Fundamentals of Programming 1

Chapter One

1.1 Introduction to programming

A Computer is an electronic device that accepts data, performs computations, and makes
logical decisions according to instructions that have been given to it; then produces
meaningful information in a form that is useful to the user. In current world we live in,
computers are almost used in all walks of life for different purposes. They have been
deployed to solve different real life problems, from the simplest game playing up to the
complex nuclear energy production. Computers are important and widely used in our society
because they are cost-effective aids to problem solving in business, government, industry,
education, etc.

In order to solve a given problem, computers must be given the correct instruction about how
they can solve it. The terms computer programs, software programs, or just programs are
the instructions that tells the computer what to do. Computer requires programs to function,
and a computer programs does nothing unless its instructions are executed by a CPU.
Computer programming (often shortened to programming or coding) is the process of
writing, testing, debugging/troubleshooting, and maintaining the source code of computer
programs. Writing computer programs means writing instructions, that will make the
computer follow and run a program based on those instructions. Each instruction is relatively
simple, yet because of the computer's speed, it is able to run millions of instructions in a
second. A computer program usually consists of two elements:
 Data – characteristics
 Code – action
Computer programs (also known as source code) is often written by professionals known as
Computer Programmers (simply programmers). Source code is written in one of
programming languages. A programming language is an artificial language that can be used
to control the behavior of a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages, like
natural language (such as Amharic), are defined by syntactic and semantic rules which
describe their structure and meaning respectively. The syntax of a language describes the
possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The meaning

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given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics. Many programming languages

have some form of written specification of their syntax and semantics; some are defined only
by an official implementation. In general, programming languages allow humans to
communicate instructions to machines.

A main purpose of programming languages is to provide instructions to a computer. As such,

programming languages differ from most other forms of human expression in that they
require a greater degree of precision and completeness. When using a natural language to
communicate with other people, human authors and speakers can be ambiguous and make
small errors, and still expect their intent to be understood. However, computers do exactly
what they are told to do, and cannot understand the code the programmer "intended" to write.
So computers need to be instructed to perform all the tasks. The combination of the language
definition, the program, and the program's inputs must fully specify the external behavior that
occurs when the program is executed. Computer languages have relatively few, exactly
defined, rules for composition of programs, and strictly controlled vocabularies in which
unknown words must be defined before they can be used.

Available programming languages come in a variety of forms and types. Thousands of

different programming languages have been developed, used, and discarded. Programming
languages can be divided in to two major categories: low-level and high-level languages.

Low-level languages
Computers only understand one language and that is binary language or the language of 1s
and 0s. Binary language is also known as machine language, one of low-level languages. In
the initial years of computer programming, all the instructions were given in binary form.
Although the computer easily understood these programs, it proved too difficult for a normal
human being to remember all the instructions in the form of 0s and 1s. Therefore, computers
remained mystery to a common person until other languages such as assembly language was
developed, which were easier to learn and understand.

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Assembly language correspondences symbolic instructions and executable machine codes. It

was created to use letters (called mnemonics) to each machine language instructions to make
it easier to remember or write. For example:
Wages = rate * hours to calculate weekly wages. Further, suppose that the binary
code100100 stands for load, 100110 stands for multiplication, and 100010 stands for store.
In machine language, you might need the following sequence of instructions to calculate
weekly wages:
100100 010001
100110 010010
100010 010011
To represent the weekly wages equation in machine language, the programmer had to
remember the machine language codes for various operations. Also, to manipulate data, the
programmer had to remember the locations of the data in the main memory.
This need to remember specific codes made programming not only very difficult, but also
error-prone.
Assembly language is nothing more than a symbolic representation of machine code, which
allows symbolic designation of memory locations. However, no matter how close assembly
language is to machine code, computers still cannot understand it. The assembly language
must be translated to machine code by a separate program called assembler. The machine
instruction created by the assembler from the original program (source code) is called object
code. Thus assembly languages are unique to a specific computer (machine). Assemblers are
written for each unique machine language.
Assembly Language Machine Language
LOAD 100100
STOR 100010
MULT 100110
ADD 100101
SUB 100011

Using assembly language instructions, you can write the equation to calculate the weekly
wages as follows:

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LOAD rate
MULT hours
STOR wages

High-level languages
Although programming in assembly language is not as difficult and error prone as stringing
together ones and zeros, it is slow and cumbersome. In addition it is hardware specific. The
lack of portability between different computers led to the development of high-level
languages—so called because they permitted a programmer to ignore many low-level details
of the computer's hardware. Further, it was recognized that the closer the syntax, rules, and
mnemonics of the programming language could be to "natural language" the less likely it
became that the programmer would inadvertently introduce errors (called "bugs") into the
program. High-level languages are more English-like and, therefore, make it easier for
programmers to "think" in the programming language. High-level languages also require
translation to machine language before execution. This translation is accomplished by either a
compiler or an interpreter.

Compilers translate the entire source code program before execution.

Interpreters translate source code programs one line at a time.

Interpreters are more interactive than compilers. FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator), BASIC
(Bingers All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), PASCAL, C, C++, Java are some examples
of high-level languages.
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1.2 Programming Paradigm

The question of which language is best is one that consumes a lot of time and energy among
computer professionals. Every language has its strengths and weaknesses. For example,
FORTRAN is a particularly good language for processing numerical data, but it does not lend
itself very well to organizing large programs. Pascal is very good for writing well-structured
and readable programs, but it is not as flexible as the C programming language. C++
embodies powerful object-oriented features.

As might be expected in a dynamic and evolving field, there is no single standard for
classifying programming languages. Another most fundamental ways programming languages
are characterized (categorized) is by programming paradigm. A programming paradigm
provides the programmer's view of code execution. The most influential paradigms are
examined in the next three sections, in approximate chronological order.

1.2.1 Procedural Programming Languages

Procedural programming specifies a list of operations that the program must complete to
reach the desired state. Each program has a starting state, a list of operations to complete, and
an ending point. This approach is also known as imperative programming. Integral to the
idea of procedural programming is the concept of a procedure call.
Procedures, also known as functions, subroutines, or methods, are small sections of code that
perform a particular function. A procedure is effectively a list of computations to be carried
out. Procedural programming can be compared to unstructured programming, where all of the
code resides in a single large block. By splitting the programmatic tasks into small pieces,
procedural programming allows a section of code to be re-used in the program without
making multiple copies. It also makes it easier for programmers to understand and maintain
program structure.
Two of the most popular procedural programming languages are FORTRAN and BASIC.

1.2.2 Structured Programming Languages

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Structured programming is a special type of procedural programming. It provides additional

tools to manage the problems that larger programs were creating. Structured programming
requires that programmers break program structure into small pieces of code that are easily
understood. It also frowns upon the use of global variables and instead uses variables local to
each subroutine. One of the well-known features of structural programming is that it does not
allow the use of the GOTO statement. It is often associated with a "top-down" approach to
design. The top-down approach begins with an initial overview of the system that contains
minimal details about the different parts. Subsequent design iterations then add increasing
detail to the components until the design is complete.
The most popular structured programming languages include C, Ada, and Pascal.

1.2.3 Object-Oriented Programming Languages

Object-oriented programming is one the newest and most powerful paradigms. In object-
oriented programs, the designer specifies both the data structures and the types of operations
that can be applied to those data structures. This pairing of a piece of data with the operations
that can be performed on it is known as an object. A program thus becomes a collection of
cooperating objects, rather than a list of instructions. Objects can store state information and
interact with other objects, but generally each object has a distinct, limited role.

1.3 Problem solving Techniques

Computer solves varieties of problems that can be expressed in a finite number of steps
leading to a precisely defined goal by writing different programs. A program is not needed
only to solve a problem but also it should be reliable, (maintainable) portable and efficient. In
computer programming two facts are given more weight:
 The first part focuses on defining the problem and logical procedures to follow in
solving it.
 The second introduces the means by which programmers communicate those
procedures to the computer system so that it can be executed.
There are system analysis and design tools, particularly flowchart and structure chart, that can
be used to define the problem in terms of the steps to its solution. The programmer uses
programming language to communicate the logic of the solution to the computer.

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Before a program is written, the programmer must clearly understand what data are to be
used, the desired result, and the procedure to be used to produce the result. The procedure, or
solution, selected is referred to as an algorithm. An algorithm is defined as a step-by-step
sequence of instructions that must terminate and describe how the data is to be processed to
produce the desired outputs. Simply, algorithm is a sequence of instructions. Algorithms are a
fundamental part of computing. There are three commonly used tools to help to document
program logic (the algorithm). These are flowcharts, structured chart, and Pseudocode. We
will use the three methods here. Generally, flowcharts work well for small problems but
Pseudocode is used for larger problems.

1.3.1 Pseudocode

Pseudocode (derived from pseudo and code) is a compact and informal high-level description
of a computer algorithm that uses the structural conventions of programming languages, but
typically omits detailes such as subroutines, variables declarations and system-specific syntax.
The programming language is augmented with natural language descriptions of the details,
where convenient, or with compact mathematical notation. The purpose of using pseudocode
is that it may be easier for humans to read than conventional programming languages, and that
it may be a compact and environment-independent generic description of the key principles of
an algorithm. No standard for pseudocode syntax exists, as a program in pseudocode is not an
executable program. As the name suggests, pseudocode generally does not actually obey the
synatx rules of any particular language; there is no systematic standard form, although any
particular writer will generally borrow the appearance of a particular language.

The programming process is a complicated one. You must first understand the program
specifications, of course, Then you need to organize your thoughts and create the program.
This is a difficult task when the program is not trivial (i.e. easy). You must break the main
tasks that must be accomplished into smaller ones in order to be able to eventually write fully
developed code. Writing pseudocode will save you time later during the construction &
testing phase of a program's development.

Example:

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Original Program Specification:

Write a program that obtains two integer numbers from the user. It will print
out the sum of those numbers.

Pseudocode:

Prompt the user to enter the first integer

Prompt the user to enter a second integer
Compute the sum of the two user inputs
Display an output prompt that explains the answer as the sum
Display the result

1.3.2 Structured Charts

Structured chart depicts the logical functions to the solution of the problem using a chart. It
provides an overview that confirms the solution to the problem without excessive
consideration to detail. It is high-level in nature.
Example: Write a program that asks the user to enter a temperature reading in centigrade and
then prints the equivalent Fahrenheit value.
Input Process Output
Centigrade  Prompt for centigrade value Fahrenheit
 Read centigrade value
 Compute Fahrenheit value
 Display Fahrenheit value

CelsusToFarh
(main func)

centigrade centigrade Fahrenheit

Fahrenheit

InPutCen CalcFar OutPutFar

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1.3.3 Flowchart
A flowchart (also spelled flow-chart and flow chart) is a schematic representation of an
algorithm or a process . The advantage of flowchart is it doesn’t depend on any particular
programming language, so that it can used, to translate an algorithm to more than one
programming language. Flowchart uses different symbols (geometrical shapes) to represent
different processes. The following table shows some of the common symbols.

Example 1: - Draw flow chart of an algorithm to add two numbers and display their result.
Algorithm description
 Read the rules of the two numbers (A and B)
 Add A and B
 Assign the sum of A and B to C
 Display the result ( c)

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The flow chart is:

Start

Read A, B

C= A+B

Print C

End
Example 2: Write an algorithm description and draw a flow chart to check a number is
negative or not.

Algorithm description.
1/ Read a number x
2/ If x is less than zero write a message negative
else write a message not negative

Sometimes there are conditions in which it is necessary to execute a group of statements

repeatedly. Until some condition is satisfied. This condition is called a loop. Loop is a
sequence of instructions, which is repeated until some specific condition occurs. A loop
normally consists of four parts. These are:

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Initialization: - Setting of variables of the computation to their initial values and setting the
counter for determining to exit from the loop.
Computation: - Processing
Test: - Every loop must have some way of exiting from it or else the program would endlessly
remain in a loop.
Increment: - Re-initialization of the loop for the next loop.

Example 3: - Write the algorithmic description and draw a flow chart to find the following
sum.
Sum = 1+2+3+…. + 50
Algorithmic description
1. Initialize sum too and counter to 1
1.1.If the counter is less than or equal to 50

• Add counter to sum

• Increase counter by 1
• Repeat step 1.1

1.2.Else
• Exit

2. Write sum

1.4 System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model used in project
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management that describes the stages involved in a computer system development project
from an initial feasibility study through maintenance of the completed application. The phases
of SDLC is discussed below briefly.

1.4.1 Feasibility study

The first step is to identify a need for the new system. This will include determining whether
a business problem or opportunity exists, conducting a feasibility study to determine if the
proposed solution is cost effective, and developing a project plan.

This process may involve end users who come up with an idea for improving their work or
may only involve IS people. Ideally, the process occurs in tandem with a review of the
organization's strategic plan to ensure that IT is being used to help the organization achieve its
strategic objectives. Management may need to approve concept ideas before any money is
budgeted for its development.

A preliminary analysis, determining the nature and scope of the problems to be solved is
carried out. Possible solutions are proposed, describing the cost and benefits. Finally, a
preliminary plan for decision making is produced.

The process of developing a large information system can be very costly, and the
investigation stage may require a preliminary study called a feasibility study, which includes
e.g. the following components:

a. Organisational Feasibility

 How well the proposed system supports the strategic objectives of the organization.

b. Economic Feasibility

 Cost savings
 Increased revenue
 Decreased investment
 Increased profits

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c. Technical Feasibility

 Hardware, software, and network capability, reliability, and availability

d. Operational Feasibility

 End user acceptance

 Management support
 Customer, supplier, and government requirements

1.4.2 Requirements analysis

Requirements analysis is the process of analyzing the information needs of the end users, the
organizational environment, and any system presently being used, developing the functional
requirements of a system that can meet the needs of the users. Also, the requirements should
be recorded in a document, email, user interface storyboard, executable prototype, or some
other form. The requirements documentation should be referred to throughout the rest of the
system development process to ensure the developing project aligns with user needs and
requirements.

End users must be involved in this process to ensure that the new system will function
adequately and meets their needs and expectations.

1.4.3 Designing solution

After the requirements have been determined, the necessary specifications for the hardware,
software, people, and data resources, and the information products that will satisfy the
functional requirements of the proposed system can be determined. The design will serve as a
blueprint for the system and helps detect problems before these errors or problems are built
into the final system.

The created system design, but must reviewed by users to ensure the design meets users'
needs.

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1.4.4 Testing designed solution

A smaller test system is sometimes a good idea in order to get a “proof-of-concept” validation
prior to committing funds for large scale fielding of a system without knowing if it really
works as intended by the user.

1.4.5 Implementation
The real code is written here. Systems implementation is the construction of the new system
and its delivery into production or day-to-day operation.The key to understanding the
implementation phase is to realize that there is a lot more to be done than programming.
Implementation requires programming, but it also requires database creation and population,
and network installation and testing. You also need to make sure the people are taken care of
with effective training and documentation. Finally, if you expect your development skills to
improve over time, you need to conduct a review of the lessons learned.

1.4.6 Unit testing

Normally programs are written as a series of individual modules, these subject to separate and
detailed test.

1.4.7 Integration and System testing

Bring all the pieces together into a special testing environment, then checks for errors, bugs
and interoperability. The system is tested to ensure that interfaces between modules work
(integration testing), the system works on the intended platform and with the expected volume
of data (volume testing) and that the system does what the user requires (acceptance/beta
testing).

1.4.8 Maintenance
What happens during the rest of the software's life: changes, correction, additions, moves to a
different computing platform and more. This, the least glamorous and perhaps most important
step of all, goes on seemingly forever.

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Chapter 2
2. C++ Basics
The C++ programming languages can be thought of as the C programming language with
classes (and other modern features added). The C programming language was developed by
Dennis Ritchie of AT&T Bell Laboratories in the 1970s. It was first used for writing and
maintaining the UNIX operating system. (Up until that time, UNIX systems programs were
written either in assembly language or in a language called B, a language developed by Ken
Thompson, the originator of UNIX.) The C language is peculiar because it is a high-level
language with many of the features of a low-level language. C is somewhere in between the
two extremes of a very high-level language and a low-level language, and therein lies both its
strengths and its weaknesses. Like (low-level) assembly language, C language programs can
directly manipulate the computer’s memory. On the other hand, C has the features of a high-
level language, which makes it easier to read and write than assembly language. This makes C
an excellent choice for writing systems programs, but for other programs (and in some sense
even for systems programs) C is not as easy to understand as other languages; also, it does not
have as many automatic checks as some other high-level languages. To overcome these and
other shortcomings of C, Bjarne Stroustrup of AT&T Bell Laboratories developed C++ in the
early 1980s. Stroustrup designed C++ to be a better C. Most of C is a subset of C++, and so
most C programs are also C++ programs. (The reverse is not true; many C++ programs are
definitely not C programs.) Unlike C, C++ has facilities for classes and so can be used for
object-oriented programming.

2.1. Structure of C++ Program

2.1.1 C++ IDE
The complete development cycle in C++ is: Write the program, compile the source code, link
the program, and run it.

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2.1.2 Writing a Program

To write a source code, your compiler may have its own built-in text editor, or you may be
using a commercial text editor or word processor that can produce text files. The important
thing is that whatever you write your program in, it must save simple, plain-text files, with no
word processing commands embedded in the text. Examples of safe editors include Windows
Notepad, the DOS Edit command, EMACS, and vi. Many commercial word processors, such
as WordPerfect, Word, and dozens of others, also offer a method for saving simple text files.
The files you create with your editor are called source files, and for C++ they typically are
named with the extension .CPP.
2.1.3 Compiling
Your source code file can't be executed, or run, as a program can. To turn your source code
into a program, you use a compiler. How you invoke your compiler, and how you tell it where
to find your source code, will vary from compiler to compiler; check your documentation. In
Borland's Turbo C++ you pick the RUN menu command or type
tc <filename>
from the command line, where <filename> is the name of your source code file (for example,
test.cpp). Other compilers may do things slightly differently. After your source code is
compiled, an object file is produced. This file is often named with the extension .OBJ. This is
still not an executable program, however. To turn this into an executable program, you must
run your linker.
2.1.4 Linking
C++ programs are typically created by linking together one or more OBJ files with one or
more libraries. A library is a collection of linkable files that were supplied with your compiler,
that you purchased separately, or that you created and compiled. All C++ compilers come

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with a library of useful functions (or procedures) and classes that you can include in your
program. A function is a block of code that performs a service, such as adding two numbers or
printing to the screen. A class is a collection of data and related functions.
Summary
The steps to create an executable file are

1. Create a source code file, with a .CPP extension.

2. Compile the source code into a file with the .OBJ extension.
3. Link your OBJ file with any needed libraries to produce an executable program.
2.2 Showing Sample program
Any meaningful program written in C++ has to contain a number of components: the main
function; some variable declarations; and some executable statements. For example, the
following is a very basic C++ program:
1: #include <iostream.h>
2:
3: int main()
4: {
5: cout << "Hello World!\n";
6: return 0;
7: }
On line 1, the file iostream.h is included in the file. The first character is the # symbol, which
is a signal to the preprocessor. Each time you start your compiler, the preprocessor is run. The
preprocessor reads through your source code, looking for lines that begin with the pound
symbol (#), and acts on those lines before the compiler runs.
include is a preprocessor instruction that says, "What follows is a filename. Find that file and
read it in right here." The angle brackets around the filename tell the preprocessor to look in
all the usual places for this file. If your compiler is set up correctly, the angle brackets will
cause the preprocessor to look for the file iostream.h in the directory that holds all the H files
for your compiler. The file iostream.h (Input-Output-Stream) is used by cout, which assists
with writing to the screen. The effect of line 1 is to include the file iostream.h into this
program as if you had typed it in yourself.

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The preprocessor runs before your compiler each time the compiler is invoked. The
preprocessor translates any line that begins with a pound symbol (#) into a special command,
getting your code file ready for the compiler.
Line 3 begins the actual program with a function named main(). Every C++ program has a
main() function. In general, a function is a block of code that performs one or more actions.
Usually functions are invoked or called by other functions, but main() is special. When your
program starts, main() is called automatically.
main(), like all functions, must state what kind of value it will return. The return value type
for main() in HELLO.CPP is int, which means that this function will return an integer value.
All functions begin with an opening brace ({) and end with a closing brace (}). The braces for
the main() function are on lines 4 and 7. Everything between the opening and closing braces
is considered a part of the function.
The meat and potatoes of this program is on line 5. The object cout is used to print a message
to the screen. cout is used in C++ to print strings and values to the screen. A string is just a set
of characters.
Here's how cout is used: type the word cout, followed by the output redirection operator (<<).
Whatever follows the output redirection operator is written to the screen. If you want a string
of characters written, be sure to enclose them in double quotes ("), as shown on line 5. A text
string is a series of printable characters.
The final two characters, \n, tell cout to put a new line after the words Hello World! All
ANSI-compliant programs declare main() to return an int. This value is "returned" to the
operating system when your program completes. Some programmers signal an error by
returning the value 1.
The main() function ends on line 7 with the closing brace.

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2.3 Basic Elements

2.3.1 Special Symbols

Following are some of the special symbols:

+ - * /

. ; ? ,

<= != == >=
The first row includes mathematical symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. The second row consists of punctuation marks taken from English grammar. Note
that the comma is also a special symbol. In C++, commas are used to separate items in a list.
Semicolons are used to end a C++ statement. Note that the blank, which is not shown above,
is also a special symbol. You create a blank symbol by pressing the space bar (only once) on
the keyboard. The third row consists of tokens made of two characters that are regarded as a
single symbol. No character can come between the two characters in the token, not even a
blank.
2.3.2 Keywords (reserved words)
Reserved/Key words have a unique meaning within a C++ program. These symbols, the
reserved words, must not be used for any other purposes. All reserved words are in lower-case
letters. The following are some of the reserved words of C++.
asm auto bool break case catch
const_cast class const char continue default
dynamic_cast do double delete else enum
explicit extern false float for friend
goto if inline int long mutable
namespace new operator private protected public
reinterpret_cast register return short signed sizeof
static_cast static struct switch template this
throw true try typedef typeid typename

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union unsigned using virtual void volatile

wchar_t

Notice that main is not a reserved word. However, this is a fairly technical distinction, and for
practical purposes you are advised to treat main, cin, and cout as if they were reserved as well.
2.3.3. Identifiers
An identifier is name associated with a function or data object and used to refer to that
function or data object. An identifier must:
 Start with a letter or underscore
 Consist only of letters, the digits 0-9, or the underscore symbol _
 Not be a reserved word
For the purposes of C++ identifiers, the underscore symbol, _, is considered to be a letter. Its
use as the first character in an identifier is not recommended though, because many library
functions in C++ use such identifiers. Similarly, the use of two consecutive underscore
symbols, _ _, is forbidden.
The following are valid identifiers
Length days_in_year DataSet1 Profit95
Int _Pressure first_one first_1
Although using _Pressure is not recommended.
The following are invalid:

days-in-year 1data int first.val

throw my__best No## bestWish!
Although it may be easier to type a program consisting of single character identifiers,
modifying or correcting the program becomes more and more difficult. The minor typing
effort of using meaningful identifiers will repay itself many fold in the avoidance of simple
programming errors when the program is modified.
At this stage it is worth noting that C++ is case-sensitive. That is lower-case letters are treated
as distinct from upper-case letters. Thus the word NUM different from the word num or the
word Num. Identifiers can be used to identify variable or constants or functions. Function
identifier is an identifier that is used to name a function.
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2.3.4 Literals
Literals are constant values which can be a number, a character of a string. For example the
number 129.005, the character ‘A’ and the string “hello world” are all literals. There is no
identifier that identifies them.
2.3.5 Comments
A comment is a piece of descriptive text which explains some aspect of a program. Program
comments are totally ignored by the compiler and are only intended for human readers. C++
provides two types of comment delimiters:
 Anything after // (until the end of the line on which it appears) is considered a
comment.
 Anything enclosed by the pair /* and */ is considered a comment.

2.4. Data Types, Variables, and Constants

2.4.1. Variables
A variable is a symbolic name for a memory location in which data can be stored and
subsequently recalled. Variables are used for holding data values so that they can be utilized
in various computations in a program. All variables have two important attributes:
 A type, which is, established when the variable is defined (e.g., integer, float,
character). Once defined, the type of a C++ variable cannot be changed.
 A value, which can be changed by assigning a new value to the variable. The kind of
values a variable can assume depends on its type. For example, an integer variable can
only take integer values (e.g., 2, 100, -12) not real numbers like 0.123.

Variable Declaration
Declaring a variable means defining (creating) a variable. You create or define a variable by
stating its type, followed by one or more spaces, followed by the variable name and a
semicolon. The variable name can be virtually any combination of letters, but cannot contain
spaces and the first character must be a letter or an underscore. Variable names cannot also be
the same as keywords used by C++. Legal variable names include x, J23qrsnf, and myAge.
Good variable names tell you what the variables are for; using good names makes it easier to

21
 Fundamentals of Programming 22

understand the flow of your program. The following statement defines an integer variable
called myAge:
int myAge;
IMPORTANT- Variables must be declared before used!
As a general programming practice, avoid such horrific names as J23qrsnf, and restrict single-
letter variable names (such as x or i) to variables that are used only very briefly. Try to use
expressive names such as myAge or howMany.
A point worth mentioning again here is that C++ is case-sensitive. In other words, uppercase
and lowercase letters are considered to be different. A variable named age is different from
Age, which is different from AGE.
Creating More Than One Variable at a Time
You can create more than one variable of the same type in one statement by writing the type
and then the variable names, separated by commas. For example:
int myAge, myWeight; // two int variables
long area, width, length; // three longs
As you can see, myAge and myWeight are each declared as integer variables. The second line
declares three individual long variables named area, width, and length. However keep in mind
that you cannot mix types in one definition statement.
Assigning Values to Your Variables
You assign a value to a variable by using the assignment operator (=). Thus, you would assign
5 to Width by writing
int Width;
Width = 5;
You can combine these steps and initialize Width when you define it by writing
int Width = 5;
Initialization looks very much like assignment, and with integer variables, the difference is
minor. The essential difference is that initialization takes place at the moment you create the
variable.
Just as you can define more than one variable at a time, you can initialize more than one
variable at creation. For example:
// create two int variables and initialize them
22
 Fundamentals of Programming 23

int width = 5, length = 7;

This example initializes the integer variable width to the value 5 and the length variable to the
value 7. It is possible to even mix definitions and initializations:
int myAge = 39, yourAge, hisAge = 40;
This example creates three type int variables, and it initializes the first and third.
2.5 Basic Data Types
When you define a variable in C++, you must tell the compiler what kind of variable it is: an
integer, a character, and so forth. This information tells the compiler how much room to set
aside and what kind of value you want to store in your variable.
Several data types are built into C++. The varieties of data types allow programmers to select
the type appropriate to the needs of the applications being developed. The data types
supported by C++ can be classified as basic (fundamental) data types, user defined data types,
derived data types and empty data types. However, the discussion here will focus only on the
basic data types.
Basic (fundamental) data types in C++ can be conveniently divided into numeric and
character types. Numeric variables can further be divided into integer variables and floating-
point variables. Integer variables will hold only integers whereas floating number variables
can accommodate real numbers.
Both the numeric data types offer modifiers that are used to vary the nature of the data to be
stored. The modifiers used can be short, long, signed and unsigned.
The data types used in C++ programs are described in Table 1.1. This table shows the variable
type, how much room it takes in memory, and what kinds of values can be stored in these
variables. The values that can be stored are determined by the size of the variable types.
Type Size Values
unsigned short int 2 bytes 0 to 65,535
short int(signed short int) 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned long int 4 bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295
long int(signed long int) 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
int 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned int 2 bytes 0 to 65,535
signed int 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767

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 Fundamentals of Programming 24

char 1 byte 256 character values

float 4 bytes 3.4e-38 to 3.4e38
double 8 bytes 1.7e-308 to 1.7e308
long double 10 bytes 1.2e-4932 to 1.2e4932

Table C++ data types and their ranges

2.5.1 Integers - Signed and Unsigned

As shown above, integer types come in two varieties: signed and unsigned. The idea here is
that sometimes you need negative numbers, and sometimes you don't. Integers (short and
long) without the word "unsigned" are assumed to be signed. signed integers are either
negative or positive. Unsigned integers are always positive.
Because you have the same number of bytes for both signed and unsigned integers, the largest
number you can store in an unsigned integer is twice as big as the largest positive number you
can store in a signed integer. An unsigned short integer can handle numbers from 0 to 65,535.
Half the numbers represented by a signed short are negative, thus a signed short can only
represent numbers from -32,768 to 32,767.
Example: A demonstration of the use of variables.
2: #include <iostream.h>
3:
4: int main()
5: {
6: unsigned short int Width = 5, Length;
7: Length = 10;
8:
9: // create an unsigned short and initialize with result
10: // of multiplying Width by Length
11: unsigned short int Area = Width * Length;
12:
13: cout << "Width:" << Width << "\n";
14: cout << "Length: " << Length << endl;
15: cout << "Area: " << Area << endl;
16: return 0;
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 Fundamentals of Programming 25

17: }
Output: Width:5
Length: 10
Area: 50
Line 2 includes the required include statement for the iostream's library so that cout will work.
Line 4 begins the program.
On line 6, Width is defined as an unsigned short integer, and its value is initialized to 5.
Another unsigned short integer, Length, is also defined, but it is not initialized. On line 7, the
value 10 is assigned to Length.
On line 11, an unsigned short integer, Area, is defined, and it is initialized with the value
obtained by multiplying Width times Length. On lines 13-15, the values of the variables are
printed to the screen. Note that the special word endl creates a new line.
2.5.2 Wrapping around integer values
The fact that unsigned long integers have a limit to the values they can hold is only rarely a
problem, but what happens if you do run out of room? When an unsigned integer reaches its
maximum value, it wraps around and starts over, much as a car odometer might. The
following example shows what happens if you try to put too large a value into a short integer.
Example: A demonstration of putting too large a value in a variable
1: #include <iostream.h>
2: int main()
3: {
4: unsigned short int smallNumber;
5: smallNumber = 65535;
6: cout << "small number:" << smallNumber << endl;
7: smallNumber++;
8: cout << "small number:" << smallNumber << endl;
9: smallNumber++;
10: cout << "small number:" << smallNumber << endl;
11: return 0;
12: }
Output: small number:65535

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 Fundamentals of Programming 26

small number:0
small number:1
A signed integer is different from an unsigned integer, in that half of the values you can
represent are negative. Instead of picturing a traditional car odometer, you might picture one
that rotates up for positive numbers and down for negative numbers. One mile from 0 is either
1 or -1. When you run out of positive numbers, you run right into the largest negative
numbers and then count back down to 0. The whole idea here is putting a number that is
above the range of the variable can create unpredictable problem.
Example: A demonstration of adding too large a number to a signed integer.
1: #include <iostream.h>
2: int main()
3: {
4: short int smallNumber;
5: smallNumber = 32767;
6: cout << "small number:" << smallNumber << endl;
7: smallNumber++;
8: cout << "small number:" << smallNumber << endl;
9: smallNumber++;
10: cout << "small number:" << smallNumber << endl;
11: return 0;
12: }
Output: small number:32767
small number:-32768
small number:-32767
IMPORTANT – To any variable, do not assign a value that is beyond its range!

2.5.3. Characters
Character variables (type char) are typically 1 byte, enough to hold 256 values. A char can be
interpreted as a small number (0-255) or as a member of the ASCII set. ASCII stands for the
American Standard Code for Information Interchange. The ASCII character set and its ISO

26
 Fundamentals of Programming 27

(International Standards Organization) equivalent are a way to encode all the letters,
numerals, and punctuation marks.
In the ASCII code, the lowercase letter "a" is assigned the value 97. All the lower- and
uppercase letters, all the numerals, and all the punctuation marks are assigned values between
1 and 128. Another 128 marks and symbols are reserved for use by the computer maker,
although the IBM extended character set has become something of a standard.
There is another data type for storing characters which is wide character type, the wchar_t
(wide character type) type comprises at least 2 bytes (16 bits) and is thus capable of storing
modern Unicode characters. Unicode is a 16-bit code also used in Windows NT and
containing codes for approximately 35,000 characters in 24 languages.
2.5.4. Characters and Numbers
When you put a character, for example, `a', into a char variable, what is really there is just a
number between 0 and 255. The compiler knows, however, how to translate back and forth
between characters (represented by a single quotation mark and then a letter, numeral, or
punctuation mark, followed by a closing single quotation mark) and one of the ASCII values.
The value/letter relationship is arbitrary; there is no particular reason that the lowercase "a" is
assigned the value 97. As long as everyone (your keyboard, compiler, and screen) agrees,
there is no problem. It is important to realize, however, that there is a big difference between
the value 5 and the character `5'. The latter is actually valued at 53, much as the letter `a' is
valued at 97.
Floating-Point Types
Numbers with a fraction part are indicated by a decimal point in C++ and are referred to as
floating-point numbers. In contrast to integers, floating-point numbers must be stored to a
preset accuracy. The following three types are available for calculations involving floating-
point numbers:
Float-----------------for simple accuracy
Double---------------for double accuracy
Long double---------for high accuracy
The value range and accuracy of a type are derived from the amount of memory
allocated and the internal representation of the type.
Accuracy is expressed in decimal places. This means that “six decimal places” allows

27
 Fundamentals of Programming 28

a programmer to store two floating-point numbers that differ within the first six
decimal places as separate numbers. In reverse, there is no guarantee that the figures
12.3456 and 12.34561 will be distinguished when working to a accuracy of six decimal
places. And remember, it is not a question of the position of the decimal point, but
merely of the numerical sequence.
2.6. Operators
C++ provides operators for composing arithmetic, relational, logical, bitwise, and conditional
expressions. It also provides operators which produce useful side-effects, such as assignment,
increment, and decrement. We will look at each category of operators in turn. We will also
discuss the precedence rules which govern the order of operator evaluation in a multi-operator
expression.
2.6.1. Assignment Operators
The assignment operator is used for storing a value at some memory location (typically
denoted by a variable). Its left operand should be an lvalue, and its right operand may be an
arbitrary expression. The latter is evaluated and the outcome is stored in the location denoted
by the lvalue. An lvalue (standing for left value) is anything that denotes a memory location in
which a value may be stored. The only kind of lvalue we have seen so far is a variable. Other
kinds of lvalues (based on pointers and references) will be described later. The assignment
operator has a number of variants, obtained by combining it with the arithmetic and bitwise
operators.
Operator Example Equivalent To
= n = 25
+= n += 25 n = n + 25
-= n -= 25 n = n - 25
*= n *= 25 n = n * 25
/= n /= 25 n = n / 25
%= n %= 25 n = n % 25
&= n &= 0xF2F2 n = n & 0xF2F2
|= n |= 0xF2F2 n = n | 0xF2F2
^= n ^= 0xF2F2 n = n ^ 0xF2F2

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 Fundamentals of Programming 29

<<= n <<= 4 n = n << 4

>>= n >>= 4 n = n >> 4

An assignment operation is itself an expression whose value is the value stored in its left
operand. An assignment operation can therefore be used as the right operand of another
assignment operation. Any number of assignments can be concatenated in this fashion to form
one expression. For example:
int m, n, p;
m = n = p = 100; // means: n = (m = (p = 100));
m = (n = p = 100) + 2; // means: m = (n = (p = 100)) + 2;
This is equally applicable to other forms of assignment. For example:
m = 100;
m += n = p = 10; // means: m = m + (n = p = 10);

2.6.2. Arithmetic Operators

C++ provides five basic arithmetic operators. These are summarized in table below
Operator Name Example
+ Addition 12 + 4.9 // gives 16.9
- Subtraction 3.98 - 4 // gives -0.02
* Multiplication 2 * 3.4 // gives 6.8
/ Division 9 / 2.0 // gives 4.5
% Remainder 13 % 3 //gives 1
Arithmetic operators.
Except for remainder (%) all other arithmetic operators can accept a mix of integer and real
operands. Generally, if both operands are integers then the result will be an integer. However,
if one or both of the operands are reals then the result will be a real (or double to be exact).
When both operands of the division operator (/) are integers then the division is performed as
an integer division and not the normal division we are used to. Integer division always results
in an integer outcome (i.e., the result is always rounded down). For example:
9/2 // gives 4, not 4.5!
-9 / 2 // gives -5, not -4!
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 Fundamentals of Programming 30

Unintended integer divisions are a common source of programming errors. To obtain a real
division when both operands are integers, you should cast one of the operands to be real:
Int cost = 100;
Int volume = 80;
double unitPrice = cost / (double) volume; // gives 1.25

The remainder operator (%) expects integers for both of its operands. It returns the remainder
of integer-dividing the operands. For example 13%3 is calculated by integer dividing 13 by 3
to give an outcome of 4 and a remainder of 1; the result is therefore 1.
It is possible for the outcome of an arithmetic operation to be too large for storing in a
designated variable. This situation is called an overflow. The outcome of an overflow is
machine-dependent and therefore undefined. For example:
unsigned char k = 10 * 92; // overflow: 920 > 255
It is illegal to divide a number by zero. This results in a run-time division-by-zero failure,
which typically causes the program to terminate.
There are also a number of predefined library functions, which perform arithmetic operations.
As with input & output statements, if you want to use these you must put a #include statement
at the start of your program. Some of the more common library functions are summarized
below.

Header File Function Parameter Type(s) Result Type Result

<stdlib.h> abs(i) int int Absolute value of i

<math.h> cos(x) float float Cosine of x (x is in
radians)
<math.h> fabs(x) float float Absolute value of x
<math.h> pow(x, y) float float x raised to the
power of y
<math.h> sin(x) float float Sine of x (x is in
radians)

30
 Fundamentals of Programming 31

<math.h> sqrt(x) float float Square root of x

<math.h> tan(x) float float Tangent of x

2.6.3. Relational Operators

C++ provides six relational operators for comparing numeric quantities. These are
summarized in table below. Relational operators evaluate to 1 (representing the true outcome)
or 0 (representing the false outcome).
Operator Name Example
== Equality 5 == 5 // gives 1
!= Inequality 5 != 5 // gives 0
< Less Than 5 < 5.5 // gives 1
<= Less Than or Equal 5 <= 5 // gives 1
> Greater Than 5 > 5.5 // gives 0
>= Greater Than or Equal 6.3 >= 5 // gives 1
Relational operators

Note that the <= and >= operators are only supported in the form shown. In particular, =< and
=> are both invalid and do not mean anything.
The operands of a relational operator must evaluate to a number. Characters are valid
operands since they are represented by numeric values. For example (assuming ASCII
coding):
'A' < 'F' // gives 1 (is like 65 < 70)
The relational operators should not be used for comparing strings, because this will result in
the string addresses being compared, not the string contents. For example, the expression
"HELLO" < "BYE" causes the address of "HELLO" to be compared to the address of "BYE".
As these addresses are determined by the compiler (in a machine-dependent manner), the
outcome may be 0 or 1, and is therefore undefined. C++ provides library functions (e.g.,
strcmp) for the lexicographic comparison of string.

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 Fundamentals of Programming 32

2.6.4. Logical Operators

C++ provides three logical operators for combining logical expression. These are summarized
in the table below. Like the relational operators, logical operators evaluate to 1 or 0.
Operator Name Example
! Logical Negation !(5 == 5) // gives 0
&& Logical And 5 < 6 && 6 < 6 // gives 1
|| Logical Or 5 < 6 || 6 < 5 // gives 1
Logical operators

Logical negation is a unary operator, which negates the logical value of its single operand. If
its operand is nonzero it produces 0, and if it is 0 it produces 1.
Logical and produces 0 if one or both of its operands evaluate to 0. Otherwise, it produces1.
Logical or produces 0 if both of its operands evaluate to 0. Otherwise, it produces 1.
Note that here we talk of zero and nonzero operands (not zero and 1). In general, any nonzero
value can be used to represent the logical true, whereas only zero represents the logical false.
The following are, therefore, all valid logical expressions:
!20 // gives 0
10 && 5 // gives 1
10 || 5.5 // gives 1
10 && 0 // gives 0
C++ does not have a built-in boolean type. It is customary to use the type int for this purpose
instead. For example:
int sorted = 0; // false
int balanced = 1; // true

2.6.5 Bitwise Operators

C++ provides six bitwise operators for manipulating the individual bits in an integer quantity.
These are summarized in the table below.

Operator Name Example

~ Bitwise Negation ~'\011' // gives '\366'

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 Fundamentals of Programming 33

& Bitwise And '\011' & '\027' // gives '\001'

| Bitwise Or '\011' | '\027' // gives '\037'
^ Bitwise Exclusive '\011' ^ '\027' // gives '\036'
Or
<< Bitwise Left Shift '\011' << 2 // gives '\044'
>> Bitwise Right Shift '\011' >> 2 // gives '\002'
Bitwise operators

Bitwise operators expect their operands to be integer quantities and treat them as bit
sequences. Bitwise negation is a unary operator which reverses the bits in its operands.
Bitwise and compares the corresponding bits of its operands and produces a 1 when both bits
are 1, and 0 otherwise. Bitwise or compares the corresponding bits of its operands and
produces a 0 when both bits are 0, and 1 otherwise. Bitwise exclusive or compares the
corresponding bits of its operands and produces a 0 when both bits are 1 or both bits are 0,
and 1 otherwise.

Bitwise left shift operator and bitwise right shift operator both take a bit sequence as their left
operand and a positive integer quantity n as their right operand. The former produces a bit
sequence equal to the left operand but which has been shifted n bit positions to the left. The
latter produces a bit sequence equal to the left operand but which has been shifted n bit
positions to the right. Vacated bits at either end are set to 0.

2.6.6 Increment/decrement Operators

The auto increment (++) and auto decrement (--) operators provide a convenient way of,
respectively, adding and subtracting 1 from a numeric variable. These are summarized in the
following table. The examples assume the following variable definition:

int k = 5;

Operator Name Example

++ Auto Increment (prefix) ++k + 10 // gives 16
++ Auto Increment (postfix) k++ + 10 // gives 15
-- Auto Decrement (prefix) --k + 10 // gives 14
-- Auto Decrement (postfix) k-- + 10 // gives 15

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 Fundamentals of Programming 34

Increment and decrement operators

Both operators can be used in prefix and postfix form. The difference is significant. When
used in prefix form, the operator is first applied and the outcome is then used in the
expression. When used in the postfix form, the expression is evaluated first and then the
operator applied. Both operators may be applied to integer as well as real variables, although
in practice real variables are rarely useful in this form.

The sizeof Operator

The amount of memory needed to store an object of a certain type can be ascertained

using the sizeof operator:

sizeof(name)

Yields the size of an object in bytes, and the parameter name indicates the object type or the
object itself. For example, sizeof(int) represents a value of 2 or 4 depending on the machine.
In contrast, sizeof(float) will always equal 4.

Following is the example, which will produce correct size of various data types on

your computer.

1. #include<iostream.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. cout << "Size of char : " << sizeof(char) << endl;
5. cout << "Size of int : " << sizeof(int) <<endl;
6. cout << "Size of short int : " << sizeof(short int) << endl;
7. cout << "Size of long int : " << sizeof(long int) << endl;
8. cout << "Size of float : " << sizeof(float) << endl;
9. cout << "Size of double : " << sizeof(double) << endl;
10. cout << "Size of wchar_t : " << sizeof(wchar_t) << endl;
11. return 0;
12. }

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result which

34
 Fundamentals of Programming 35

can vary from machine to machine:

Output:

Size of char : 1

Size of int : 4

Size of short int : 2

Size of long int : 4

Size of float : 4

Size of double : 8

Size of wchar_t : 4

2.7. Precedence of Operators

The order in which operators are evaluated in an expression is significant and is determined
by precedence rules. These rules divide the C++ operators into a number of precedence levels.
Operators in higher levels take precedence over operators in lower levels.
Level Operator Kind Order
Highest :: Unary Both
() [] -> . Binary Left to Right
+ ++ ! * new sizeof() Unary Right to Left
- -- ~ & delete
->* .* Binary Left to Right
* / % Binary Left to Right
+ - Binary Left to Right
<< >> Binary Left to Right
< <= > >= Binary Left to Right
== != Binary Left to Right
& Binary Left to Right
^ Binary Left to Right
| Binary Left to Right
& Binary Left to Right
&

35
 Fundamentals of Programming 36

|| Binary Left to Right

?: Ternary Left to Right
= += *= ^= &= <<= Binary Right to Left
-= /= %= |= >>=
Lowest , Binary Left to Right

For example, in a == b + c * d, c * d is evaluated first because * has a higher precedence than

+ and ==. The result is then added to b because + has a higher precedence than ==, and then
== is evaluated. Precedence rules can be overridden using brackets. For example, rewriting
the above expression as a == (b + c) * d causes + to be evaluated before *.
Operators with the same precedence level are evaluated in the order specified by the last
column of Table 2.7. For example, in a = b += c the evaluation order is right to left, so first
b += c is evaluated, followed by a = b.
2.8. Simple Type Conversion
A value in any of the built-in types we have seen so far can be converted (type-cast) to any of
the other types. For example:
(int) 3.14 // converts 3.14 to an int to give 3
(long) 3.14 // converts 3.14 to a long to give 3L
(double) 2 // converts 2 to a double to give 2.0
(char) 122 // converts 122 to a char whose code is 122
(unsigned short) 3.14 // gives 3 as an unsigned short

As shown by these examples, the built-in type identifiers can be used as type operators. Type
operators are unary (i.e., take one operand) and appear inside brackets to the left of their
operand. This is called explicit type conversion. When the type name is just one word, an
alternate notation may be used in which the brackets appear around the operand:

int(3.14) // same as: (int) 3.14

In some cases, C++ also performs implicit type conversion. This happens when values of
different types are mixed in an expression. For example:

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 Fundamentals of Programming 37

double d = 1; // d receives 1.0

int i = 10.5; // i receives 10
i = i + d; // means: i = int(double(i) + d)

In the last example, i + d involves mismatching types, so i is first converted to double

(promoted) and then added to d. The result is a double which does not match the type of i on
the left side of the assignment, so it is converted to int (demoted) before being assigned to i.
The above rules represent some simple but common cases for type conversion.
2.9. Statements
This chapter introduces the various forms of C++ statements for composing programs.
Statements represent the lowest-level building blocks of a program. Roughly speaking, each
statement represents a computational step which has a certain side-effect. (A side-effect can
be thought of as a change in the program state, such as the value of a variable changing
because of an assignment.) Statements are useful because of the side-effects they cause, the
combination of which enables the program to serve a specific purpose (e.g., sort a list of
names).
A running program spends all of its time executing statements. The order in which statements
are executed is called flow control (or control flow). This term reflect the fact that the
currently executing statement has the control of the CPU, which when completed will be
handed over (flow) to another statement. Flow control in a program is typically sequential,
from one statement to the next, but may be diverted to other paths by branch statements. Flow
control is an important consideration because it determines what is executed during a run and
what is not, therefore affecting the overall outcome of the program.
Like many other procedural languages, C++ provides different forms of statements for
different purposes. Declaration statements are used for defining variables. Assignment-like
statements are used for simple, algebraic computations. Branching statements are used for
specifying alternate paths of execution, depending on the outcome of a logical condition.
Loop statements are used for specifying computations which need to be repeated until a
certain logical condition is satisfied. Flow control statements are used to divert the execution
path to another part of the program. We will discuss these in turn.

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 Fundamentals of Programming 38

2.9.1. Input/Output Statements

The most common way in which a program communicates with the outside world is through
simple, character-oriented Input/Output (IO) operations. C++ provides two useful operators
for this purpose: >> for input and << for output. We have already seen examples of output
using <<. Example 2.1 also illustrates the use of >> for input.
Example

#include <iostream.h>
int main (void)
{
int workDays = 5;
float workHours = 7.5;
float payRate, weeklyPay;

cout << "What is the hourly pay rate? ";

cin >> payRate;

weeklyPay = workDays * workHours * payRate;

cout << "Weekly Pay = ";
cout << weeklyPay;
cout << '\n';
}

Analysis
This line outputs the prompt ‘What is the hourly pay rate? ’ to seek user input.
This line reads the input value typed by the user and copies it to payRate. The input operator
>> takes an input stream as its left operand (cin is the standard C++ input stream which
corresponds to data entered via the keyboard) and a variable (to which the input data is
copied) as its right operand.

When run, the program will produce the following output (user input appears in bold):

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 Fundamentals of Programming 39

What is the hourly pay rate? 33.55

Weekly Pay = 1258.125

Both << and >> return their left operand as their result, enabling multiple input or multiple
output operations to be combined into one statement. This is illustrated by example below
which now allows the input of both the daily work hours and the hourly pay rate.

Example
#include <iostream.h>

int main (void)

{
int workDays = 5;
float workHours, payRate, weeklyPay;

cout << "What are the work hours and the hourly pay rate? ";
cin >> workHours >> payRate;

weeklyPay = workDays * workHours * payRate;

cout << "Weekly Pay = " << weeklyPay << '\n';
}
Analysis
This line reads two input values typed by the user and copies them to workHours and
payRate, respectively. The two values should be separated by white space (i.e., one or more
space or tab characters). This statement is equivalent to:
(cin >> workHours) >> payRate;
Because the result of >> is its left operand, (cin >> workHours) evaluates to cin which is then
used as the left operand of the next >> operator.

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 Fundamentals of Programming 40

This line is the result of combining lines 10-12 from example 2.1. It outputs "Weekly Pay = ",
followed by the value of weeklyPay, followed by a newline character. This statement is
equivalent to:
((cout << "Weekly Pay = ") << weeklyPay) << '\n';
Because the result of << is its left operand, (cout << "Weekly Pay = ") evaluates to cout
which is then used as the left operand of the next << operator, etc.
When run, the program will produce the following output:

What are the work hours and the hourly pay rate? 7.5 33.55
Weekly Pay = 1258.125
2.9.2. Null statement
Syntax:
;
Description: Do nothing
2.9.3. The block statement
Syntax:
{
[<Declarations>].
<List of statements/statement block>.
}

Any place you can put a single statement, you can put a compound statement, also called a
block. A block begins with an opening brace ({) and ends with a closing brace (}). Although
every statement in the block must end with a semicolon, the block itself does not end with a
semicolon. For example
{
temp = a;
a = b;
b = temp;
}
This block of code acts as one statement and swaps the values in the variables a and b.
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 Fundamentals of Programming 41

2.9.4. The Assignment statement.

Syntax:
<Variable Identifier> = < expression>;
Description:
The <expression> is evaluated and the resulting value is stored in the memory space
reserved for <variable identifier>.
Eg: - int x,y ;
x=5;
y=x+3;
x=y*y;

Chapter 3

Control statement

3.1. Introduction
A running program spends all of its time executing statements. The order in which
statements are executed is called flow control (or control flow). This term reflect the
fact that the currently executing statement has the control of the CPU, which when
completed will be handed over (flow) to another statement. Flow control in a program is
typically sequential, from one statement to the next, but may be diverted to other paths
by branch statements. Flow control is an important consideration because it determines
what is executed during a run and what is not, therefore affecting the overall outcome
of the program.

Like many other procedural languages, C++ provides different forms of statements for
different purposes. Declaration statements are used for defining variables. Assignment-
like statements are used for simple, algebraic computations. Branching statements are
used for specifying alternate paths of execution, depending on the outcome of a logical
condition. Loop statements are used for specifying computations, which need to be
repeated until a certain logical condition is satisfied. Flow control statements are used
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 Fundamentals of Programming 42

to divert the execution path to another part of the program. We will discuss these in
turn.

3.2. Conditional Statements

3.2.1. The if Statement

It is sometimes desirable to make the execution of a statement dependent upon a

condition being satisfied. The if statement provides a way of expressing this, the
general form of which is:

if(expression)
statement;
First expression is evaluated. If the outcome is nonzero (true) then statement is
executed. Otherwise, nothing happens.

For example, when dividing two values, we may want to check that the
denominator is nonzero:

if (count != 0)
average = sum / count;
To make multiple statements dependent on the same condition, we can use a
compound statement:

if (balance > 0) {
interest = balance *
creditRate; balance +=
interest;
}

A variant form of the if statement allows us to specify two alternative statements:

one which is executed if a condition is satisfied and one which is executed if the
condition is not satisfied. This is called the if-else statement and has the general
form:

if (expression)
statement1;
else

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 Fundamentals of Programming 43
statement2;

First expression is evaluated. If the outcome is nonzero (true) then statement1 is

executed. Otherwise, statement2 is executed.

For example:

if (balance > 0) {
interest = balance * creditRate;
balance += interest;
} else {
interest = balance * debitRate;
balance += interest;
}

Given the similarity between the two alternative parts, the whole statement can be simplified
to:

if (balance > 0)
interest = balance * creditRate;
else
interest = balance * debitRate;
balance += interest;

Or simplified even further using a conditional expression:

interest = balance * (balance > 0 ? creditRate : debitRate);

balance += interest;

Or just:

balance += balance * (balance > 0 ? creditRate : debitRate);

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 Fundamentals of Programming 44

If statements may be nested by having an if statement appear inside another if statement.

For example:

if (callHour > 6) {

if (callDuration <= 5)

charge = callDuration * tarrif1;

else

charge = 5 * tarrif1 + (callDuration - 5) * tarrif2;

} else

charge = flatFee;

A frequently-used form of nested if statements involves the else part consisting of

another if-else statement. For example:

if (ch >= '0' && ch <= '9')

kind = digit;
else {
if (ch >= 'A' && ch <= 'Z')
kind = upperLetter;
else {
if (ch >= 'a' && ch <= 'z')

kind = lowerLetter;
else
kind = special;
}
}

For improved readability, it is conventional to format such cases as follows:

if (ch >= '0' && ch <= '9')

kind = digit;
else if (cha >= 'A' && ch <= 'Z')
kind = capitalLetter;
else if (ch >= 'a' && ch <= 'z')
kind = smallLetter;
else
kind = special;

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 Fundamentals of Programming 45

3.2.2. The switch Statement

The switch statement provides a way of choosing between a set of alternatives, based
on the value of an expression. The general form of the switch statement is:

switch (expression) {
case constant1:
statements;
...
case constantn:
statements;
default:
statements;
}

First expression (called the switch tag) is evaluated, and the outcome is compared to each
of the numeric constants (called case labels), in the order they appear, until a match is
found. The statements following the matching case are then executed. Note the plural:
each case may be followed by zero or more statements (not just one statement).
Execution continues until either a break statement is encountered or all intervening
statements until the end of the switch statement are executed. The final default case is
optional and is exercised if none of the earlier cases provide a match.

For example, suppose we have parsed a binary arithmetic operation into its three
components and stored these in variables operator, operand1, and operand2. The
following switch statement performs the operation and stores the result in result.

switch (operator) {
case '+': result = operand1 + operand2;
break;
case '-': result = operand1 - operand2;
break;
case '*': result = operand1 * operand2;
break;
case '/': result = operand1 / operand2;
break;

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 Fundamentals of Programming 46

default:cout << "unknown operator: " << ch << '\n';

break;
}

As illustrated by this example, it is usually necessary to include a break statement at the

end of each case. The break terminates the switch statement by jumping to the very end of
it. There are, however, situations in which it makes sense to have a case without a break.
For example, if we extend the above statement to also allow x to be used as a
multiplication operator, we will have:

switch (operator) {
case '+': result = operand1 + operand2;
break;
case '-': result = operand1 - operand2;
break;
case 'x':
case '*': result = operand1 * operand2;
break;
case '/': result = operand1 / operand2;
break;
default:cout << "unknown operator: " << ch << '\n';
break;
}

Because case 'x' has no break statement (in fact no statement at all!), when this case is
satisfied, execution proceeds to the statements of the next case and the multiplication is
performed.

It should be obvious that any switch statement can also be written as multiple if-else
statements. The above statement, for example, may be written as:

if (operator == '+')
result = operand1 + operand2;
else if (operator == '-')
result = operand1 - operand2;

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 Fundamentals of Programming 47

else if (operator == 'x' || operator == '*')

result = operand1 * operand2;
else if (operator == '/')
result = operand1 / operand2;
else
cout << "unknown operator: " << ch << '\n';
However, the switch version is arguably neater in this case. In general, preference should be
given to the switch version when possible. The if-else approach should be reserved for
situation where a switch cannot do the job (e.g., when the conditions involved are not simple
equality expressions, or when the case labels are not numeric constants).

3.3. Looping Statements

3.3.1. The ‘while’ Statement

The while statement (also called while loop) provides a way of repeating a statement while a
condition holds. It is one of the three flavours of iteration in C++. The general form of the
while statement is:

while (expression)
{
statement;
}

First expression (called the loop condition) is evaluated. If the outcome is nonzero then
statement (called the loop body) is executed and the whole process is repeated.
Otherwise, the loop is terminated.

For example, suppose we wish to calculate the sum of all numbers from 1 to some integer
denoted by n. This can be expressed as:

i = 1;
sum = 0;
while (i <= n)
{
sum += i;
}

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 Fundamentals of Programming 48

For n set to 5, Table 2.9 provides a trace of the loop by listing the values of the variables
involved and the loop condition.

Table 5.1 While loop trace

Iteration i n i <= n sum += i++
First 1 5 1 1
Second 2 5 1 3
Third 3 5 1 6
Fourth 4 5 1 10
Fifth 5 5 1 15
Sixth 6 5 0

It is not unusual for a while loop to have an empty body (i.e., a null statement).

3.3.2. The ‘for’ Statement

The for statement (also called for loop) is similar to the while statement, but has two
additional components: an expression which is evaluated only once before everything else,
and an expression which is evaluated once at the end of each iteration. The general form of
the for statement is:

for (expression1; expression2; expression3)

{
statement;
}

First expression1 is evaluated. Each time round the loop, expression2 is evaluated. If

the outcome is nonzero then statement is executed and expression3 is evaluated.

Otherwise, the loop is terminated. The general for loop is equivalent to the following while
loop:

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 Fundamentals of Programming I

expression1;

while
(expre
ssion2
){
statem
ent;
expres
sion3;
}

The most common use of for loops is for situations where a variable is
incremented or decremented with every iteration of the loop. The following for
loop, for example, calculates the sum of all integers from 1 to n.

sum = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= n; ++i)
{
sum += i;
}
This is preferred to the while-loop version we saw earlier. In this example, i is
usually called the loop variable.

C++ allows the first expression in a for loop to be a variable definition. In the
above loop, for example, i can be defined inside the loop itself:

for (int i = 1; i <= n; ++i)

{
sum += i;
}

Contrary to what may appear, the scope for i is not the body of the loop, but
the loop itself. Scope-wise, the above is equivalent to:

int i;

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 Fundamentals of Programming I
for (i = 1; i
<= n; ++i)
sum += i;

Any of the three expressions in a for loop may be empty. For example, removing
the first and the third expression gives us something identical to a while loop:

for (; i != 0;) // is equivalent to:

while (i != 0) something; // something;

Removing all the expressions gives us an infinite loop. This loop's condition is
assumed to be always true:

for (;;) //
infinite loop
something;

For loops with multiple loop variables are not unusual. In such cases, the comma
operator is used to separate their expressions:

for (i = 0, j = 0; i + j < n; ++i,

++j) something;
Because loops are statements, they can appear inside other loops. In other
words, loops can be nested. For example,

for (int i = 1; i <=

3; ++i) for (int
j = 1; j <= 3;
++j)
cout << '(' << i << ',' << j << ")\n";
Produces the product of the set {1, 2, 3} with itself, giving the output:

(1,1)
(1,2)
(1,3)
(2,1)
(2,2)

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 Fundamentals of Programming I
(2,3)
(3,1)
(3,2)
(3,3)

3.3.3. The ‘do…while’ Statement

The do statement (also called do loop) is similar to the while statement, except
that its body is executed first and then the loop condition is examined. The
general form of the do statement is:

do
statement;
while (expression);

First statement is executed and then expression is evaluated. If the outcome of

the latter is nonzero then the whole process is repeated. Otherwise, the loop is
terminated.

The do loop is less frequently used than the while loop. It is useful for
situations where we need the loop body to be executed at least once, regardless of
the loop condition. For example, suppose we wish to repeatedly read a value and
print its square, and stop when the value is zero. This can be expressed as the
following loop:

do {
cin >> n;
cout << n * n << '\n';
} while (n != 0);

Unlike the while loop, the do loop is never used in situations where it would
have a null body. Although a do loop with a null body would be equivalent to a
similar while loop, the latter is always preferred for its superior readability.

3.4. Other Statements

3.4.1. The ‘continue’ Statement

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 Fundamentals of Programming I

The continue statement terminates the current iteration of a loop and instead
jumps to the next iteration. It applies to the loop immediately enclosing the
continue statement. It is an error to use the continue statement outside a loop.

In a while and do loops, the next iteration commences from the loop
condition. In a for loop, the next iteration commences from the loop’s third
expression. For example, a loop which repeatedly reads in a number, processes
it but ignores negative numbers, and terminates when the number is zero, may
be expressed as:

do {
cin >> num;
if (num < 0) continue;
// process num here...
} while (num != 0);

This is equivalent to:

do {
cin >> num;
if (num >= 0) {
// process num here...
}
} while (num != 0);

A variant of this loop which reads in a number exactly n times (rather than until
the number is zero) may be expressed as:

for (i = 0; i <
n; ++i) {
cin >>
num;
if (num < 0) continue; // causes a jump to: ++i
// process num here...
}

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 Fundamentals of Programming I

When the continue statement appears inside nested loops, it applies to the
loop immediately enclosing it, and not to the outer loops. For example, in the
following set of nested loops, the continue applies to the for loop, and not the
while loop:

while (more) {
for (i = 0; i <
n; ++i) { cin
>> num;
if (num < 0) continue; // causes a jump to: ++i
// process num here...
}
//etc...
}
3.4.2. The ‘break’ Statement

A break statement may appear inside a loop (while, do, or for) or a switch
statement. It causes a jump out of these constructs, and hence terminates them.
Like the continue statement, a break statement only applies to the loop or switch
immediately enclosing it. It is an error to use the break statement outside a
loop or a switch.

For example, suppose we wish to read in a user password, but would like to
allow the user a limited number of attempts:

for (i = 0; i < attempts; ++i) {

cout << "Please enter your
password: "; cin >> password;
if (Verify(password)) // check password for
correctness break; // drop out of the
loop
cout << "Incorrect!\n";
}

Here we have assumed that there is a function called Verify which checks a
password and returns true if it is correct, and false otherwise.

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 Fundamentals of Programming I

Rewriting the loop without a break statement is always possible by using an

additional logical variable (verified) and adding it to the loop condition:

verified = 0;
for (i = 0; i < attempts &&
!verified; ++i) { cout <<
"Please enter your password:
"; cin >> password;
verified =
Verify(password));
if (!verified)
cout << "Incorrect!\n";
}

The break version is arguably simpler and therefore preferred.

3.4.3. The ‘goto’ Statement

The goto statement provides the lowest-level of jumping. It has the general form:

goto label;

Where label is an identifier which marks the jump destination of goto. The
label should be followed by a colon and appear before a statement within the
same function as the goto statement itself. For example, the role of the break
statement in the for loop in the previous section can be emulated by a goto:

for (i = 0; i < attempts; ++i) {

cout << "Please enter your
password: "; cin >> password;
if (Verify(password)) // check password for
correctness goto out; // drop out
of the loop
cout << "Incorrect!\n";
}
out:
//etc...

Because goto provides a free and unstructured form of jumping (unlike break
and continue), it can be easily misused. Most programmers these days avoid

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 Fundamentals of Programming I

using it altogether in favor of clear programming. Nevertheless, goto does

have some legitimate (though rare) uses.

3.4.4. The ‘return’ Statement

The return statement enables a function to return a value to its caller. It has
the general form:

return expression;

where expression denotes the value returned by the function. The type of this
value should match the return type of the function. For a function whose return
type is void, expression should be empty:

return;

The only function we have discussed so far is main, whose return type is always
int. The return value of main is what the program returns to the operating
system when it completes its execution. Under UNIX, for example, it’s
conventional to return 0 from main when the program executes without errors.
Otherwise, a non-zero error code is returned. For example:

int main (void)

{
cout << "Hello
World\n"; return
0;
}

When a function has a non-void return value (as in the above example), failing to
return a value will result in a compiler warning. The actual return value will be
undefined in this case (i.e., it will be whatever value which happens to be in its
corresponding memory location at the time).

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