Note 08

General Physics II
(PH142)

Hye-Sung Lee
([email protected])

KAIST
Spring 2024

It’s not what you look at that matters, it’s what you see.

- Henry David Thoreau -

PH142 Course Schedule Only rough schedule (may change)

Electromagnetism

[April 19 (Fri) 2024]

Optics

Modern Physics

[June 14 (Fri) 2024]

Review of the past chapters
Summary

• Simple circuits can be analyzed by identifying series and parallel

combinations:
• Resistors in series add:
Rseries = R1 + R2 + R3 +!
• Resistors in parallel add
reciprocally:
1 1 1 1
= + + +…
Rparallel R1 R2 R3
• More complicated circuits require
the loop and node laws.
• Measuring voltage and current requires
• Connecting voltmeters in parallel
• Connecting ammeters in series
• Capacitors introduce time-dependent
behavior to circuits.
Exercise : Kirchhoff’s Laws

Loop: Node:
Exercise : Kirchhoff’s Laws

0 1 0 1 0 1
Loop: Node:
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1 1 1 I1 0
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Chapter 26 Lecture

Chapter 26:
Magnetism:
Force and Field
What You're Learning

• That magnetism is fundamentally a

phenomenon involving moving
charges
• How the magnetic force on a
charged particle depends on its
charge, its velocity, and the
magnetic field
• How magnetic fields originate from
moving electric charges
• How Ampère's law describes the
magnetic field in terms of electric
current
• About the three forms of
magnetism that occur in matter
Electric charge ➞ E-field; Electric current ➞ B-field

Electric charge (q): source of E-field

diverging

Electric current (I): source of B-field

curling

Force on the object with (m, q, v)

under external fields (g, E, B)
Lorentz force
Magnetic Field and Magnetic Force

!
• The magnetic field, designated B, exerts a force on moving electric
charges.
!
• The force depends on the charge q, the magnetic field! B,! the
!
charge velocity v, and on the orientation between v and B.
• The magnitude of the force is given by
F = qvBsinθ
and its direction follows from the right-hand rule.
• The magnetic force!may be !written in terms of the vector cross
product: !
F = qv × B

for a “positive q”
Charged Particles in Magnetic Fields

• The magnetic force is always at right

angles to !a charged
! particle’s
!
velocity: F = qv × B
• A particle moving in a plane perpendicular
to the field undergoes uniform circular
motion:
mv2 mv
F = qvB = ⇒ r=
r qB
• The cyclotron frequency is
1 v v qB
f = = = =
T 2π r 2π (mv / qB) 2π m
which is independent of the particle's
speed.
• When the particle has a component of
motion along the field, its trajectory is a
spiral.
Cyclotron
 ! ! !
The Magnetic Force on a Current F = qv × B

• An electric current consists of moving charges, so a current-carrying

conductor experiences a magnetic force.
• The force actually involves both magnetic forces on the moving
charges, and an electric force associated with charge separation.
! ! ! !
• The force is F = I l × B, where l is a vector describing the length
and orientation of a straight conductor.
 Laws for production of E-field, B-field

(i) E-field production by charge (q):

Coulomb’s Law and Gauss’s Law

diverging

(ii) B-field production by current (I):

Biot-Savart’s Law and Ampere’s Law
!
! µ0 I dl × rˆ ! !
curling
dB =
4π r 2
"∫ B⋅ dl = µ0 I encircled

(for current in
an infinite long wire)
Origin of the Magnetic Field

• A magnetic field not only produces forces on moving electric charges,

a magnetic field also arises from a moving electric charge.
• The Biot-Savart law gives the magnetic field arising from an
infinitesimal current element: !
! µ0 I dl × rˆ
dB =
4π r 2
• The field of a finite current follows by integrating:
!
! ! µ0 I dl × rˆ
B = ∫ dB = ∫
4π r 2
where µ0 = 4π × 10–7 N/A2 is
the permeability constant.
Behavior of Magnetic Field Lines

• Magnetic fields originate in moving charge.

• But unlike static electric fields, whose field lines begin and end on
charges, magnetic field lines don't begin or end on the moving
charges and currents that are their source.
• Instead, magnetic field lines generally encircle the moving
charges or currents.
• Their direction follows from the right-hand rule.
• In special cases, field lines may
extend to infinity in both directions,
but they don't begin or end.
Using the Biot-Savart Law: a Straight Wire
• The field contribution from a current
element of length dl = dx is
µ I dl sinθ µ0 I ydx
dB = 0 =
4π r2 4π (x2 + y2 )3/2 an infinitely long straight wire
• Integrating the contributions along an
infinite line gives
µ0 Iy ∞ dx µ0 I
B = ∫ dB = ∫ 2 2 3/2
=
4π −∞ (x + y ) 2π y
• The field falls off as the inverse of the
distance y from the wire.
• The field encircles the current.

• Two parallel wires experience forces

from each other's magnetic field:
• Parallel currents attract. µII L
F= 0 1 2
• Antiparallel currents repel. 2π d
Using the Biot-Savart Law: a Current Loop

• The field contribution from a current

element of length dl =is dx
µ0 I dl a
dBx =
4π x2 + a2 x2 + a2
• Integrating the contributions from current
elements along a circular loop of current
gives a field on the loop axis that
depends on the distance x along the
axis:
µ0 Ia µ0 Ia2
B = ∫ dBx = 2 2 3/2 ∫
dl =
4π (x + a ) loop 2(x2 + a2 )3/2
• For large distances (x >> a), B is

µ0 Ia2 µ0 Iπ a2 µ0 IA
B= 3
= 3
=
2 x 2π x 2π x3
Magnetic Dipoles

• The 1/x3 dependence of the current-loop's

magnetic field is the same as the inverse-
cube dependence of the electric field of an
electric dipole.
• A current loop constitutes a magnetic
dipole.
• Its dipole moment is µ = IA, with A the
loop area. For an N-turn loop, µ = NIA.
• Thus,
µ µ
B= 0 3
2π x

• The direction of the dipole moment

vector is perpendicular to the loop area.
• The fields of electric and magnetic
dipoles are similar far from their
sources, but differ close to the sources.
Ampère's Law

• Gauss's law provides a global description of the electric

field in relation to charge that is equivalent to Coulomb's
law.
• Analogously, Ampère's law provides a global description
of the magnetic field in relation to moving charge that is
equivalent to the Biot-Savart law.
• But where Gauss's law involves a surface integral
over a closed surface, Ampère's law involves a line
integral around a closed loop.
• For steady currents, Ampère's law says
! !
"∫ B⋅ dl = µ0 I encircled
where the integral is taken around any closed loop,
and Iencircled is the current encircled by that loop.
 ! !
Got It? "∫ B⋅ dl = µ0 I encircled

• The figure shows three parallel wires carrying current of

the same magnitude I, but in one of them the current
! !
direction is opposite that of the
! other two. If B⋅ dl ≠ 0
! "∫
around loop 2, (1) what's B⋅ dl around loop 1, and (2)
"
∫
which current is the opposite one?
 ! !
Got It? "∫ B⋅ dl = µ0 I encircled

• The figure shows three parallel wires carrying current of

the same magnitude I, but in one of them the current
! !
direction is opposite that of the
! other two. If B⋅ dl ≠ 0
! "∫
around loop 2, (1) what's B⋅ dl around loop 1, and (2)
"
∫
which current is the opposite one?

(1) 0
(2) A
Using Ampère's Law

• Ampère's law is always true, but it can be used to calculate magnetic

fields only in cases with sufficient symmetry. ! !
• Then it's possible to choose an amperian loop around which " ∫ B⋅ dl
can be evaluated in terms of the unknown B.
• An example: Ampère's law quickly gives the 1/r field of a line
current—or outside any current distribution with line symmetry.

Cross section of a long cylindrical

wire. Any field line can serve as an
amperian loop, for evaluating the
field both outside and inside the
wire.
A Current Sheet

• An infinite current sheet is an idealization of a wide, flat distribution of

current.
• Application of Ampère's law
shows that the magnetic field
outside the sheet is uniform and
has magnitude B = 12 µ0 Js .
where Js is the current per unit
width.
• However, the field direction
reverses across the current
sheet.
• Far from a finite current sheet,
the field begins to resemble that
of a line current.
Solenoids

• A solenoid is a long, tightly wound coil of

wire.
• When a solenoid's length is much greater
than its diameter, the magnetic field inside
is nearly uniform except near the ends,
and the field outside is very small.

• In the ideal limit of an infinitely long

solenoid, the field inside the solenoid is
uniform everywhere, and the field outside
is zero.
• Application of Ampère's law shows that the
field of an infinite solenoid is
B = µ0 nI
where n is the number of turns per unit
length.
Electric and Magnetic Fields of Common
Charge and Current Distributions
Dipoles and Monopoles:
Gauss's Law for Magnetism
• There is no magnetic analog of electric charge.
• Such magnetic monopoles, if they existed, would be the source
of radial magnetic field lines beginning on the monopoles, just as
electric field lines begin on point charges.
• Instead, the dipole is the simplest magnetic configuration.
• The absence of magnetic! monopoles
! is expressed in Gauss's
law for magnetism: " ∫ B⋅ dA = 0
• Gauss's law for magnetism is one of the four fundamental laws of
electromagnetism.
• Gauss's law ensures that magnetic field lines have no beginnings
or endings, but generally form closed loops.
• If monopoles are ever discovered, the right-hand side of Gauss's
law for magnetism would be nonzero.
What if the magnetic monopole exists?

electric charge & electric current

magnetic monopole & magnetic current

Got It?

• The figure shows two fields. Which could be a

magnetic field?
Got It?

• The figure shows two fields. Which could be a

magnetic field?

diverging curling
Electric Motors
Converting electric energy to mechanical energy (using Ampere’s Law)
• The electric motor is a vital technological application of
the torque on a current loop.
• A current loop spins between magnet poles.
• In a DC motor, the commutator keeps reversing the
current direction to keep the loop spinning in the same
direction.
 DC Electric Motor
Converting electric energy to mechanical energy

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxG3cwugXgs
 Dipole under external electric field
(from Chapter 20)
Torque under the external E-field

(Rotational) work done by the external E-field (from 𝜋/2 to 𝜃)

(- sign because 𝜏 and 𝜃 are opposite direction)

Potential energy (capability of doing work) = - work done

(From Chapter 7)
 ! ! !
Torque on a Current Loop F! = q!v × !B
F = Il × B

• Magnetic dipoles are the magnetic analog of electric dipoles.

• A magnetic dipole produces a
dipole field.
• A magnetic dipole experiences a
torque in a magnetic field. For a
uniform magnetic field we have:
Fside = IaB
1 1 1
τ side = bFside sinθ = IabBsinθ = IABsinθ
2 2 2
τ = 2τ side = IABsinθ = µBsinθ
• Which can be written in vector
form:
! ! !
τ =µ×B
 ! ! !
Torque on a Current Loop (continued) F! = q!v × !B
F = Il × B

• The dipole will experience a net force when the

magnetic field is not uniform.
• Magnetic dipoles tend to align with the magnetic
field so it takes work to rotate the dipole out of
alignment.
• The potential energy associated with a
nonaligned dipole is given by:!
!
U = µ⋅B
• The torque on a magnetic dipole has important
applications such as electric motors and MRI
(magnetic resonance imaging).
Magnetism in Matter

• Magnetism in matter arises from atomic current loops associated with

orbiting and spinning electrons.
• In ferromagnetic materials like iron, strong interactions among
individual magnetic dipoles result in large-scale magnetic properties,
including strong attraction to magnets.
• Paramagnetic materials exhibit much weaker magnetism.
• Diamagnetic materials respond oppositely, and are repelled by
magnets.

Classical picture of magnetic dipole

moment arising from orbiting electron Origin of a permanent magnet
Summary

• Magnetism involves moving electric charge.

• Magnetic fields exert forces on moving electric charges:
!
• The magnetic force !on a! charge !q moving with velocity v
!
in a magnetic field B is F = qv × B.
• The! magnetic
! ! force on a length l of current-carrying conductor is
F = I l × B.
• Magnetic fields arise from moving electric !charge, as described by
• The Biot-Savart law: B ! ! µ0 I dl × rˆ
= ∫ dB = ∫
4π r 2
! !
• Ampère's law: " ∫ B⋅ dl = µ0 I encircled
• Magnetic fields encircle the currents and moving charges that are
their sources.
• Unlike static electric fields, magnetic field lines don't begin or end.
! !
• This fact is expressed in Gauss's law for magnetism: " ∫ B⋅ dA = 0
Quick Questions (Chapter 26)
Which of the following statements is TRUE?

a) A metal wire is bent into a square and carries a

uniform current throughout it. The net magnetic field
at the center of this square is zero.
b) The net magnetic field inside a conductor must be
zero.
c) Two long, current-carrying wires run parallel to each
other. If these wires tend to push away
from each other, the currents in them must be
going in opposite directions.
Which of the following statements is TRUE?

a) A metal wire is bent into a square and carries a

uniform current throughout it. The net magnetic field
at the center of this square is zero.
b) The net magnetic field inside a conductor must be
zero.
c) Two long, current-carrying wires run parallel to
each other. If these wires tend to push away
from each other, the currents in them must be
going in opposite directions.
A flexible wire is wound into a flat spiral as shown
in the figure. If a current flows in the direction
shown, the coil will

a) tighten
b) become looser
A flexible wire is wound into a flat spiral as shown
in the figure. If a current flows in the direction
shown, the coil will

a) tighten
b) become looser

because adjacent currents are in the same direction

A charged particle moving in a constant magnetic
field
(Consider a cyclotron.)

a) always experiences a magnetic force, regardless of

its direction of motion.
b) may experience a magnetic force which will cause
its speed to change.
c) may experience a magnetic force, but its speed
will not change.
A charged particle moving in a constant magnetic
field
(Consider a cyclotron.)

a) always experiences a magnetic force, regardless of

its direction of motion.
b) may experience a magnetic force which will cause
its speed to change.
c) may experience a magnetic force, but its speed
will not change.
Exercise : Biot-Savart’s Law and Ampere’s Law

Obtain the formula for the B-field from an infinite long straight wire
carrying steady current I using two methods and compare them.
!
! µ0 I dl × rˆ
(1) Use Biot-Savart’s Law dB =
4π r 2
! !
(2) Use Ampere’s Law "∫ B⋅ dl = µ0 I encircled
Exercise : Biot-Savart’s Law and Ampere’s Law

Obtain the formula for the B-field from an infinite long straight wire
carrying steady current I using two methods and compare them.
!
! µ0 I dl × rˆ
(1) Use Biot-Savart’s Law dB =
4π r 2
! !
(2) Use Ampere’s Law "∫ B⋅ dl = µ0 I encircled