Hindawi

International Journal of Ecology

Volume 2022, Article ID 5979024, 13 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/5979024

Research Article
Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Tribal Communities and
Sustainability of Nature and Natural Resources in Pachmarhi
Biosphere Reserve in India

Chandra Prakash Kala

Indian Institute of Forest Management, P.B. No. 357, Nehru Nagar, Bhopal 462003, India

Correspondence should be addressed to Chandra Prakash Kala; [email protected]

Received 20 May 2022; Revised 25 November 2022; Accepted 1 December 2022; Published 8 December 2022

Academic Editor: Nathaniel Newlands

Copyright © 2022 Chandra Prakash Kala. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.

Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) continues to erode as a result of globalization and the homogenization of diverse cultures, yet it
has helped to conserve natural resources and preserve nature for centuries. Biosphere reserves have been established in regions where
both cultural and natural resource assortments are deemed rich. Te present study was carried out in the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve
(PBR) of India with the major objective of investigating the TEK of local communities with respect to the sustainability of nature and
natural resources. Trough both a questionnaire and interviews with tribal groups in PBR, a total of 128 plant species were documented,
of which the highest number of species (52%) was used for food, followed by medicine (40%), cultural practices (13%), and construction
of houses (11%). Apart from the collection of plants from the adjacent forests for their sustenance, the tribal groups engaged in various
other activities including farming practices, maintenance of home gardens, soil and water conservation, and continuance of sacred
groves. Te nature and natural resource-based livelihood and conservation activities of tribal groups involve specifc cultural practices
and customary norms. Tis study reveals that the traditional knowledge of tribal communities ofers unique ideas for developing and
contributing to more efective sustainable management practices and nature conservation. It has a great potential to strengthen the
agriculture and health sectors, as the tribal communities have accumulated a fair amount of knowledge in such sectors.

1. Introduction are conscious of a direct beneft to themselves from a natural

ecosystem [7].
Tere are diverse knowledge perspectives on the use and Communities living historically in the proximity of these
sustainability of natural resources among communities natural ecosystems, over a period of time, develop specifc
across the world. One school of thought perceives anthro- knowledge on the ecosystem and environmental resources
pogenic activities as a major impediment for the sustain- that are later called as traditional knowledge or traditional
ability of natural resources, to the extent that they may cause ecological knowledge (TEK). TEK has been practiced since
the sixth mass extinction of species [1, 2]. On the other hand, the ancient hunter-gatherer cultures; however, the term TEK
anthropocentrism advocates a strong human-centric ap- as such was brought into extensive use in the 1980s [8]. At
proach for the utilization of natural resources, which is present, it denotes an integrated relationship between
softened by introducing the concept of morality, while using humans and ecosystems [9], and so that it is valued in
other life forms [3–5]. Despite the diversity of opinions, a number of felds, including agriculture, pharmacology,
there are commonalities among these philosophies in terms ethnobotany, and sustainability of nature and natural re-
of ensuring the sustainability of various components of an sources [10, 11]. Besides, given the present environmental
ecosystem [6]. Even anthropocentric motivations are crisis, degradation of natural ecosystems, and climate
deemed to contribute positively in situations where humans change, TEK is being considered an important tool to
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2 International Journal of Ecology

mitigate the efects of changing global environmental and high cultural diversity as it is inhabited by number of tribal
ecological conditions, as it advocates the philosophy of and nontribal communities [12]. A total of 575 villages are
coexistence and sustainability [12]. Being a set of unique located inside the PBR consisting of 508 revenue and 67
local knowledge refned over the years, TEK helps to design forest villages [18]. Te most dominant tribe in PBR is Gond.
practices for local level decision-making in agriculture,
pastoralism, food preparation, health care, natural resource
management, and a host of other activities [13–15]. 2.2. Major Tribal Community
Te concept of ecosystem’s sustainability becomes of
2.2.1. Gond. Gond ethnic groups are generally found in the
utmost signifcance while utilizing its services by commu-
states of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and
nities. Te model of biosphere reserves, therefore, brings in
Chhattisgarh [20]. In Madhya Pradesh, they are concen-
to support both humans and nature by establishing sus-
trated in the Satpura plateau consisting of Chhindwara,
tainability support sites where baseline information on social
Hoshangabad, and Betul districts; PBR spans over these 3
and ecological systems is collected and changes and in-
districts only. Tey also live in parts of other districts like
teractions between these two pivotal systems are studied
Mandla, Sioni, and Narasinghpur. Te Gond tribe domi-
[16]. Teoretical and applied studies on sociocultural and
nated the central parts of India; hence, it was known as
ecological interactions represent vital information for setting
Gondwana land. Te social organization of the Gond reveals
up priorities for sustainable development. Nonetheless, the
that they are divided into clans, including Bariba, Dhurwe,
interaction between the sociocultural and ecological di-
Erpachi, Imne, Kakoria, Padram, Sarbeyan, Sarada, Sivar-
mensions of sustainable development remains largely less
saran, Barkare, Barkey, Batti, Eke, Porta, and Tekam.
studied [17]. Trough the realization of continuous erosion
Gonds are polytheists and, hence, believe in number of gods
in TEK due to several reasons, including globalization and
and goddesses. Budhadeo is their major deity besides Bari Devi,
homogenization of diverse cultures, there is a need to study
Khedapati, Chotimata, Sidhababa, Gowalbaba, Bajrangbali,
such a valuable knowledge in a holistic way that has sup-
Bagdeo, Nagdeo, and Siyenebuda [12]. Tey have Padiar
ported to conserve the nature and natural resources for
(shaman) and Bhomka (Priest) who perform various religious
centuries. Biosphere reserves have been established in re-
activities. Te local people have their own calendar, which they
gions where both cultural and natural resource assortments
use for diferent purposes, including the collection of forest
are deemed rich. Te present study was carried out in the
resources and the cultivation of crops. At present, the major
Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve (PBR) of India with the major
occupation of Gond revolves around agriculture and to some
objective of investigating the TEK of local communities with
extent on the collection of minor forest produce and query
respect to the sustainability of nature and natural resources.
labour work. Te majority of them occupy some patch of
agricultural land. Tey collect a range of forest produce from the
2. Study Site, Tribal People, and Survey Methods local forest for consumption as well as for sale in the market.
2.1. Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve. As part of the United
Nations Educational, Scientifc and Cultural Organization 2.2.2. Korku. Besides Gond, the PBR is inhabited by Korku
(UNESCO)’s initiatives under the Man and Biosphere tribe. Korku is believed to be an ofshoot of Mawasi tribe.
Programmes, the Government of India initiated the Na- Tey inhabit all three districts covered under PBR. Being
tional Biosphere Reserve Programme in 1986, and since then a hunter-gatherer community earlier, they used to live in the
18 biosphere reserves have been established in various parts forests of Satpura mountain range [21]. Tey are divided into
of the country. Te Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve (PBR) was two subgroups (Raj Korku and Patharia Korku) and four
established on March 3, 1999. In reference to the bio- territorial groups (Mawasi, Bawaria, Ruma, and Bondoya).
geographic classifcation of India, the PBR is located in the In PBR, Bondoya Korku lives in Pachmarhi area and Bawaria
Deccan Peninsula between 20° 10′ to 22°50′N latitude and in Betul district [19]. Korku, at present, practices agriculture
77°45′ to 78°56′E longitude in the Satpura Mountain Range and some of them are engaged in rearing livestock and
of Madhya Pradesh state in India. PBR covers parts of Betul, collection of forest produce.
Hoshangabad, and Chhindwara districts and spans over
4,926.28 sq km, of which 524.37 sq km is core zone and
remaining 4,462.93 sq km comprises the bufer zone. It 2.3. Survey Methods. Apart from collection of information
consists of three wildlife conservation units, the Satpura through secondary sources, the primary surveys were carried
National Park (524.37 sq km), the Bori Wildlife Sanctuary out in the PBR. Ten villages situated in the bufer zone of
(518.00 sq km), and the Pachmarhi Sanctuary (461.37 sq km; PBR, namely, Bandi, Deokoh Bodalkachhar, Sawarwani,
Figure 1). Te land use pattern in PBR comprises forest Shahwan, Fatepur, Singhpur, Anhoni, Khara, and Taperwani
(65.20%), agriculture (27.7%), water bodies (4.2%), waste- were selected for intensive study on TEK and nature con-
land (2.5%), and built-up land (0.5%). Of the total forest servation practices of tribal communities. Te door-to-door
cover, the closed forest constitutes 85.3%, open forest 8.2%, questionnaire survey was conducted in the selected villages.
and degraded forest 4.2% [18]. Te most common tree Trough a questionnaire survey and interviews, the in-
species in the forests are Tectona grandis, Chloroxylon formation was collected on the indigenous uses of plant
swietenia, and Terminalia tomentosa [19]. Besides rich bi- species, traditional farming practices, traditional knowledge
ological and geographical diversity, the PBR endows with on soil and water, and traditional nature conservation
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International Journal of Ecology 3

Figure 1: Location map of the Pachmarhi biosphere reserve in India.

practices and belief systems. Participant observations were purposes, of which the highest number of species (52%) are
also employed, and information was collected on various used for food, followed by medicine (40%), cultural practices
traditional practices with respect to the use of various (13%) and construction of houses (11%).
natural resources by participating in cultural activities of the Diferent plant parts of ethnobotanical species are used
local tribal people. Te cultural practices and norms for as food, medicine, fodder, fsh poisoning, oil making, and for
collection of various plant species and their parts along with preparing agricultural tools, brooms, plates, furniture, and
rituals associated with farming and natural resource con- ropes. Since the local people are mostly forest dwellers and
servation were also documented through interviews and traditionally depend on forests for food, they have developed
group discussions. Te knowledgeable local people were also very good knowledge on the use of food plant species. Of the
requested to accompany during the farm and forest surveys total documented plant species, the fruits of the highest
for identifcation of plant species and associated indigenous number of species (38%) are used by the local people, fol-
knowledge. Following the Nagoya Protocol [22], the own- lowed by leaves (25%), stems (18%), roots (15%), and seeds
ership and control of the data as collected during the survey (11%). Te important trees and their parts collected from the
from the communities and described in this paper will re- forests and nearby village areas by the local people are
main with the tribal communities of PBR. Madhuca indica, Buchanania lanzan, Diospyros melanox-
ylon, Syzygium cumini, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia
3. Results and Discussion bellirica, Azadirachta indica, and Tamarindus indica.
Madhuca indica, locally called as mahua, is one of the
3.1. Tribal Forest Interactions. PBR harbors some thick important plant species of tribal groups, as it is used for multiple
forests in central India, which provide ample opportunities purposes, including the prediction of weather and agriculture
to its inhabitants for observing and scrutinizing various yields. While worshipping the mahua fowers in April and May,
plant species and developing their own understanding and the colour of the fowers makes them predict some events. Te
knowledge systems. Trough questionnaires and interviews, agricultural production and amount of rainfall are assumed to
a total of 128 plant species used for various purposes by the be unafected if the fower colour remains deep yellow. If it is
tribal communities living in the bufer zone villages of PBR light yellow and seems to be turning reddish, such phenomena
are documented (Table 1). Tese species are distributed make them believe that their crops are going to be infected by
among various life forms. Of the total documented ethno- insects, which indicates a decline in agriculture production.
botanically important species, there are 55 tree species, 19 Tey also believe that if the mahua does not fower at all, it
shrub species, 34 herbaceous plants (of which 16 are cul- indicates famine and is harmful to forest species.
tivated), 7 grasses, 5 climbers, 5 woody climbers, 2 under Te tribal people in PBR harvest plants by following
shrubs, and one fungus. Tese species are used for multiple some customary norms. Accordingly, the auspicious days
 4
Table 1: Important plant species used by local people in selected villages of Pachmarhi biosphere reserve in India.
Sl. no. Botanical name Local Habit Part collected Uses
Fuel wood
1 Acacia arabica Willd. Babul/bamur Middle size tree Stem Construction of wheel of bullock carts
Agricultural implements
House construction
Stem Fuel wood
2 Acacia catechu Willd. Khair Small tree
Husking tool (mussel)
Bark Medicinal (dysentery)
Leaf Fodder
3 Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del. Subabool Tree
Stem Firewood
Edible
Fruit
4 Aegle marmelos Correa. Bel Tree Medicinal (stomach disorder)
Leaf Religious (ofer to goddesses)
5 Aloe barbadensis Mill. Gourpatha Herb Leaf Digestive, burnt, headache
6 Andrographis peniculata Nees. Kadwa chirwa Herb Whole plant Malaria
House construction
Stem Fuel wood
7 Anogeissus latifolia Wall. Dhabda/Dhawra Tree
Agriculture
Resin Selling
Bark Medicinal (dysentery, cough)
8 Anogeissus pendula Edgew. Kala dhokda/Kardhai Tree Stem Firewood
Leaf Fodders for cattle and goats
Fruit Edible
9 Anona squamosa L. Sarifa/Sitaphal Small tree
Leaf Ethno-veterinary use
Fodder
10 Anthistiria ciliata L. Ganeya grass Grass Whole Fencing the land bunds
Mulching
11 Asparagus racemosus Willd. Satawari Woody climber Tuber Medicine
Fruit Oil (use in scabies)
Medicinal (malaria),
Leaf
Mosquito repellent
12 Azadirachta indica A.H.L. Juss. Neem/Lim Tree Bark Medicinal (fever)
Toothbrush/toothache
Stem Fever
Agricultural implement
13 — Mushroom Fungi Edible
14 Bauhinia purpurea L. Keolar Small tree Leaf Vegetable
15 Bauhinia variegata L. Kachnar Small tree Leaf Edible
Cup and plate making
16 Bauhinia vahlii (W. and A.) Benth. Mahul, malu Woody climber Leaf
Rope making
17 Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC. Daruhaldi Shrub Root Medicinal (gynecological, infamation)
Medicine (boil)
18 Bombax ceiba L. Semel, semra Tree Fruit
Chicken pox—it is used with kapoor to worship
19 Boswellia serrata Roxb. Salei Tree Resin Marketing
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 Table 1: Continued.
Sl. no. Botanical name Local Habit Part collected Uses
Fruit Edible
20 Buchanania lanzan Roxb. Achar/Chironji Tree
Seed Edible
Leaf Cup and plate making
21 Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze Palaas/Khakra Tree Cultural plant (thatched in marriage spot)
Stem
Death ceremony/used during cremation
22 Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Tuar/Leher Herb (cultivated) Seed Edible
Leaf Ethno-veterinary, muscle pain
23 Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryander. Akwa Shrub
Flower Worship of shiva
24 Canavalia ensiformis DC. Semi/Barhar Herb (cultivated) Fruit Edible
International Journal of Ecology

25 Capsicum annum L. Mirch Herb (cultivated) Fruit Edible

26 Careya arborea Roxb. Kumbhi Middle sized tree Bark Fish poisoning
27 Casearia tomentosa Roxb Tundra/Tundri Small tree Fruit Fish poisoning
Leaf Vegetable
28 Cassia tora L. Chakoda Herb
Fruit Marketing
Furniture
29 Cedrela toona Roxb. Mahaneem Tree Stem
Boat
Medicinal (cut and wound)
30 Celastrus paniculata Willd. Unjain Woody climber Seed
Oil yielding
31 Centella asiatica L. Brahmi Herb Leaf Medicinal (stomach disorder, fever)
32 Cissus quadrangularis Wall. Harjodi, hatjod Climber Stem Medicinal (bone fracture)
33 Chlorophytum tuberosum Baker Safed musli Herb Root Medicinal (tonic)
House construction
Agricultural implements
Stem
Fuel wood
34 Chloroxylon swietenia DC. Ghiriha Tree
Bullock cart
Fish poison
Bark
Mosquito repellant
Edible
35 Cicer arietinum L. Chana Herb (cultivated) Seed
Marketing
Edible
36 Citrullus aromatica Salisb. Kacheria Herb Fruit Ethno-veterinary
Chatni
Edible
37 Citrus medica L. Nimbu Small tree Fruit
Medicinal (stomach disorder, headache)
38 Costus spaciosus (Koenig ex Retz.) Smith Keokand Herb Root Tonic, stomach disorder
Medicinal (gynecological)
39 Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. and Schult. Anatmul Twining shrub Root
Tonic, used as tea
40 Cucurbita maxima Duch. ex Lam. Kaddu Herb (cultivated) Fruit Edible
Medicine (skin)
41 Curcuma aromatica L. Banhaldi Herb Root
Gynecological disorder
Cut and wound
42 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pearson Dub Grass Whole plant
Cultural
43 Delbergia paniculata Roxb. Dhobi Tree Root Medicinal
5

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 6
Table 1: Continued.
Sl. no. Botanical name Local Habit Part collected Uses
Stem House construction
Door making
Cultural (making of “Gatha” to carry the dead body)
44 Dendrocalamus strictus Nees. Bamboo Grass
Fishing trap
Making of “Tatri” during village festival
Twig Edible (karla)
45 Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. Agai Middle sized tree Fruit Edible
Edible
46 Dioscorea alata L. Ratalu Climber Rhizome
Medicinal (stomach disorder)
47 Dioscorea hispida Willd. Baichandi Climber Rhizome Medicinal
48 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Kadukand/Bhatadu Climber Rhizome Edible
Fruit Edible (ripe)
49 Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. Tendu Tree
Leaf Selling
Brehmoniya/
50 Embelia robusta Roxb. Shrub Bark Medicinal (dysentery/fever/skin diseases)
Baibedang
51 Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench Jowar Herb (cultivated) Seed Edible
Fruit Edible
52 Ficus benghalensis L. Bargad Tree
Leaf Fodder
53 Ficus religiosa L. Peepal Tree Fruit Edible
54 Flemingia bracteata Roxb. Galphula Shrub Root Gynecological (easy delivery of child)
55 Garura pinnata Roxb. Kekad Tree Stem Agricultural implements
Medicinal (scorpion sting)
56 Gloriosa superba L. Kalihari Herb Root Confict generating species between families
Birth control/lady put it around the tammy
57 Gmelina arborea Roxb. Kumbher Tree Fruit Edible
Oil extraction
58 Guizotia abyssinica Cass. Jagni Herb Seed
Marketing
59 Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br. Gudmar Woody climber Root and twig Medicinal (diabetes)
60 Hamidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Dudhi bel Twining shrub Fruit Edible
Bark Rope making
61 Hardwickia binata Roxb. Anjan Tree
Stem House construction
62 Helicteres isora Linn. Athni Shrub Bark Rope making
63 Hibiscus cancellatus Roxb. Kacheli Herb Whole plant Medicinal (debility and impotence)
Fruit
64 Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. Dudhi Tree Medicinal (dysentery)
Seed
House construction
65 Indigofera glandulosa Willd. Barbada Herb Stem
Fuel wood
66 Indigofera pulchella Roxb. Jirole Shrub Leaf Vegetable
67 Ipomea sp. Besaram Shrub Stem Land boundary
House construction
68 Ischaemum angustifolum L. Baber grass Grass Whole plant Rope making
Broom making
Fodder
69 Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. Murdu/Murdi Grass Whole
Rope making
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 Table 1: Continued.
Sl. no. Botanical name Local Habit Part collected Uses
70 Jetropha curcas L. Rattanjot Shrub Fruit Oil (applied on wound)
Firewood
71 Lagerstroemia parvifora Roxb. Lendia Tree Stem
Land boundary making
72 Lantana camera L. Lantana Shrub Whole Fencing of agricultural land
73 Lawsonia alba Lamk. Hina, mehdi Shrub Stem Fencing and making of bunds
Root Joint pain
74 Leea macrophylla Roxb. Hathpan, hathikand Herb
Leaf Vegetable
75 Litsea sebifera Persn. Maida Tree Bark Medicinal (diarrhea)
76 Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. Tamatar Herb (cultivated) Fruit Edible
International Journal of Ecology

Edible after cooking

Flower
Liquor preparation/Ofer to deities
77 Madhuca indica L. Mahua/Guli Tree Oil (curry preparation)
Fruit
Massage in body
Stem Cultural (marriage)
Manilkara hexandra (Roxb) Dub. Syn: Mimusops hexandra
78 Khirni Tree Fruit Edible
Roxb.
79 Melia azedarach L. Tuni Tree Seed Fish poison
Fruit Edible (raw and ripe)
Edible
80 Mangifera indica L. Aam Tree Seed
Marketing
Leaf Cultural (making of marriage spot)
81 Mimosa pudica L. Lajnu/Lajwanti Under shrub Whole plant Medicine
82 Mitragyna parvifora (Roxb.) Korth. Kem Tree Leafy branch Cultural (marriage and death ceremony)
Leaf
83 Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Munga/Sahjan Small tree Edible
Fruit
84 Mucuna pruriens DC. Keunch Climber Fruit Snakebite
Seed Edible
85 Oryza sativa L. Dhan Herb (cultivated)
Straw Fodder
86 Panicum colonus L. Sama Herb (cultivated) Seed Edible
Seed Oil
87 Paspalum sanguinale Lamk. Rai Herb (cultivated)
Leaf Vegetable
Edible after boiling
88 Paspalum scrobiculatum L. Kodu/Badheli/Kora Herb (cultivated) Seed
Given after delivery
House construction
89 Pennisetum purpureum (DC.) Baker. Chinni Grass Whole
Broom making, rope making and cultural
Tonic
90 Peucedanum nagpurense Prain. Tejraj Herb Root
Blood purifer
91 Phaseolus mungo L. Urad Herb (cultivated) Seed Edible
92 Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. Khajur Tree Fruit Edible (ripe)
Fruit Edible and medicinal (digestive)
93 Phyllanthus ofcinalis L. Amla Tree
Leaf Cultural (ofer to gods and goddesses)
Gynecological (easy delivery) (leprosy/Blood
Root
94 Plumbago zeylanica L. Chitawar, chitrak Shrub purifcation)
Leaf Stomach disorder
7

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 8
Table 1: Continued.
Sl. no. Botanical name Local Habit Part collected Uses
95 Pongamia glabra Vent. Kanji/karanj Middle sized tree Fruit Oil extraction
96 Psoralea corylifolia L. Babchi/baxi Herb Fruit Selling
Fruit Both raw and ripe fruits are eaten
97 Psidium guava L. Jam/Amrud/Bihi Tree
Leaf Medicinal (dysentery)
House construction
98 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Bija Tree Stem
Furniture
99 Randia dumetorum Lamk. Mainhar Tree Leaf Vegetable
Fruit
100 Rauvolfa serpentina L. Sarpagandha Under shrub Snake bite
Root
Fruit Oil (headache, massaging body)
101 Ricinus communis L. Arandi Shrub
Root Easy delivery
102 Schleichera trijuga Willd. Kusum Tree Fruit Edible
Edible
103 Semecarpus anacardium L. Bhelwa Tree Fruit
Medicine (feet cracking)
Oil
104 Sesamum indicum L. Til Herb (cultivated) Seed
Edible
House construction
Furniture
Fuel wood
Stem Plough making
105 Shorea robusta Gaertn. Sal/Sarei Tree
Cultural (to prepare marriage spot)
Ofer to deities for appeasement
Tooth brush
Resin Medicinal (burn wound)
106 Solanum nigrum L. Makoi Herb Fruit Edible
107 Solanum melongena L. Baigan Herb (cultivated) Fruit Edible
108 Stephegyne parvifolia Korth Kalam Tree Stem Cultural (used during marriage)
Resin Medicinal (gynecological)
109 Sterculia urens Roxb. Gulhar/kullu Tree
Bark Rope making
Stem Cultural (marriage)
Fruit Edible
Medicinal (dysentery)
110 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Jamun Tree Leaf
Cultural (placed on marriage spot)
Seed Medicinal (diabetic)
Bark Medicinal (dysentery)
Edible
Pickle preparation
111 Tamarindus indica L. Emli Tree Fruit
Medicinal (ethno-veterinary)
Selling
House construction
112 Tectona grandis L. Sagaun Tree Stem Furniture
Cultural (Tatri for worshipping deities are made of it)
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 Table 1: Continued.
Sl. no. Botanical name Local Habit Part collected Uses
Firewood
Stem
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113 Terminalia arjuna Bedd. Arjun/Koha Tree House construction

Root Stomach disorder
114 Terminalia bellerica (Gaertn). Roxb. Beheda Tree Fruit Medicinal (digestive)
115 Terminalia chebula Retz. and Willd. Harra Tree Fruit Medicinal (digestive)
House construction
116 Terminalia tomentosa W&A Saja Tree Stem Fuel wood
Used during marriage
Root
Tonic
117 Tinospora cordifolia Miers. Gurbel, Guduchi Woody climber Bark
Fever
Leaf
Edible
118 Triticum aestivum L. Ga Herb (cultivated) Seed
Marketing
119 Urginea indica Kunth Jangli piaz Herb Tuber Ethno-veterinary
120 Vaccaria pyramidata Medik. Musna Herb Flower Ethno-veterinary
Semiparasitic
121 Viscum nepalense Willd. Bandala Root Medicinal
shrub
122 Vitex negundo L. Nirgundi Shrub Whole Fencing of agricultural land
House construction
123 Vitiveria zizanioides L. Kash Grass Whole
Rope making
124 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. Dhawai Shrub Flower Red dye, medicine
125 Zea mays L. Makka Herb (cultivated) Seed Edible
126 Zizyphus jujuba Lam. Ber/Renga Tree Fruit Edible
Agricultural implements
127 Zizyphus xylopyra Willd. Ghont Shrub Bark
House construction
Leaf Malaria
128 Zizypus rugosa Lamk. Churnachitu Shrub
Fruit Edible
9

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10 International Journal of Ecology

are limited for such collections of plants from the wild. performed only once in a year and is not repeated for each
Besides, the extraction of forest resources depends on sea- sowing. Once the crops are ready to harvest, the head of the
sonal variations. During February and March, the gum of household ofers some milk and mahua liquor to the
Anogeissus latifolia is tapped, which is followed by gathering “Sayenibuda” right in a crop feld and thereafter harvesting
of Madhuca indica’s fowers during March and April. Since of crop is allowed.
Madhuca indica bears fruits during April and May, hence, Bio-fencing is also made by erecting branches of some
they are picked up apart from gum of Acacia nilotica and plants including nirgundi (Vitex nigundo) at the boundary of
Terminalia tomentosa. Depending on availability, the fruits the crop felds. Besides, they perform some rituals in an-
of Balanites roxburghii are gathered during May and those of ticipation of protecting their crops. If the crops are infected
Buchanania lanzan during May and June [23, 24]. Te by insects, they fx a branch of Semacarpus anacardium in
collection of forest produce is made for both domestic the day of lunar eclipse with the belief that it helps to decline
consumption and selling out in the market. About twenty or remove the insects [27]. Traditionally, they also spray
plant species are traded to the prospective buyers. Te gum ashes of woods around the agricultural feld for keeping
has high demand in the market; hence, its trade is the highest insect pests away from the crops. When the crops are af-
among all other forest produce [24]. fected by unidentifed diseases, a handful of un-boiled rice is
Over time, the increasing demand of such forest produce picked up and brought by a male member of each household
in the market has invited unsustainable harvesting practices to the “Khedapati” temple, where they all gather with
of tradable forest produce to get maximum returns. For “Bhomka,” a local priest. “Bhomka” worships the village
instance, earlier, artifcial incisions were generally avoided deities to protect the crops from any misfortune. At the end
for tapping gums from Anogeissus latifolia as during sum- of the ritual, each person ofers a handful of rice to the village
mer the gum naturally oozes out [25]. At present, artifcial deities. Tis ritual is known as “Ujagar.”
incision is common for tapping of gum. In addition, to Apart from raising crops in agriculture land, they also
extract maximum quantity of gums, people begin to drill the grow and maintain plant species in the vicinity of their
trunk for making a deep hole which is injected with dwelling places, which is called as home gardens. About 47
chemicals such as ethephon. Ethephon being a plant growth species ranging from forestry to horticulture and agricultural
regulator is widely used as ethylene-releasing plant regulator are documented those are grown in the home gardens by the
in agriculture to promote fruit ripening, abscission, fower local people in bufer zone villages of PBR [28]. Tese species
induction, and other responses [26]. Te debarking of trees are used for multiple purposes including food, medicine,
for such purposes and also for collection of bark for making vegetables, nutraceutical, fodder, and cultural signifcance.
herbal medicines have become a regular practice leading to Te practice of raising home gardens was based on the
premature death of tree species. Moreover, the collectors are centuries of cumulative traditional knowledge, practices and
less concerned about the traditional harvesting norms of beliefs with respect to the multiple uses of species, and their
species; hence, they have started to harvest forest produce environmental and ecological signifcance. Te agriculture
before time, which subsequently hamper the growth and system of tribal communities is well knitted with their
productivity of such important produce. cultures and customs.
Tere has been a transformation in the traditional ag-
ricultural practices as earlier the inhabitants of PBR were
3.2. Farming by Tribal Communities. Apart from collection
also known to practice shifting cultivation; however, at
of forest produce from the wild, the tribal communities grow
present, they are practicing settled agriculture. Over the
plant species in their agriculture land and home gardens.
years, the introduction of hybrid seeds has declined the land
Tey raise crops in both plain and sloppy land areas. In
races of indigenous crops. Te traditional cow dung-based
agriculture land, they practice two types of cropping sys-
organic farming is mainly transformed to market driven
tems: rabi and kharif. Te kharif cropping season starts in
chemical fertilizers. Continuous application of chemical
June and ends in October, whereas the rabi cropping season
fertilizers has exhausted the soil fertility afecting the quality
begins in October and ends in March. Te major crops
of crops and their productivity. Te voices are now raised to
grown in both rabi and kharif seasons are diferent. In kharif
return to the traditional organic or ecological farming
season, the major crops grown include Oryza sativa, Glycine
systems.
max, Sorghum vulgare, Zea mays, Cajanus cajan, Vigna
mungo, and Sesamum indicum. In the rabi season, people
mainly cultivate Triticum aestivum, Cicer arietinum, Lens 3.3. TEK on Soil and Water. Traditionally, the tribal in PBR
culinaris, Brassica campestris, and Pisum sativum [27]. have classifed the soil types mainly on the basis of soil
Te agricultural activities are accomplished by per- texture, soil colour, and moisture retaining capacity of soil. A
forming some specifc cultural practices. Tey celebrate total of 16 soil types, as classifed by the tribes, are docu-
some festivals with rich and vibrant ceremonies before and mented. Tese soil types are Bhurbhuria, Chikti, Kadialtori,
after growing and harvesting of crops. In the frst sowing of Kamkaltori, Potini, Chikni, Kasai, Dadra, and Barrimitti.
seeds, they dig a hole in a corner of the agricultural land Te selection of crops as grown in various soil types is mainly
where they sow some traditional varieties of cultivated crops, based on the soil moisture and soil types [29]. Some land
followed by ofering a coconut and a cup of “mahua liquor” races of Oryza sativa and Triticum aestivum including Cicer
to the “Sayenibuda,” a local deity [12]. Tis practice is arietinum are relatively long duration crops and require high
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International Journal of Ecology 11

moisture, whereas other land races of rice such as “Lalei” and full moon night or moon less night, and Tuesday and Sat-
“Batra” are of shorter duration and require less moisture. In urday are considered auspicious for plant collection in the
the presence of high moisture contents, farmers avoid seeds genuine cases. Locally, it is called “jari-jagana,” which lit-
sowing till moisture decreases to the desired level. Some of erally means to wake up or activate the plant. Only
the farmers raise paddy nurseries for transplantation, and “Bhumka” is authorized to cut down the plant on
“bhurbhuria” soil type is generally preferred for raising such Wednesday or Sunday. Medicinal plants are mainly col-
nurseries. Te plantlets of paddy grow well and can also be lected before sunrise after taking bath.
uprooted easily if grown in “bhurbhuria” soil. Te tribal people in PBR do not remove all the trees while
Traditionally, the tribal communities often test the practicing agriculture, and let some trees grow in the ag-
quality and usefulness of soil for raising crops by mixing riculture land, especially useful species such as Madhuca
water in it. If the soil easily mixes with water, it is considered indica. Te availability of tree species in the farmland, be-
less fertile. If the water is absorbed slowly by the soil, such sides providing organic matter to the soil, may also help to
soil is believed to have good quality and is useful for raising prevent soil erosion from the mountain slopes. Such trees
crops. Besides agricultural purposes, the soil is used for also act as windbreaks and protect the soil from erosion.
making houses, pots, whitewashing, and painting. Tey use 3 Terrace farming, making small bunds, growing tussock
diferent soil types such as Lalmitti (red soil), Pirmitti (black grasses along the border and bunds, and applying of manure
soil), and Chhuimitti (whitish soil) for decoration of houses based on the nature of the soil are some of the ways that help
[12]. Traditionally, the tribal communities generally believe to maintain the nutrients in the soil and ultimately the soil
that water coming from ground is purer than other sources. fertility [29].
Te rivulet water is used for religious purposes. Besides, such For the day-to-day requirement of plant resources, they
running water that fows through various forests and eco- set up home gardens, which also trap a number of ecosystem
systems having valuable medicinal plants is considered good services in the vicinity of their dwelling places. Home
for health due to intermingling of some medicinal gardens not only support dietary diversity but also help in
properties. maintaining the social fabrics of the community while ex-
In view of the declining soil fertility due to the con- changing the produce grown in the gardens. Besides, the
tinuous and heavy use of chemical fertilizers, soil testing home gardens help in ex situ conservation of genetic di-
laboratories have been established to analyze the soil quality versity of useful plant species.
and subsequently improve and maintain the soil fertility. Other than the home gardens, the tribal communities
Krishi Vighyan Kendra (Agricultural Science Centre) in have evolved another traditional in situ conservation ap-
Betul, Hoshangabad, and Chhindwara issue soil health cards proach in the form of earmarking sacred groves where they
to the farmers after testing their farms’ soil. Preparing soil worship their local deities [32]. Each sacred grove is named
health cards is an attempt to revitalize the natural ecological after the deity, which is believed to be dwelling in the re-
attributes of the soil by suggesting timely interventions to the spective sacred grove. A total of 19 such deities are recorded
farmers [30]. For sustainable crop productivity, soil health in the bufer zone of PBR and are worshipped by the local
card-based management is considered an efcient man- people. None of the plant species are harvested or collected
agement system [31]. from the sacred groves. Terefore, the sacred groves remain
the islands of rich plant genetic and species diversity.
Apart from conservation of plant diversity, the tribal
3.4. TEK and Sustainability of Nature and Natural Resources.
people in PBR have accumulated knowledge on maintaining
Te planet Earth and its various components including,
soil fertility and conservation. Over the centuries, they have
rivers, water, hills, forests, birds, animals, and plants are
adopted various traditional practices, including crop rota-
inseparable from the lives of tribal people, as their knowl-
tion, burning of crop residues, planting tree species, and
edge, folklore, and culture are closely knit and based upon
frequently applying farmyard manure, which fnally help in
such natural resources. Teir belief in living with present
maintaining and sustaining the soil fertility [12]. Besides, the
rather than saving for future has made them to refrain from
traditional conservation and management practices are well
overexploitation of resources, as there was no dearth of
knitted and interwoven with the cultures, belief systems, and
natural resources in the past for daily sustenance and they
available resources.
were sure on the plenty of resource availability by the grace
of God.
Despite the traditional belief in the tribal society of PBR 3.5. Wide-Reaching Concerns of Tribal TEK. PBR being
that the forest is as eternal as the Earth and the universe, situated in the middle of eastern and southern India, it
traditionally, they develop and follow some customary possesses the components of both areas, which fnally shape
norms while gathering plants. During monsoon, Gond its rich biodiversity and cultural milieu. Te biogeographical
tribes, generally, avoid harvesting of plants for medicine diversity of PBR and subsequent evolution of TEK as
realizing that monsoon is the period of growth and additions a source of survival refects the potential of TEK in human
of new individuals in the existing populations. Only a few development. Moreover, the TEK has given a platform for
specifc days and period are considered auspicious to collect the evolution of various ethos of nature conservation.
the medicinal plants. For example, the ninth day of Navratri Terefore, researchers inclined to sustainability of nature
(Goddess Durga festival that spans consecutive nine nights), and natural resources have been trying to evaluate the TEK
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12 International Journal of Ecology

occupied by traditional knowledge holders across the world communities have accumulated a fair amount of knowledge
[33]. Tere are reports on advocating applicability and in- in such sectors. For centuries, traditional knowledge has
tegration of TEK to ensure ecosystem stability and resilience, provided the basis for problem-solving strategies for tribal
land use management, soil fertility, soil water regimes, global groups; therefore, at present, there are worldwide concerns
change, livelihood generation, and poverty eradication about the importance and preservation of traditional
[33, 34]. In addition, the TEK demands recognition and knowledge in communities for various causes.
respect as a whole including its philosophical bases for the
purpose of ecosystem sustainability [14]. 4. Conclusion
Te natural resources as collected and used by the tribal
communities have an important sociocultural epistemology. Te present study reveals that traditionally the livelihood of
Tey are generally collected by applying some specifc and tribal people is mainly revolved around forest resources and
traditionally developed technology, which is mainly gov- marginal agriculture. Tey have adopted specifc belief
erned by social institutions and norms [13]. Te restrictions systems so that the methods, tools, and technologies for
are imposed on the gathering of plant species during the utilization and management of natural resources. At present,
particular period, considering the fact that periods of re- the traditional knowledge and practices as adopted by the
striction on plant resource use may help to continue species tribal groups are undergoing transformation due to
reproduction and ensure the sustained availability of the a number of causes. A part of the traditional knowledge is
resources [35]. Centuries of experiences on the conse- commercialized whereas the other part, which is perceived
quences of early resource use modes and exigencies of as less valuable, is ignored. Nature and natural resource
ecosystem’s sustainability are known to reorder the social conservation are not segmented aspects for tribal commu-
behavior of ethnic communities towards sustainable re- nities but are engrained in their habits, customs, and belief
source use [36]. systems so the TEK must be exercised in a holistic way. Te
Over the years, values engrained in TEK have paved the doctrines of TEK ofer some valuable guiding principles for
way to accept this knowledge system across the disciplines, devising policies for both nature and cultural conservation.
and many agriculturalists, pharmacologists, and water en- Realizing the ongoing complexities in nature conservation
gineers are infuenced by the traditional practices of tribal and sustainability of natural resources, there is a need to
communities [37]. Traditional knowledge on the use and have a coherent and practical policy on conservation of
signifcance of plants for food and medicine, as discovered nature as well as cultural resources as they complement
and accumulated by the tribal communities, has been the each other.
source of many modern medicines and nutritious food
products [38]. Te World Health Organization (WHO) has Data Availability
also projected that worldwide around 3.5 billion people in
developing countries rely on plant-based medicines for Te data are available from the corresponding author upon
primary healthcare. For various reasons, tribal communities request and are included in the manuscript.
still rely on traditional medicines. Te cultural acceptability
is one of the main causes, besides the unavailability of Conflicts of Interest
modern medical facilities [39].
Te major part of TEK is open to all the members of the Te author declares that there are no conficts of interest.
community if they desire to learn; however, some specifc
knowledge may only be passed on to next generations after Acknowledgments
following certain institutional mechanisms. TEK is trans-
ferred to generations through the transmission of cultures, Tis study was partially funded by the Indian Institute of
practices, technologies, and belief systems, which may and Forest Management for feld data collection. Author wishes
may not be always accepted by younger generations. Over to thank the Director Indian Institute of Forest Management
the years, there has been a continuous decline in some el- for logistic support. Te help extended by N. S. Dungriyal,
ements and sections of TEK. British colonial land use Director, Satpuda National Park, Madhya Pradesh and other
policies in India are also blamed for eroding much of the ofcials of Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserves is greatly ac-
traditional resource use norms, most of which are continued knowledged. Author expresses deep sense of gratitude to the
in post-independence India along with industrial develop- villagers of bufer zone areas of Pachmarhi Biosphere Re-
ment [35, 36]. Te study in PBR corroborates the fact that serves for their co-operation and support during the course
TEK is in transition, as reported by Sillitoe [40] and Berkes of this study.
[9], which raises serious concerns for historical involvement
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