aerospace: Lightweight, high-strength materials produced by stir casting are used in aerospace
components, such as turbine blades and structural parts.
 Defense: Armor materials, protective components, and other military applications benefit from the
enhanced properties of stir-cast composites.
 Industrial Applications: Stir-cast composites are also used in manufacturing cutting tools, heat
exchangers, and various industrial machinery components.

Advantages of Stir Casting

 Cost-Effective: Stir casting is a relatively low-cost process for producing metal matrix composites,
especially compared to other methods like powder metallurgy or chemical vapor deposition.
 Scalability: The process can be scaled up for mass production, making it suitable for large-scale
manufacturing.
 Flexibility: Stir casting allows for the incorporation of various types and sizes of reinforcements,
offering flexibility in tailoring the composite's properties.
 Improved Properties: The resulting composites have enhanced mechanical properties, such as increased
strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and thermal stability.

40
Challenges and Limitations

 Uniform Distribution: Achieving a uniform distribution of reinforcing particles throughout the matrix
can be challenging. Poor stirring can lead to agglomeration, where particles clump together, causing
weak spots in the composite.
 Interfacial Bonding: Ensuring strong interfacial bonding between the metal matrix and the
reinforcements is crucial for achieving the desired mechanical properties. Inadequate bonding can result
in reduced composite performance.
 Porosity: The stirring process can introduce gas into the melt, leading to porosity in the final composite,
which can weaken the material.
 Limited Reinforcement Volume: The amount of reinforcement that can be added is limited by the
viscosity of the molten metal. High reinforcement content can make the mixture too viscous to stir
effectively.
 Process Control: Precise control of process parameters, such as stirring speed, temperature, and time, is
essential for producing high-quality composites. Variations in these parameters can lead to inconsistent
properties in the final product.

Process Variations

 Ultrasonic-Assisted Stir Casting: Ultrasonic vibrations are applied to the molten mixture during stirring
to break up agglomerates and improve the dispersion of reinforcements.
 Rheocasting: In this variation, the metal matrix is partially solidified before stirring, creating a semi-
solid slurry that can better incorporate reinforcements and reduce porosity.

41
 squeeze casting
Squeeze casting is a hybrid metal forming process that combines the advantages of both casting and forging.
This process involves pouring molten metal into a preheated die and then applying high pressure during
solidification to produce high-quality, dense components with excellent mechanical properties. Squeeze casting
is particularly useful for producing parts with intricate geometries and fine details, making it an important
process in industries like automotive, aerospace, and defense.

Process of Squeeze Casting

1. Preparation:
o The process starts with preheating the die to reduce thermal gradients and to ensure smooth metal
flow during casting.
o Molten metal, often aluminum or magnesium alloys, is prepared in a furnace.
2. Pouring:
o The molten metal is poured into the lower half of the die cavity. This is typically done manually
or through a controlled pouring system to ensure precise control over the amount of metal used.
3. Application of Pressure:
o After the molten metal is poured into the die, the upper half of the die is closed, and high pressure
is applied. The pressure can range from several MPa to over 100 MPa, depending on the material
and part geometry.
o The applied pressure forces the molten metal to conform to the shape of the die, filling even the
finest details and reducing porosity by expelling trapped gases.
4. Solidification:
o Under pressure, the metal solidifies rapidly, resulting in a dense and fine-grained microstructure.
The applied pressure also minimizes shrinkage and improves the mechanical properties of the
part.
5. Ejection:
o Once solidified, the part is ejected from the die. Depending on the complexity of the part, it may
require minimal post-processing, such as trimming or machining, to remove any excess material
or achieve tight tolerances.

Applications of Squeeze Casting

42
  Automotive Industry: Squeeze casting is commonly used to produce high-strength, lightweight
components such as suspension parts, engine blocks, pistons, and wheel hubs.
 Aerospace: The process is used for creating critical components like landing gear parts, structural
elements, and turbine blades, where strength and reliability are paramount.
 Defense: Squeeze casting is used to manufacture components that require high strength and durability,
such as armor parts and structural components for military vehicles.
 Consumer Goods: Squeeze casting is also employed in producing durable consumer products, such as
high-end sporting goods, tools, and machinery parts.

Advantages of Squeeze Casting

 High Density and Low Porosity: The application of pressure during solidification significantly reduces
porosity, resulting in dense, high-strength parts.
 Enhanced Mechanical Properties: Squeeze-cast components typically have better mechanical
properties, including higher strength, toughness, and fatigue resistance, compared to parts made by
conventional casting methods.
 Improved Surface Finish: The process can produce components with excellent surface finish and fine
details, reducing the need for extensive post-processing.
 Complex Geometries: Squeeze casting allows for the production of parts with intricate geometries and
thin walls, which might be difficult to achieve with traditional casting methods.
 Reduced Material Waste: The process results in near-net-shape parts, minimizing the amount of
material that needs to be removed during finishing and reducing overall waste.

Challenges and Limitations

 High Equipment Costs: The equipment required for squeeze casting, including high-pressure presses
and specialized dies, can be expensive, making the process less cost-effective for low-volume
production.
 Limited to Certain Alloys: Squeeze casting is typically limited to non-ferrous metals like aluminum,
magnesium, and copper alloys. High-melting-point metals like steel are more challenging to process due
to the higher pressures required.
 Complex Die Design: Designing dies for squeeze casting can be more complex and expensive than for
traditional casting methods, especially for parts with intricate geometries.
 Cycle Time: The cycle time for squeeze casting is longer compared to some other casting processes,
such as die casting, because of the need to apply and maintain pressure during solidification.

Variations of Squeeze Casting

 Direct Squeeze Casting: In this variation, molten metal is poured directly into a die cavity, and pressure
is applied immediately after filling. This method is suitable for producing parts with simple geometries
and high mechanical properties.
 Indirect Squeeze Casting: In indirect squeeze casting, the molten metal is first poured into a pre-
chamber, and then a piston pushes the metal into the die cavity, where pressure is applied. This variation
is often used for more complex shapes and allows for better control over the metal flow.

Squeeze casting is a versatile and effective method for producing high-quality metal components, combining the
43
benefits of casting and forging to achieve superior mechanical properties and precise shapes. Despite its higher
equipment costs and complexity, it is highly valued in industries that demand strong, lightweight, and reliable
parts.

continious casting
Continuous casting is a highly efficient process used in the metallurgical industry to solidify molten metal into
a semi-finished product like billets, blooms, or slabs, which can then be further processed through rolling,
forging, or other methods. Unlike traditional casting methods, where metal is poured into individual molds,
continuous casting allows for the production of long, continuous lengths of metal, improving productivity and
reducing waste.

Process of Continuous Casting

44
 1. Melting and Ladle Tapping:
o The process begins with melting the raw material in a furnace, typically an electric arc furnace or
a blast furnace. The molten metal is then transferred to a ladle.
o The ladle is positioned above a tundish, which acts as a reservoir and distributor, controlling the
flow of molten metal into the mold.
2. Mold and Solidification:
o The molten metal is poured from the tundish into a water-cooled copper mold. The mold is open
at both ends, allowing the metal to flow continuously.
o As the molten metal enters the mold, it begins to cool and solidify, forming a solid outer shell
while the inner core remains molten.
3. Withdrawal and Secondary Cooling:
o The partially solidified metal strand is continuously withdrawn from the bottom of the mold at a
controlled speed.
o As the strand moves downward, it passes through a series of rollers and cooling sprays
(secondary cooling) to complete the solidification process and ensure a uniform microstructure.
4. Cutting and Further Processing:
o Once the strand reaches the desired length, it is cut using mechanical shears or a torch cutter into
manageable sections, such as billets, blooms, or slabs.
o These semi-finished products can then be further processed through rolling mills, forging, or
other methods to produce finished goods like sheets, bars, or structural components.

Applications of Continuous Casting

 Steel Production: Continuous casting is predominantly used in the steel industry to produce billets,
slabs, and blooms, which are the starting materials for making a wide range of steel products, including
beams, plates, pipes, and wire.
 Non-Ferrous Metals: The process is also used for casting non-ferrous metals like aluminum, copper,
and their alloys, which are then used in automotive, aerospace, and electrical applications.
 Manufacturing: Continuous casting is used in various manufacturing industries to produce components
with consistent quality and properties, essential for high-volume production.

45
Advantages of Continuous Casting

 High Efficiency and Productivity: Continuous casting is faster and more efficient than traditional ingot
casting, allowing for the production of large quantities of metal with minimal interruptions.
 Material Savings: The process reduces waste, as the continuous nature of casting minimizes the need
for trimming and allows for better yield from the raw material.
 Improved Quality: Continuous casting produces metal with a more uniform and fine-grained
microstructure, leading to better mechanical properties and surface quality.
 Cost-Effective: The process reduces the need for intermediate handling and processing steps, lowering
production costs and energy consumption.
 Flexibility: Continuous casting can be adapted to produce a wide range of shapes and sizes, from thin
slabs for sheet metal to large blooms for structural components.

Challenges and Limitations

 High Initial Investment: Setting up a continuous casting facility requires significant capital investment
in equipment, infrastructure, and technology.
 Complex Process Control: Continuous casting requires precise control of temperature, flow rate, and
solidification to ensure product quality and prevent defects like cracks, segregation, or inclusions.
 Limited Alloy Range: While continuous casting is versatile, some alloys, particularly those with high
melting points or challenging solidification behaviors, may not be suitable for the process.
 Maintenance and Downtime: Continuous casting equipment is subject to wear and tear, especially in
the mold and roller sections, requiring regular maintenance and potentially leading to downtime.

46
Variants of Continuous Casting

 Vertical Continuous Casting: In this traditional method, the molten metal flows vertically downwards,
with the strand being withdrawn in a straight line.
 Horizontal Continuous Casting: In this variant, the mold is positioned horizontally, and the metal is
cast horizontally. This method is often used for casting non-ferrous metals and alloys.
 Thin Slab Casting: A specialized form of continuous casting used to produce thinner slabs directly from
the molten metal, reducing the need for extensive rolling.
 Beam Blank Casting: This variation is used to produce structural shapes like I-beams or H-beams
directly from the caster, minimizing further processing steps.

investment casting
Investment casting, also known as lost-wax casting, is a precision casting process used to create intricate and
complex metal components with excellent surface finish and dimensional accuracy. The process has been used
for thousands of years and is still widely employed in industries such as aerospace, automotive, jewelry, and art
for producing high-quality metal parts.

Process of Investment Casting

1. Pattern Creation:
o The process begins with creating a wax pattern that is an exact replica of the final part. Wax
patterns can be made by injecting wax into a metal mold (for mass production) or by hand for
custom or intricate designs.
47
 2. Assembly:
o Multiple wax patterns are often assembled onto a wax tree, where a central wax runner connects
the patterns. This tree allows for casting multiple parts simultaneously.
3. Shell Building:
o The wax tree is repeatedly dipped into a ceramic slurry, followed by a coating of fine sand or
ceramic powder. This process is repeated several times to build a thick ceramic shell around the
wax patterns. The shell is then left to dry and harden.
4. Wax Removal:
o Once the ceramic shell is fully hardened, the assembly is heated in an autoclave or kiln to melt
and remove the wax, leaving a hollow ceramic mold. The term "lost-wax" comes from this step,
where the wax is "lost" or removed from the mold.
5. Preheating the Mold:
o The ceramic mold is preheated to remove any remaining wax residues and to prepare it for the
molten metal. Preheating also helps prevent thermal shock when the molten metal is poured.
6. Metal Pouring:
o Molten metal is poured into the preheated ceramic mold, filling the cavities left by the wax
patterns. The mold is usually filled under gravity, but vacuum or pressure-assisted methods can
also be used for certain applications.
7. Cooling and Solidification:
o After the metal has been poured, the mold is left to cool and solidify. The cooling rate can be
controlled to achieve the desired mechanical properties in the final part.
8. Shell Removal:
o Once the metal has solidified, the ceramic shell is broken away using mechanical methods like
hammering, water jets, or chemical leaching, revealing the cast metal parts.
9. Finishing:
o The individual parts are cut from the runner system, and any remaining imperfections, such as
gates, risers, or surface defects, are removed. The parts may also undergo heat treatment,
machining, polishing, or coating, depending on the final application.

Applications of Investment Casting

 Aerospace: Investment casting is used to produce complex, high-strength components like turbine
blades, engine parts, and structural elements that require precision and reliability.
 Automotive: It is used for manufacturing parts like gearboxes, engine components, and exhaust
manifolds, where precision and durability are essential.
 Jewelry: The process is ideal for creating detailed and intricate jewelry pieces, allowing for the
production of fine designs with excellent surface finish.
 Medical Devices: Investment casting is used to produce surgical instruments, implants, and other
medical devices that require biocompatibility and precise geometries.
 Art and Sculpture: Artists use investment casting to create detailed sculptures and art pieces, taking
advantage of the process's ability to reproduce fine details.

Advantages of Investment Casting

48
  Complexity and Precision: Investment casting allows for the production of highly intricate and detailed
parts with tight tolerances and excellent surface finish, often requiring little to no post-processing.
 Versatility in Material Choice: The process can be used with a wide range of metals and alloys,
including steel, aluminum, titanium, nickel, and precious metals like gold and silver.
 Excellent Surface Finish: Investment casting produces parts with a smooth surface finish, reducing the
need for extensive machining or polishing.
 Dimensional Accuracy: The process achieves high dimensional accuracy, making it ideal for parts
where precision is critical.
 Reduced Material Waste: Since the process produces near-net-shape parts, material waste is
minimized, making it a cost-effective option for high-value materials.

Challenges and Limitations

 High Cost for Small Production Runs: The initial cost of creating the wax patterns and ceramic molds
can be high, making the process less cost-effective for low-volume production.
 Time-Consuming: The multiple steps involved, including mold building, wax removal, and shell
removal, make investment casting a relatively slow process compared to other casting methods like die
casting.
 Size Limitations: Investment casting is typically used for small to medium-sized parts. Larger
components can be challenging to produce due to difficulties in handling large ceramic molds and
controlling the cooling process.
 Complexity in Mold Design: Designing molds for investment casting can be complex, especially for
intricate or hollow parts, requiring careful planning and expertise.
 Environmental Considerations: The process involves the use of wax, ceramics, and other materials that
need to be disposed of properly, raising environmental concerns.

Process Variations

 Shell Investment Casting: A common variation where a ceramic shell is built around the wax pattern,
offering better dimensional control and surface finish.
 Full Mold Investment Casting: Also known as foam casting, this variation uses a foam pattern instead
of wax. The foam evaporates when the molten metal is poured in, leaving behind the cast part.
 Vacuum Investment Casting: Used for metals with high melting points or reactive alloys, where the
casting is done in a vacuum to prevent oxidation and contamination.

49
50
SAND CASTING DEFECTS

A properly designed casting, a properly prepared mould and correctly melted metal should result
in a defect free casting. However, if proper control is not exercised in the foundry, a variety of defects
may result in the casting. Defective castings, even at advanced foundries, account for 2 to 5% and
sometimes from 10 to 25% of the number of produced castings.

Classification of Defects:

Classification may be made by grouping the defects under certain broad types of origins, such as those
caused due to improper

 Patterns and molding box equipment (mismatch or mold shift, improper wall thickness, etc)
 materials used for molding and core making
 I sand mixing and distribution
 Molding, core making and gating
 Drying and core baking
 Closing of molds
 Molten metal
 Heat treatment , And other reasons being Warpage, during fettling etc.

Some of the common defects discussed below are:

1. Blow Holes: Blow holes are smooth, round holes appearing in the form of a cluster of a large
number of small holes below the surface of a casting. These are entrapped bubbles of gases with
smooth walls. Blow holes are caused by excessive moisture in the sand, or when permeability of
sand is low, sand grains are too fine, sand is reamed too hard, or when venting is insufficient.
Blowhole is a kind of cavities defect, which is also divided into pinhole and
subsurface blowhole. Pinhole is very tiny hole. Subsurface blowhole only
can be seen after machining. To prevent blow holes, the moisture content in
sand must be well adjusted, and of proper grain size should be used,
ramming should not be too hard and venting should be adequate.

2. Misrun or short run: These defects occur due to incomplete cavity filling. The reasons could be
inadequate metal supply, too low mold or melt temperature, improperly designed gates or length
to thickness ration of the casting is too large.

51
3. Cold Shut: It is an interface within the casting that is formed when two metal streams meet
without complete fusion. The causes are same as for misrun.

4. Mismatch: Mismatch is a shift of the individual parts of

a casting with respect to each other. This may occur due
to mold shift or core shift. The causes can be an
improper assembly of the two halves of the mold,
wearing of pin bushes and pins and dimensional
discrepancy between the core prints of the pattern and
core prints of the core.

5. Fin: A thin projection of a metal, not intended as a part of the casting is called the fin. Fins
usually occur at the parting of the mold or core sections. Molds and cores incorrectly assembled
will cause fins. Insufficient weighting of the molds or improper clamping of flasks may also
produce fins.

6. Metal Penetration and Rough Surface: This defect appears as an uneven and rough external
surface of the casting. The metal penetration between the sand grains occurs due to low strength,
large grain size, high permeability and soft ramming of the sand.

7. Drop (Crush): Drop or crush in a mold is an irregularly shaped

projection on the cope surface of a casting. This defect is caused by the
break away of a pair of mold sand as a result of weak packing of the
mold. Low strength of the molding sand, malfunctioning of the mold
equipment, strong jolts and strikes of flask when assembling the mold.
The loose sand that falls into the cavity will also cause a dirty casting
surface, either on the top or bottom surface of the casting, depending
on the relative densities of sand.

8. Run Out: Run out is the defect of metal leaking out of the mold during pouring. This
defect occurs due to faulty molding and faulty flask equipment.

9. Cut or wash: These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by erosion
of molding sand by the flowing metal. This is caused by the molding sand not having enough
strength and the molten metal flowing at high velocity. The former can be taken care of by the
proper choice of molding sand and the latter can be overcome by the proper
design of the gating system.

10. Shrinkage Cavity: It is a depression or an internal void in a casting that

results from the volume contraction that occurs during solidification.

52
11. Hard spots: This defect occurs only with certain metals such as grey CI with insufficient silicon.
Such metals may become hardened by the chilling effect of molding sand, which results in
machining difficulties.
12. Sponginess or Honeycombing: It is an external defect, consisting of a
number of small cavities in close proximity, which usually come through
and are apparent in the surface. Caused by ‘dirt’ and ‘inclusions’ held
mechanically in suspension in the molten metal and is due to imperfect
skimming of slag in the ladle and incorrect gating design. The impurities
being lighter than the metal, rise to the upper part of the casting,
often accompanied by bubbles of gas if the venting in not proper.

13. Tat-Tail, Buckle and Scab: A rat tail, buckle, and

scab all originate in the same way and differ mainly in
degree. They are caused by uncontrolled expansion of
the sand. If the condition is not too bad, a rat tail is
formed. The surface of the sand buckles up in an
irregular line that makes the casting look as though a rat has dragged his tail over it. If sand
expansion is even greater, the defect is called a buckle. If it is still worse so that molten metal can
get behind the buckled sand, it is a scab.

14. Swell: • A swell is an enlargement or bulging of the casting surface resulting from liquid metal
pressure. It occurs due to poor ramming of the mould or not properly reinforcing deep moulds.
Swells can be avoided by proper ramming of the sand and providing adequate support to the
mould.

15. Hot Tear: They are internal and external cracks having ragged edges
occuring immediately after the metal has solidified. Hot rears may be
produced if the casting is poorly designed and abrupt sectional changes
takes place, no proper fillets and corner radii are provided, and chills ar
wrongly placed, incorrect pouring temperatures and improper placing
of gates and risers.

53
 INSPECTION AND TESTING OF CASTINGS

The aims of inspection and testing of castings are to prevent defective castings being supplied from the
foundry and to reduce the percentage of inevitable processing defects.
The various inspection and testing procedures are

1. Visual Inspection: By naked eye, identify defects such as misrun, cracks, warping, etc.
2. Dimensional Inspection: Dimensions are checked by measuring tools.
3. Metallurgical Control: Chemical composition, mechanical and other properties are determined
in the laboratory
4. Pressure Testing: Water or air pressure test to identify leakage in vessels, cylinders or joints.
5. Radio-Graphical Testing: Internal defects in a casting such as cracks, voids, cavities and
porosity, etc as well as surface cracks can be revealed by radio-graphic inspection using X-rays
and γ-rays.

In X-ray testing, short wave length rays from an X-ray tube are passed through the casting and
recorded . It the casting has an internal defect, the density of the materials at that spot will be less
as compared to the surroundings. This area will allow more penetration of the rays. This will
result in the appearance of a dark shadow on the X-ray film reproducing the contour of the defect.
The power source used for X-ray tube is a high voltage source: 200KV for casting thickness upto
50mm and one million volts for a thickness from 50 to 180mm.

γ-ray testing is used for checking heavy-walled castings since these rays are more penetrating and
less scattering as compared to X-rays. γ-rays radiate from radium or its salts contained in a
capsule.

6. Magnetic Testing: In this method, the casting to be tested is magnetized and then placed between
the poles of an electro-magnet or in the magnetic field of a solenoid coil. The energized coil is
now moved along the casting. If the coil comes across a defect on its way, the magnetic flux
changes its direction and induces an emf in the coil turns, the value of which shows up on the
galvanometer. This method can detect cracks on the surface or slightly below the surface of a
casting. Thus, it supplements the radio-graphical methods, which ordinarily cannot detect small
cracks. However, the method can be applied to castings made from ferro-magnetic metals.

7. Magnetic Particle Testing: This method of inspection is a procedure used to determine the
presence of defects at or near the surface of ferro-magentic castings.

8. Eddy Current Inspection: In this method, the material of the casting need not be ferro-magnetic.
The test includes a probe which is supplied with high frequency current. It induces an electric
field in the casting. The field changes in the presence of surface or near surface defects. These
changes show up in the instrumentation.

54
 9. Liquid-Penetration Inspection: This method can reveal surface defects only but can be used for
any other material. The surface of the casting is thoroughly cleaned and dried. Then the liquid
penetrant is applied as sprays or by immersion. The penetrant liquid contains either a material
which will fluoresce under black light or a dye that can be visually detected. The liquid penetrant
will be readilty drawn into extremely thin cracks. The surface is cleaned and dried. Then, a
powder material called developer is sprayed on the surface. The penetrant trapped in defects
bleeds out due to blotting action and delineate defects during development. The extent of the
discontinuity in the casting surface will be proportional to the amount of penetrant bleeding out.
If a florescent penetrant is used, defects show up as a glowing yellow green dots or lines against a
dark background. In dye penetrant, defects are revealed as red dots or lines against a white
background.

10. Ultrasonic Testing: This test is based on the fact that a beam of ultrasonic waves (frequency
20000Hz) passes through a solid (dense) material with little loss but is partially reflected from
surfaces. Therefore this method can detect voids, cracks and porosity within a casting.
The ultrasonic waves are produced by the application of reverse piezo-electric effect. That is, if
an electric potential is applied across the flat ends of a crystal (quartz crystal), it will either
contract or elongate in the normal direction.

The crystal is held against a smooth surface of the casting with the help of a coupling fluid. A
high frequency AC (I million Cycles per second) is impressed across the faces of the crystal with
the help of an oscillator. The second waves produced travel through the casting. These will get
reflected from the other end of the casting and the signals are measured with a CRO.
If the casting has some flaws within it, some of the sound waves will be reflected back and will
return to the instrument earlier. The location of the defects from the testing surface may be
readily obtained by measuring the relative position of the flaw ‘pip’ between two ‘pips’
representing the metal thickness.

The tests for determining mechanical properties of the casting are called as “Destructive Testing” since
the casting that undergo these tests become unserviceable. All other tests discussed above are called as
“Non-Destructive Testing”, since the casting after the test can be used in the usual way, if found suitable.

55
Manufacturing Science & Technology-I
Unit-I

Two Marks Questions

1. State any four properties of molding sand.

2. List the different types of patterns used in modern foundries
3. What are chaplets?
4. What is meant by core prints?
5. Differentiate the terms mold and core.
6. Which type of furnaces are suitable for melting ferrous materials and why?
7. Write a note on chilled casting
8. Differentiate between semi centrifugal casting and centrifuge.
9. Define casting?
10. When do you make core (or) what is function of core in moulding sand?
11. Mention the specific advantages of carbon di oxide process?
12. Write the composition of good moulding sand?
13. What are the reasons for the casting defects of cold shuts and misrun?
14. Name four different casting defects.
15. How casting defects are identified?
16. Explain the core making process?

Ten Marks Questions

1. What are the pattern allowances? Explain briefly each.

2. Discuss the properties of moulding sand
3. Explain the CO2 process of core making state its advantages and applications.
4. State the different type of mould. Write a short note on „Green sand mould‟ and shell moulding
5. Write a neat sketch of a cupola, Explain its operate.
6. Explain with a simple sketch how metal is melted in a Electric arc furnace.
7. What are the different types of furnace used in foundry? Describe in detail with neat sketches
any one of them.
8. Explain briefly the various moulding methods used in foundries.
9. Enumerate the continuous casting defects and suggest suitable remedies.
10. Explain the various non –destructive inspection methods of cast products.

56
57