EDS NOTES

Overview of Learning Theories

Although there are many different approaches to learning, there are three
basic types of learning theory: behaviorist, cognitive constructivist, and
social constructivist. This section provides a brief introduction to each type of
learning theory. The theories are treated in four parts: a short historical
introduction, a discussion of the view of knowledge presupposed by the
theory, an account of how the theory treats learning and student motivation,
and, finally, an overview of some of the instructional methods promoted by
the theory is presented.

Cognitive Social
Behaviorism
Constructivism Constructivism
View of Knowledge is a Knowledge systems of Knowledge is
knowledge repertoire of cognitive structures are constructed
behavioral actively constructed by within social
responses to learners based on pre- contexts
environmental existing cognitive through
stimuli. structures. interactions with
a knowledge
community.
View of Passive Active assimilation and Integration of
learning absorption of a accommodation of new students into a
predefined body information to existing knowledge
of knowledge by cognitive structures. community.
the learner. Discovery by learners is Collaborative
Promoted by emphasized. assimilation and
repetition and accommodation
positive of new
reinforcement. information.
View of Extrinsic, Intrinsic; learners set their Intrinsic and
motivation involving own goals and motivate extrinsic.
positive and themselves to learn. Learning goals
negative and motives are
reinforcement. determined both
by learners and
extrinsic
rewards
provided by the
knowledge
 community.
Implicatio Correct The teacher facilitates Collaborative
ns for behavioral learning by providing an learning is
teaching responses are environment that facilitated and
transmitted by promotes discovery and guided by the
the teacher and assimilation/accommodatio teacher. Group
absorbed by the n. work is
students. encouraged.

Andragogy - Malcolm Knowles

Andragogy is a term coined by Malcolm Knowles in 1984 and is defined as the
science of helping adults to learn. Andragogy has five basic principles:

 As a person matures, they become more self-directed.

 Adults have accumulated experiences that can be a rich resource for
learning.
 Adults become ready to learn when they experience a need to know
something.
 Adults tend to be less subject-centred than children; they are increasingly
problem centred.
 For adults, the most potent motivators are internal.

Social Constructivism
The level of potential development is the level at which
learning takes place. It comprises cognitive structures that
are still in the process of maturing, but which can only
mature under the guidance of or in collaboration with others.
Background
View of Knowledge
View of Learning
View of Motivation
Implications for Teaching
Reference

Background
Social constructivism is a variety of cognitive constructivism that emphasizes
the collaborative nature of much learning. Social constructivism was
developed by post-revolutionary Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky
was a cognitivist, but rejected the assumption made by cognitivists such as
Piaget and Perry that it was possible to separate learning from its social
context. He argued that all cognitive functions originate in (and must
therefore be explained as products of) social interactions and that learning
did not simply comprise the assimilation and accommodation of new
knowledge by learners; it was the process by which learners were integrated
into a knowledge community. According to Vygotsky (1978, 57),
Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social
level and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and
then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to
logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as
actual relationships between individuals.

Vygotsky’s theory of social learning has been expanded upon by numerous later
theorists and researchers.

View of Knowledge
Cognitivists such as Piaget and Perry see knowledge as actively constructed
by learners in response to interactions with environmental stimuli. Vygotsky
emphasized the role of language and culture in cognitive development.
According to Vygotsky, language and culture play essential roles both in
human intellectual development and in how humans perceive the world.
Humans’ linguistic abilities enable them to overcome the natural limitations
of their perceptual field by imposing culturally defined sense and meaning on
the world. Language and culture are the frameworks through which humans
experience, communicate, and understand reality. Vygotsky states (1968,
39),
A special feature of human perception … is the perception of real objects … I do not see
the world simply in color and shape but also as a world with sense and meaning. I do
not merely see something round and black with two hands; I see a clock …

Language and the conceptual schemes that are transmitted by means of

language are essentially social phenomena. As a result, human cognitive
structures are, Vygotsky believed, essentially socially constructed.
Knowledge is not simply constructed, it is co-constructed.

View of Learning
Vygotsky accepted Piaget’s claim that learners respond not to external
stimuli but to their interpretation of those stimuli. However, he argued that
cognitivists such as Piaget had overlooked the essentially social nature of
language. As a result, he claimed they had failed to understand that learning
is a collaborative process. Vygotsky distinguished between two
developmental levels (85):
The level of actual development is the level of development that the learner has
already reached, and is the level at which the learner is capable of solving problems
independently. The level of potential development (the “zone of proximal
development”) is the level of development that the learner is capable of reaching under
the guidance of teachers or in collaboration with peers. The learner is capable of solving
problems and understanding material at this level that they are not capable of solving
or understanding at their level of actual development; the level of potential
development is the level at which learning takes place. It comprises cognitive structures
that are still in the process of maturing, but which can only mature under the guidance
of or in collaboration with others.

View of Motivation
Whereas behavioral motivation is essentially extrinsic, a reaction to positive
and negative reinforcements, cognitive motivation is essentially intrinsic —
based on the learner’s internal drive. Social constructivists see motivation as
both extrinsic and intrinsic. Because learning is essentially a social
phenomenon, learners are partially motivated by rewards provided by the
knowledge community. However, because knowledge is actively constructed
by the learner, learning also depends to a significant extent on the learner’s
internal drive to understand and promote the learning process.

Implications for Teaching

Collaborative learning methods require learners to develop teamwork skills
and to see individual learning as essentially related to the success of group
learning. The optimal size for group learning is four or five people. Since the
average section size is ten to fifteen people, collaborative learning methods
often require GSIs to break students into smaller groups, although discussion
sections are essentially collaborative learning environments. For instance, in
group investigations students may be split into groups that are then required
to choose and research a topic from a limited area. They are then held
responsible for researching the topic and presenting their findings to the
class. More generally, collaborative learning should be seen as a process of
peer interaction that is mediated and structured by the teacher. Discussion
can be promoted by the presentation of specific concepts, problems, or
scenarios; it is guided by means of effectively directed questions, the
introduction and clarification of concepts and information, and references to
previously learned material. Some more specific techniques are suggested in
the Teaching Guide pages on Discussion Sections.

Reference
Vygotsky, Lev (1978). Mind in Society. London: Harvard University Press.
 Behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment.

A: behaviorism Correct answer: Behaviourism

 Formal Operational Phase - Piaget

A: age 12 and up Correct answer: Stages of Cognitive Development

 Scaffolding - Vygotsky

A: proximal Correct answer: Sociocultural Theory

 Zone of Proximal Development - Vygotsky

A: scaffolding Correct answer: Sociocultural Theory

 BF Skinner

A: dont know Correct answer: Behaviourism

 Albert Bandura
 A: constructivism Correct answer: Social Cognitive Theory

 Kholberg

A: dont know Correct answer: Theory of Moral Development

 Howard Gardner

A: dont know Correct answer: Theory of Multiple Intelligences

 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

A: howard Correct answer: Theory of Multiple Intelligence

 Urie Bronfenbrenner

A: dont know Correct answer: Bioecological Model of Human Development