Key Concepts and Skills

Key concepts are designated for each section of the topic outline, and the eight themes unify these
concepts

by making important connections between the topics. The themes build a framework for student
learning

by relating one concept to another. For instance, the theme of energy transfer is found in numerous

examples in biology. In the first general content area, molecules and cells, energy is important in the

process of active transport of the sodium/potassium ions across the membrane of a neuron. Energy
is

also important in heredity and evolution, the second general content area; the evolution of the first
cells

seems to violate the first law of thermodynamics, until it is understood that the earth is not a closed

system but has a constant energy input from the sun. The theme of energy transfer is further
illustrated

in the third general content area in biology, organisms and populations, by the flow of energy in
energy

pyramids.

Directing your students’ focus towards making connections using these themes may be one of the

most challenging learning objectives of AP Biology, as most students will be experiencing this holistic

approach for the first time. Making references to the themes often during the class is a simple yet
effective

approach. “How does the process of photosynthesis reflect the theme of structure and function?”
for

example, will redirect students from memorization of the names of the steps towards thinking about
the

structure of chlorophyll, chloroplasts, and the carbon-based products of photosynthesis. Theme-

homework questions such as: “How does meiosis relate to continuity or change?” or “Why is the
immune

system a good example of homeostasis?” promote student thought. Select the least obvious theme
for each

topic. Relating genetics to continuity and change is easy. Relating genetics to regulation or
interdependence

will necessitate more thought. Another example is to relate natural selection to science, technology
and
society, or regulation, rather than the more obvious continuity and change or structure and function.
Some

teachers have the students divide a large index card into four sections on each side, for a total of
eight, one

for each theme. Each day, the students are asked to classify the material covered that day into at
least one of

the sections and record it there. Lively discussions can begin class the next day as students compare
their

classifying decisions, either with a partner, a group, or the class.

Chapter 1

The following table, reprinted from the 2004, 2005 AP Biology Course Description, shows how the

themes can be applied to the three major subject areas.

Applying Themes

Examples for Three Major Subject Areas8

Theme I. Molecules and Cells

II. Heredity and

Evolution

III. Organisms and

Populations

I. Science as a Process How did Melvin Calvin

and his students discover

the sugar-producing cycle

of photosynthesis?

Experiments with artificial

membranes have added to

our understanding of the

structure and function of

the plasma membrane.

How do we know DNA is

the genetic material?

X-ray diffraction, model

building, and analysis of

development of the double

helix model of DNA.

What can long-term

ecological research teach

us about human impact on

the biosphere?

Measurements of rates of

transpiration using parts

of plants have helped

biologists understand the

role of the roots and the

leaves.

II. Evolution Chemical evolution on a

young Earth set the stage

for the origin of life.

C4

and CAM plants

represent structural and

biochemical adaptations

for photosynthesis in hot

and dry climates.

Mutations and genetic

recombination generate

heritable variation that

is subjected to natural

selection.

Natural selection occurred

in early pre-life forms, as

coacervates possessing

enzymes for synthesis of

more options for energy

utilization and thus were

more likely to survive.

When a population’s

local environment

changes unfavorably,

the population adapts,

migrates, or dies.

The system of taxonomy

used by most biologists

today reflects our

current understanding of

phylogenetic relationships

among organisms.

III. Energy Transfer Plants transform light

energy into chemical

energy.

A proton gradient across

membranes powers the

synthesis of ATP in

mitochondria, chloroplasts,

and prokaryotes.

A cell must spend energy

to transcribe and translate

a gene because monomers

are organized into complex

macromolecules that have

less entropy.

Energy released by the

hydrolysis of ATP is used

transcription, and

translation.

Energy flows from

producers to consumers in

an ecosystem.

Ion pumps in

membranes reestablish a

transmembrane resting

potential after a neuron

fires an impulse or a

muscle fiber contracts.

8. 2004, 2005 AP Biology Course Description, (New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 2003),
16–19.

About AP Biology

Theme I. Molecules and Cells

II. Heredity and

Evolution

III. Organisms and

Populations

IV. Continuity and

Change

The cell cycle clones a cell’s

DNA.

The process of mitosis

allows for genetic

continuity from generation

to generation while at

the same time, through

mutation, it provides for

diversity.
Like begets like, but not

exactly, as mutations and

sex generate new genetic

combinations

Changes in gene pools over

time can be explained in

part by natural selection

for the most fit genotypes.

Homologous structures are

variations on a common

ancestral prototype.

Organogenesis results from

differential gene activation

in various regions of an

embryo at various times.

V. Relationship of

Structure to Function

The distinctive functions

of starch and cellulose

reflect structural

differences in these two

polysaccharides.

The membranous

organization of the

mitochondrion orders

the process of cellular

respiration.

By discovering the

structure of DNA, Watson

and Crick deduced how

genes replicate.
The complementary nature

of the two DNA strands

explains replication.

The large surface area

of the mammalian

small intestine increases

absorption of nutrients.

Morphological adaptations

of parasites to their hosts

enhance their survival.

VI. Regulation Control of the flow of

molecules across the

membrane maintains a

favorable intracellular

environment.

Regulator molecules in

the cell interact with some

enzymes and control their

activity by changing the

shape of the enzymes.

Regulatory mechanisms

switch genes on and off in

response to environmental

cues.

A balanced polymorphism

can exist within a

population, in which two

or more alleles can be kept

in the gene pool by the

action of predators that

selectively prey on the most

The nervous and

endocrine systems

mediate an animal’s

responses to changes in the

environment.

Hormones regulate the

growth and development

of both plants and animals.

VII. Interdependence

in Nature

At the metabolic level,

photosynthesis and

cellular respiration are

complementary processes.

Energy for many

biosynthetic processes is

provided by the hydrolysis

of ATP. In turn, the

synthesis of ATP is coupled

to the oxidation of organic

fuels.

An organism’s phenotype

is the synergistic product

of genes and environment.

The sporophyte and

gametophyte generations of

a plant are interdependent.

Destruction of tropical

forests has global

consequences.
Competition, predation,

and parasitism between

populations in a food web

contribute to the stability

of an ecosystem.

Chapter 1

10 11

Theme I. Molecules and Cells

II. Heredity and

Evolution

III. Organisms and

Populations

VIII. Science, Technology,

and Society

Advances in cancer

research depend on

progress in our basic

understanding of how cells

work.

Various new techniques

in microscopy have led us

to a better understanding

of basic cell structure and

function.

DNA technology is a

double-edged sword,

promising health advances

and posing new ethical

issues.

Biotechnology has

provided new treatments

diseases, developed crops

with better yields, and

provided solutions for

environmental problems.

More people utilizing more

technology have generated

many current global

problems.

An understanding of

basic ecological principles

can help us to assess the

human impact on the

biosphere and to begin

to develop solutions to

some human-caused

environmental imbalances