Science Y2 EYA
Science Y2 EYA
Forces in Nature → Many Natural disasters are forces in nature, like, tropical cyclones,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis
Interactions usually involve the transfer of energy which can cause changes in motion and/or
conditions.
Types of Forces
Contact Forces:
Friction → the force that opposes motion between two surfaces in contact.
Elastic Force → the force acting on a stretched or compressed elastic object to return to its
original shape
Normal Force → the force that surfaces exert to prevent solid objects from passing through
each other, if two surfaces are not in contact, they can’t exert a normal force on each other. (It is
perpendicular to the surfaces in contact)
Tension Force → the force transmitted through a rope, string or wire when pulled by forces
acting from opposite sides. It is directed over the length of the wire and pulls energy equally on
the bodies at the end
Intermolecular Force (not tested) → the attractive and repulsive forces that arise between the
molecules of a substance
Only acts on elastic objects Not necessarily an elastic object, can act on
all objects that can stretch lightly
Allows elastic objects to return to it original Merely a pulling force, no pushing force and
shape after being stretched or compressed hence no compression
Non-contact Forces:
Gravitational Force → the force that attracts two objects towards each other. When a planet
exerts gravitational force on an object and pulls it towards its centre, the object is known to have
weight. Earth’s gravitational force pulls all things towards its centre.
Magnetic Force → the force exerted between a magnet and another magnetic material such as
iron or steel. Magnetic force also exists between two magnets.
Weight
- The gravitational force acting on that object
- Formula: w=mg
- Weight = mass x gravitational field strength (10N/kg / 10m/s^2 → Earth)
- Weight = mass in kg x 10N/kg
- Weight and mass are directly proportional
- The greater the mass of an object, the greater its weight
Weight vs Mass
Weight Mass
Effects of a force
1. A force applied on a stationary object can cause it to start moving
2. A force applied on a moving object can cause it to
a. Increase its speed (acceleration)
b. Decrease its speed
c. Change its direction
3. A force applied on an object can cause a change in its
a. Size and/or shape
b. Pressure on an object
Resultant force
- Definition: The overall force after considering all forces acting on a body, also known as
the net force
- A resultant force
- Will act in the opposite direction of the larger force
- Will be the difference between the two unbalanced forces
Resultant force (RF) 0 (but there can still be forces The difference between the
present) two forces
A force applied on an object can cause a turning effect about a fixed point called the pivot.
This turning effect can help us to carry out an action with little force, such as removing the lid of
a tin can or tightening a nut.
The greater the distance of the force away from the pivot,
★ The lesser the applied force required
★ The greater the turning effect
★ The lighter the object will be
● Example questions:
○ Q: Explain how the application of force can help on to remove lid of the tin easily
○ A: There is a downward applied force by the hand about the pivot that will result
in an anti-clockwise turning effect which will remove the lid
Pressure
Formula:
Pressure(Pa) = Force(N)/Area(m^2)
The amount of force applied is measured in Newton (N), and the area of contact is measured in
square metres (m^2). The unit of pressure is newton per metre (N/m^2), also known as the
pascal (Pa)
Example questions:
1) Drinking from a straw
● When the boy sucks on a straw, some air is removed from it
● The air pressure inside the straw decreases and becomes lower than the surrounding
atmospheric pressure
● The higher atmospheric pressure pushes the liquid up the straw and into the boy’s
mouth
2) Suction Cups
● When we press a suction cup hook against a smooth surface like a wall tile, air is
pushed out from under the suction cup
● The air pressure between the suction cup and the surface decreases. It becomes lower
than the atmospheric pressure
● The higher atmospheric pressure holds the suction cup hook in place on the surface
Work Done
Definition: the energy transferred when a force moves an object over a distance in the direction
of the force.
Formula: W = F x d
SI Unit: Joules (J)
- Force: N
- Distance: m
3 Criterias:
1. A force must be exerted on the object
2. There must be motion/object that moves through a distance
3. There must be a parallel force in the direction of motion
What is energy?
- Energy is the ability to do work
- The SI unit of energy is Joules (J) or kilojoules (kJ)
- One kilojoule is 1000 Joules
Energy types
Sound → energy produced when objects vibrate
Electrical → energy that results from the flow of charged particles
Nuclear → energy stored in the nucleus of an atom and which is released during nuclear
reactions. During nuclear fusion or fission, the energy released is used to generate electricity
Potential → chemical/gravitational/elastic potential energy that is stored ina body as a result of
its position or condition
Kinetic → energy that a body possesses due to its motion
Example:
An archer pulling his bowstring
Kinetic energy → potential energy
An archer releasing his bowstring
Potential energy → kinetic energy
Sources of energy
Non-renewable sources of energy
- Limited and will run out one day
1. Fossil fuels:
Fossil fuels are burnt → steam → turbine rotates → generator
CPE → TE → KE → EE
2. Nuclear energy
Uranium
Nuclear energy (atoms) → hot air → turbine rotates → generator
NE → TE → KE → EE
Renewable sources of energy
- Can be sustained or renewed indefinitely due to limited supplies or new growth (of
organisms)
1. Biofuels:
Biomass (e.g. wood, animal dung, sugar cane etc)
Biofuels → hot air → vehicle moves
CPE → TE → KE
2. Geothermal energy:
Escaping steam from volcanoes, geysers, and hot springs
Earth’s core → steam → turbine rotates → generator
TE → KE → KE → EE
3. Hydroelectric energy:
Rainwater stored in reservoirs behind dams
Water stored behind a dam → moving water → turbine rotates → generator
GPE → KE → KE → EE
4. Solar energy:
Sun → solar cell
LE → EE
5. Wind energy:
Windmills converting the energy of moving air (wind) into electrical energy
Wind → wind turbine moves → generator
KE → KE → EE
6. Tidal energy:
The difference in the height of water at high tide and low tide is used to generator
electricity
As the tide comes in, water flows through turbines to generate electricity
The same thing happens when the tide goes out and the water flows in the opposite
direction
Heat and Temperature
Metals are better conductors as compared to other materials because of their free electrons.
Thermal energy is always transferred from an object of higher temperature to an object with
lower temperature
Water (Solid) - Molecules are closed packed. Nearly all motion is vibrational; no translational
motion. Water is solid.
Water (Liquid) - The majority of motion is both vibrational and translational (with molecules
loosely packed and sliding past one another). Few or no free molecules. Water is a liquid.
Water (Boiling) - The majority of motion is translational movement. Molecules loosely packed.
Free molecules come and go. Water is boiling.
Water (Gas) - The majority of motion is translational movement. Many free molecules are widely
spaced out. Water is a hot steam (gas)
Even below the freezing point, the molecules still vibrate but are almost stationary. So there is
still motion until it reaches absolute zero, where all motion of the molecules would stop.
Thermal Equilibrium: When both objects (starting with one with a higher temperature than the
other) reach the same temperature
- Thermal energy will flow from the hotter of the two objects to the colder until they both
have the same temperature
Heat
● Definition: The transfer of thermal energy from a region of higher temperature to a region
of lower temperature until thermal equilibrium is achieved between the two regions
Thermal energy
● Definition: The energy in body due to its temperature
● SI unit: Joules (J)
Temperature
● Definition: The measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules in a body (movement
of particles)
● SI unit: Kelvin (K)
● ºC scale:
○ Lowest temp (0 KE): -273.15)ºC
○ Fixed points
■ Ice point: 0ºC
■ Steam point: 100ºC
● Kelvin Scale (K)
○ Lowest temperature (0 KE): absolute zero
○ No negative values
● Changes in temperature is the same whether in ºC or K
● Temperature Conversion:
○ K = ºC + 273
○ ºC = K - 273
■ K is larger than ºC
Answering Formats:
Q: What do you think causes the hot and cold blocks to eventually reach the same
temperature?
A: Particles with higher kinetic energy pass the energy to the particles with lower kinetic energy.
Eventually, both blocks have the same average KE, which means the same temperature.
Q: Two identical beakers are filled with water at 30 ºC. Beaker A contains 100 g of water while
beaker B contains 200 g of water. They are heated for 1 minute with identical flames. Comment
on the amount of thermal energy received and the rise in temperature of the water in both
beakers. Explain your answer.
A: Both beakers received the same amount of thermal energy. Beaker B will have a smaller rise
in temperature than beaker A. Beaker B has a greater mass of water thus contains more water
molecules and average amount of energy gained by the molecules will be lower. Thus average
kinetic energy of all molecules will be lower for Beaker B.
Q: What is the relationship between mass, the number of atoms, the amount of thermal energy
you add, and the rise in temperature in an object?
ANS: An object of larger mass has more number of particles, which require a greater amount of
thermal energy to have the same rise in temperature.
Heavier particles have more inertia, making it harder to change their speed compared to lighter
particles.
Lighter particles, having less mass, can more easily accelerate and move faster on average.
A bottle of cold juice feels cold because the thermal energy is transferred away from our hands.
Temperature is measured in kelvin (K)
Thermal energy is measured in Joule (J)
Conduction
Definition: The transfer of thermal energy between neighbouring particles through a medium,
without a net movement of the medium itself
● Metals have free moving electrons
● Contact is needed for conduction
● Works best with metals
● Good conductor of thermal energy in descending order:
○ Solid (Best, electrons are closely packed, allowing them to hit each other easily)
○ Liquid (Not that bad as gas, electrons are slightly further apart)
○ Gas (Worst, electrons are far apart, that's why air is a poor conductor of heat)
Process:
● During conduction, the particles in the hotter region of the medium gains thermal energy
and vibrates faster
● These particles collide with their neighbouring particles, transferring thermal energy to
them
● This causes the neighbouring particles, transferring thermal energy to them
● THis causes the neighbouring particles to vibrate faster too
● The process continues until thermal energy is transferred from particle to particle from
the hotter region to the colder region
● There is not net change in the positions of the particles
Example questions:
Q: Two identical black cups, one made of metal and the other made of plastic, contain
hot water at the same temperature. Explain, with reference to KINETIC THEORY OF
MATTER, which cup will contain water at a lower temperature after 10 minutes.
A:
○ Hot water molecules with higher kinetic energy transfer thermal energy to the
particles in the cup via conduction.
○ Particles in contact with the water vibrate even more vigorously, colliding with
neighbouring particles and transferring the thermal energy to the exterior of the
cup.
○ Metals have free electrons which will also help to transfer thermal energy faster.
Convection
Definition: The transfer of thermal energy due to the movement of heated particles of fluids
(liquids and gases)
● Works best in air — ‘rising’ (hot air rises) and water
● When our hands are placed above the flame, in the path of the convection current,
thermal energy is transferred mainly by convection
○ Convection current is caused by the change in density of the fluid
■ It cannot take place in solids as they are arranged in fixed positions and
cannot move (particles must be free to move)
Process:
● During convection, the particles nearest to the heat source will be heated, causing the
fluid to expand
● As it expands, the fluid becomes less dense and rises
● The cooler fluid would then sink to take the place of the heated fluid that has risen
● Int turn, the cooler fluid would be heated by the heat source
● The cycle repeats, setting up convection currents
Application:
1) Sea breeze
● During the day, the land heats up faster than the sea
● Thus, the air above the land is hotter than the air above the sea
● The hot air above the land is less dense and rises
● Cooler denser air over the sea sinks and moves towards the land to replace this hot air
● This results in a breeze from the sea to the land, known as sea breeze
2) Land breeze
● At night, the land cools faster than the sea
● Thus, the air above the sea is hotter than the air above the land
● The hot air above the sea is less dense and rises
● Cooler denser air over the land rises and moves towards the sea to replace this hot air
● This results in a breeze from the land to the sea, known as land breeze
Vacuum Radiation
Solid Conduction
Chemical Changes
● Periodic table: arranged in increasing proton number
● Period (horizontal): number of electron shells
● Group (vertical): number of valence electrons
○ They have the same chemical properties
○ Forms ions of the same charges
● Mass number (nucleon number): number of protons + neutrons
● Proton number (atomic number): number of protons
○ Determines the identity of elements
Chemical Bonding
Ionic bonds
Definition: the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions
- Metal + non-metal
Naming convention:
● Determine the number of each ion needed to balance out the charges (net charge of
zero)
● Write the chemical formula with the correct ratio of ions, without the charges
● E.g. Sodium chloride (NaCl)
(w.s 11.3)
Covalent Bonds
Definition: The electrostatic force of attraction between the positive nuclei of each atom for two
non–metal atoms for a shared pair of elections
- Non-metal + Non-metal
● Electrons involved in sharing are from the valence electron shell
● Covalent bonds:
1. Single covalent bond:
a. 2 electrons shared between two atoms
2. Double covalent bond:
a. 4 electrons shared between two atoms
3. Triple covalent bond:
6 electrons shared between two atoms
Naming Convention:
● Prefixes are given to the number of atoms that are present in the formula (if the first
element has only one of itself, there is no need to write ‘mono’)
○ 1 → mono
○ 2 → di
○ 3 → tri
○ 4 → tetra
○ 5 → penta
○ 6 → hexa
○ 7 → hepta
○ 8 → octa
○ 9 → nona
○ 10 → deca
● E.g. Carbon monoxide (CO)
● Special compounds
○ Water → H2O
○ Ammonia → NH3
○ Methane → CH4
Dot and cross / structural diagram for Covalent Bonds:
Polyatomic Ions
● Charged species consisting of two or more atoms bonded together
● Ions take the overall net charge
Hydroxide ion 𝑂𝐻
−
Transition Metals
● Elements which lie between Group 2 and Group 13 of the periodic table
● Their ions are able to form ions of different charges
2+
1. Zinc (II) → 𝑍𝑛
+
2. Silver (I) → 𝐴𝑔
2+
3. Lead (II) → 𝑃𝑏
+ 2+
4. Copper (I) OR Copper (II) → 𝐶𝑢 OR 𝐶𝑢
2+ 3+
5. Irion (II) OR Iron (III) → 𝐹𝑒 OR 𝐹𝑒
3+
6. Aluminium (III) → 𝐴𝑙
Note:
● Unreactive metals
○ Copper
○ Lead
○ Gold
○ Silver
○ Platinum
Chemical Equations
● LHS (reactants) → RHS (products)
● Accompanied by state symbols
○ Solid → s
○ Liquid → 𝑙
○ Gaseous → g
○ Aqueous → aq
● Follow the Method
1. Balance all other elements (apart from O and H)
2. Balance oxygen atoms (O)
3. Balance hydrogen atoms (H)
4. Balance charges (electrons)
1. Decomposition
a. Involves the breakdown of a compound into two or more simpler
compounds/elements
2. Combustion
a. Involves the burning of a substance in the presence of oxygen to form new
compound(s)
3. Precipitation
a. Involves the formation of a solid when two solutions are mixed
4. Respiration
a. The process by which the cells in living organisms get energy
b. Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water
5. Neutralisation
a. The reaction of an acid and alkali
6. Oxidation
a. A reaction in which a substance gains oxygen
7. Electrolysis
a. Using electricity for decomposition
8. Electroplating
a. Using electricity to coat a layer of another metal (e.g. gold)
Properties of products are the same as the Properties of products are different from that
reactants of the reactants
Compounds Mixtures
Can only be separated through chemical Can only be separated through physical
means means
Does not retain original elements’ properties Retains original elements’ properties
Have definite melting and boiling points Do not have definite melting and boiling
points
Fixed proportions Not in fixed proportions
Thermal energy occurs when formed No thermal energy occurs when formed
Physical properties:
● Sour taste
● Can conduct electricity when dissolved in water
○ Reason: There are mobile hydrogen (H+) ions that are able to act as mobile
charge carriers so acid is able to conduct electricity
○ Turns blue litmus paper red
○ Red litmus paper remains red
● Uses:
○ Used in car batteries
○ Food preservation
Alkali
Definition: A substance that dissociates/ionises to produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in
water
Physical properties:
● Bitter taste
● Slippery
● Can conduct electricity when dissolved in water
○ Reason: There are mobile hydroxide (OH-) ions that are able to act as mobile
charge carriers so alkali is able to conduct electricity
○ Turns red litmus paper blue
○ Blue litmus paper remains blue
● Uses:
○ Window cleaning solutions
○ Toothpaste
● Bases
○ Definition: A substance that reacts with an acid to form a salt
○ Oxides and hydroxides of metals
Alkalis Bases
Definitions
1. Species: A group of interbreeding organisms that do not normally breed with members
of other groups
2. Population: A group of organisms of the same species (living in a particular habitat)
3. Community: Different populations of organisms living together in the same habitat
4. Habitat: Area or natural environment in which an organism or population lives (includes
only the abiotic factors of an ecosystem)
5. Ecosystem: A system formed by the interaction between different communities of
organisms interacting with one another and with their abiotic environment
Energy Flow
● 10% of energy is transferred through the food chain from one trophic level to another
● Energy is lost as
○ Thermal energy during respiration
○ Uneaten parts or dead bodies
○ Undigested matter egested by consumers (egestion)
○ Waste products excreted by consumers (excretion)
○ Used for movement and in maintenance (cell repair)
● Hence, each successive trophic level is able to support a smaller number of organisms,
causing the numbers to decrease up the food chain to accommodate the amount of
energy left throughout the food chain
ANSWERING TECHNIQUE:
● During feeding, only 10% of the energy in a lower trophic level is transferred to the next,
hence, there is insufficient energy left to support another trophic level.
● 90% of the energy would be lost as heat and other biological processes.
● Quaternary (after tertiary) consumers at trophic level 5 are rarely found in ecosystems
because of the insufficient energy left to support them.
● Short food chains are more efficient than long food chains as less energy is lost to the
environment.
Food Chains
Definition: A sequence of feeding relationships between organisms which shows how food and
energy are transferred from one organism to another
- The Sun is the source of energy for all Earth’s ecosystems
- Producers convert the light energy from the sun to chemical potential energy
● Producers (1) → Primary consumers (2) → Secondary consumers (3) → Tertiary
consumers (4)
○ Trophic level 1: Plants produce food using energy captured from sunlight through
photosynthesis
○ Trophic level 2: Herbivores/Omnivores
○ Trophic level 3: Carnivores/Omnivores
○ Trophic level 4: Carnivores/Omnivores
○ Unlikely to have trophic levels above 4 as explained above
● Food Web
○ Definition: Made of interlinked food chains involving organisms from the same
ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
1. Pyramid of Numbers
a. Definition: A graphical representation of the number of individuals in a trophic
level in a food chain at any one time
2. Pyramid of Biomass
a. Definition: A graphical representation of the dry mass of organisms at each
trophic level in a given ecosystem at any one time
Water Pollution
Effects Eutrophication:
● The nitrates and phosphates in
untreated sewage or fertilisers
enhance the growth of algae and
water plants
● This leads to the increased growth
and multiplication of algae and floating
water plants in water bodies
● Sunlight cannot reach submerged
plants so they cannot make food
during photosynthesis and die
● The dead water plants are
decomposed by aerobic bacteria and
fungi (decomposers)
● Other organisms such as aquatic
animals like fish die due to lack of
oxygen where they cannot undergo
respiration
Bioaccumulation:
● Definition: Occurs when inorganic
products such as mercury is not
excreted from but accumulate in the
bodies of the sea animals they live in
over time
○ These inorganic waste
products are
■ Non-biodegradable and
cannot be broken down
● They are stored
in the tissues of
organisms that
consume it
● Remain in the
water bodies
■ May contain poisonous
metals or toxins
Bioamplification:
● Definition: Occurs in the food chain as
the (smallest size organisms) is eaten
by the (medium size organisms) and
become concentrated in the bodies of
the (largest size organisms) which are
the final consumers
○ The last consumer in the food
chain would contain the
highest concentrations of the
inorganic substances
○ Hence, they may face harmful
effects (or more harmful
effects than the organisms in
the lower trophic levels and
these substances are
accumulated)
Decomposers
● Definition: Organisms that consume nutrients on molecular level and break down the
complex nutrients in faeces and decaying bodies of plants and animals through
decomposition into
○ Carbon dioxide (used for photosynthesis in plants)
○ Minerals (dissolve in water in the soil and are absorbed by plants for growth)
■ E.g. bacteria and fungi
■ Carry out the recycling of nutrients such that the energy locked in dead
organisms can be released and returned to the ecosystem
Resistance
Definition: The ratio of the potential difference across it to the current flowing through it
𝑉
Formula: R = 𝐼
● Resistance: Ohm (Ω)
● Potential difference across the component: V
● Electric current flowing through it: A (‘I’ → current measured in amperes)
Factors affecting resistance:
● Length (longer) → Higher
● Cross-sectional area (wider) → Lower
- Total resistance decreases in a parallel circuit
- The higher the resistance, the lower the current
Types of resistors:
● Fixed resistor
● Variable resistor (rheostat)
○ The longer the wire, the greater the resistance
Series Parallel
Resistance (R) Total effective resistance is the Total effective resistance is the sum
sum of individual resistance of the reciprocal of resistance in
● 𝑅 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 each branch
1 1 1 1
● 𝑅 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
Electric Power
Definition: The rate at which the amount of electrical energy is converted to other forms of
energy in one second
SI Unit: Watt (W)
● Large unit: Kilowatt (kW)
○ 1000 Watt = 1 Kilowatt
● Larger unit: Megawatt (MW)
𝐸
Formula: P = 𝑡
● Power: kW
● Electrical energy: kWh
● Time: h
1kWh = 1000J (energy)
Example questions:
● Q: State what is meant by the power rating of 1.2kW of the water heater.
● A: The water heater converts 1.2kJ of electrical energy to thermal energy in one second.
○ J: SI unit of energy
Dangers of Electricity
1. Damaged insulation
a. Due to wear and tear
b. Metal casing may become live
c. Effect:
i. Exposed live wire can cause an electric shock if someone touches it
ii. May result in a short circuit where the live and neutral wires touch each
other, causing a surge in current and a fire
2. Overheating of cables
a. Increases current drawn from the main wall socket, heating up the wired and
causing a fire
3. Damp conditions
a. Water can conduct electricity even though it is not a good conductor of electricity
b. Resistance of the skin falls drastically when it is wet, a large electric current may
flow through the body, increasing chase of electric shock
4. Electric shocks and electrocution
a. Electric shock: When a person touches live wires, current flows through his body,
giving him an electric shock
b. Electrocution: Injured or killed by a large current passing through the body
c. Can happen if the insulation of the wires are damaged or if the earth wire of an
appliance is not properly connected
5. Electric Fires
a. From short circuits when the large current flowing through the wires cause the
wires to overheat and start a fire
b. Electrical sparks from a short circuit may occur and start a fire when they come
into contact with flammable materials
c. Connecting too many electrical appliances to the same output socket or
forgetting to switch off an appliance may cause overheating of wires and hence a
fire as well
6. Short circuit
a. A path of very low resistance between two points in a circuit
b. Occurs when a broken or bare wire in a circuit touches another wire in a circuit
c. THis results in a large current flowing through the circuit, causing the wires to
become hot
d. This can cause a fire in the wires or in the appliance
Diffusion
Definition: The net movements of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration down a concentration gradient
● Factors affecting diffusion:
○ Concentration gradient (thee difference in concentration between two
regions)
■ The higher the concentration the faster rate of diffusion
○ Diffusion Distance
■ The shorter the diffusion distance, the faster the rate of diffusion
○ Surface area to volume ratio
■ The greater the surface area to volume ratio, the faster the rate of
diffusion
○ Temperature
■ The higher the temperature (higher average KE), the faster the rate of
diffusion
● Movement of any substance
● Does not necessarily require a partially permeable membrane
● Do not require energy
● Passive process
Osmosis
Definition: The net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a
region of lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane
● Substance permeability:
○ Particles too big to pass through the membrane (cannot pass through)
■ Sucrose (sugar)
■ Starch (sugar)
■ Protein
○ Glucose (sugar) can pass through
○ Salt can pass through
● Only involves the movement of water molecules
● Must take place across a partially permeable membrane
Water Potential
High water potential means that the solution has more free water molecules compared to a
solution with low water potential.
A dilute solution has a higher water potential compared to a concentrated solution.
The term water potential can only be used when comparing between two liquid
environments.
Xylem & Phloem
1. Xylem: Transports water and mineral salts continuously upwards from the roots to stem
and then to leaves
2. Phloem: Transports mainly sugars between different parts of the plant (from leaves to all
parts of the plant)
Specialised Cells
1. Root hair cell
a. Structure: Has a long and narrow extension
b. Function: Increased the surface area to volume ratio for the root cell to absorb
water and mineral salts at a faster rate
2. Xylem tissue
a. Structure (1):
i. Dead cells with long hollow tubes
ii. No cross walls
iii. No protoplasm
1. Function (1):
a. To allow the transport of water and mineral salts upwards
quickly without resistance
b. Structure (2):
i. Xylem vessel wall is deposited with lignin
1. Function (2):
a. To provide mechanical support to the plant
b. To prevent collapse of xylem vessels
Human
● Respiration
○ Take in oxygen for body cells to undergo cellular respiration
○ Main factor to produce energy
○ Give out carbon dioxide
○ Prevents too much build up in the body and resulting in body toxicity
● Double Circulation
○ Blood passes through the heart twice
○ It move from the pulmonary circulation (between the heart and lungs) and into the
systemic circulation (between the heart and the rest of the body)
○ Advantages:
■ Blood enters the pulmonary circulation at a low pressure, ensuring
sufficient time for blood to be fully oxygenated before returning to the
heart
■ Blood is pumped into the systemic circulation at high pressure, ensuring
oxygenated blood is quickly distributed to all the tissues in the body
Type of Blood Vessels Function
Heart
Structure of the heart
SUMMARY
Arteries and veins are not the blood that determines what it is, it's the direction of blood.
Vein carries blood to the heart
Artery carries blood away from the heart
The left and right atrium receives blood while the left and right ventricle pumps the blood out.
The heart has two sides, separated by muscles (medium septum) so that oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood do not mix. Between the atrium and ventricle there is a valve.
Systole: Contract
Diastole: Relax
Blood Vessels
1. Artery
a. Thick and elastic muscular wall (To withstand high blood pressure)
b. Small lumen
c. Large in size
d. Transports oxygenated blood away from the heart
e. High blood pressure
2. Vein
a. Thin muscular wall
b. Large lumen
c. Large in size
d. Transports deoxygenated blood to the heart
e. Low blood pressure
f. Have valves to prevent backflow of blood
3. Capillary
a. One-cell thick
b. Small lumen
c. Small in size
d. Allows exchange of substances between blood and tissues/body cells
Blood
● Acts as a transport medium carrying:
○ Soluble food substances (glucose, amino acids, fats)
○ Waste products (urea, carbon dioxide)
○ Hormones
○ Thermal Energy
○ Oxygen
Red Blood Cells
● Constitute 99% of the cells in the blood
● Produced in the bone marrow
● Destroyed at the spleen
● Limited lifespan of 120 days
● Structure and function
○ Function: Transport oxygen (only) from the lungs to all cells
○ Structure:
■ Contains haemoglobin (red pigment)
● Combines with oxygen easily (oxyhaemoglobin)
● This helps absorb oxygen quickly and transport around the body
■ Does not contain a nucleus (largest organelle in the cell)
● To contain more haemoglobin
● For transport of more oxygen
■ Biconcave shape
● Increases surface area to volume ratio of the cell
● Increases the rate of diffusion of oxygen in and out of the cell
■ Elastic
● To change shape
● Easily squeeze through blood capillaries (which can be smaller
than the diameter of a red blood cell)
Plasma
● About 90% water (pale yellow liquid)
● Substances are dissolved and transported, such as
○ Proteins (Plasma proteins, antibodies)
○ Mineral salts (chlorides, calcium, sodium)
○ Soluble food substances (glucose, amino acids, fats)
○ Waste products (urea, carbon dioxide)
○ Hormones
○ Ions
White Blood Cells
1. Phagocytosis
a. Definition: The process of engulfing and ingesting foreign particles e.g. bacteria
b. Type: Phagocytes
■ Appearance: Lobed nucleus
■ Function: Able to engulf, ingest and digest foreign particles
2. Antibody Formation
a. Structure:
■ Mobile
1. They are able to move
2. Change their shape
3. Squeeze through the walls of the thinnest blood capillaries
■ Colourless (they do not contain haemoglobin)
■ Irregular in shape
■ Each contains a nucleus
b. Type: Lymphocytes
■ Appearance: Large rounded nucleus
■ Function: Produce antibodies against microorganisms
1. Bind to bacteria
2. Cause their surface membrane to rupture
3. Bacterial cells clump together
4. Toxins produced by bacteria are neutralised
3. Tissue Rejection
a. Tissue or organ transplant involves replacing damaged or diseased tissue or
organ with healthy tissue or organ from the same person or a donor
b. The body may produce antibodies to destroy the transplant
c. Ways to reduce the risk of tissue rejection
■ Tissue match
■ Use of immunosuppressive drugs
Platelets
● Not true cells but fragments of cytoplasm which are membrane-bound
● Clots blood when there is an open wound/damage to blood vessels so as to:
○ Prevent excessive blood loss
○ Seal wounds to prevent foreign bodies likes bacteria and viruses from entering
wound
Blood Groups
● Antigens: Special proteins the surfaces of red blood cells contain
● Antibodies: Produced by the white blood cells and contained in the human blood
plasma
A B AB O
● Agglutination
○ Clumping of red blood cells
○ Occurs when the recipient receives a blood type that has antigens that the
recipient’s own blood reacts with its antibodies
○ Can result in death
SUMMARY
Types of Nutrients
1. Carbohydrates
a. Function: Provides our body with energy
b. E.g. starch and sugars
2. Fats
a. Function:
i. Provide our body with energy (twice that of carbohydrates)
ii. Keep our body warm
b. E.g. butter, cooking oils, oily fish, meat, peanuts
3. Proteins
a. Function:
i. Used for growth and repair of damaged tissues
ii. Provide energy when there are insufficient carbohydrates and fats
b. E.g. fish, meat, egg white, cheese, beans and nuts
4. Vitamins and minerals
a. Function:
i. Proper functioning of cells
ii. For reactions in cells to take place
b. E.g. vegetables, fruits, meat
5. Dietary fibre
a. Function: Helps bulk up faeces for easy defecation
b. E.g. cellulose from plant materials (vegetables and fruits) and any food
substance that cannot be digested
Digestion (Organ)
Oesophagus
pH -
Chemical digestion NIL (but some saliva from the mouth is also
swallowed down)
Pancreas
pH 7-8 (slightly alkaline)
Function ● Liver
○ Produces bile
● Gallbladder
○ Stores bile
○ Releases bile into small
intestine via bile ducts when
required
Chemical digestion ●
Intestinal epithelial cells
○ Maltose → Glucose
■ Intestinal maltase
○ Proteins → Amino Acids
■ Intestinal protease
○ Fats → Fatty acids + glycerol
■ Intestinal lipase
End products of complete digestion of
food:
1. Glucose molecules
a. Cells use glucose during
respiration to provide energy
2. Amino acids
a. Combine to form proteins
i. Used for growth of new
cells and repair of
damaged tissues
3. Glycerol and fatty acids
a. Combine to form parts which
are stored in the body
i. Used to provide energy
ii. Used to keep our
bodies warm
Adaptations ● Peristalsis
○ To move chyme slowly to
enable it to remain in the large
intestine for a longer period of
time
■ So that more water and
dissolved ions can be
absorbed
● Secretes mucus
○ To lubricate solidifying faecal
matter
Enzymes
● Definition: Complex proteins that speed up the rate of chemical reactions
○ Digestive enzymes in particular speed up the process of digestion by breaking up
large food molecules into smaller food molecules
○ Highly specific where each enzyme can only work on one type of food substance
Chemical Digestion Summary (nutrient)
Organ Feature
● Requires two parents (male and Production of new organisms from a single
female) parent
● Involves gametes (sex cells)
● New organisms are not identical to the New cells are identical to the parent
parents
● Inherits characteristics from both
parents
Gametes
Sperm (Male) Ovum (Female)
Organ Function
Testis (plural: testes) ● There are two testis (at least there
should be)
○ Produces male sex cells called
sperms
○ Produces the male sex
hormone, testosterone
■ Development and
maintenance of typical
masculine physical
characteristics
Stages in Reproduction
1. Fertilisation
a. Definition: The process where the nucleus of the sperm (male gamete) fuses
with the nucleus of the ovum (female gamete) to form a zygote (fertilised egg
cell)
i. Nucleus of the cell contains the genetic information (DNA) in
chromosomes
1. Sperm Cell: 23 Chromosomes
2. Egg Cell (ovum): 23 Chromosomes
3. Every other human cell: 46 Chromosomes (23 PAIRS)
ii. The process of passing down the genetic material from one generation to
the next during sexual reproduction is called heredity
1. Thus, a child receives half its genetic information from the mother
(through the ovum) and half from the father (through the sperm)
2. A new individual formed through sexual reproduction receives a
unique combination of genetic information, resulting in variation
b. Process:
i. Sperms deposited in the vagina during sexual intercourse travel up the
uterus through the oviducts to the ovum
ii. If an ovum is present in the oviduct, fertilisation may take place
iii. The fertilised ovum(zygote) divides repeatedly to for the embryo
iv. The embryo moves into the uterus and is implanted on the uterine lining
v. The woman is now pregnant. Congrats
c. Development of a fertilised ovum:
i. Sperm + Ovum
ii. Zygote (one fertilised cell)
iii. Blastocyst ( a rapidly dividing ball of cells)
iv. Embryo (ball of cells)
v. Foetus
vi. Baby (outside of mother’s body)
2. Twins:
One sperm fertilise one ovum which then Two sperm cells fertilise two separate eggs
splits into two
Puberty
● Definition:
○ The period when an adolescent becomes sexually mature and capable of
reproducing
○ The stage of rapid human growth and development in which a person becomes
physically mature
● Occurs between ages of 11-16 years
● Begins when sex hormones (e.g. oestrogen in ovaries and testosterone in testis) are
produced
Male Female
● Penis, testes and scrotum grow larger ● Hips grow wider, broader and rounder
● Production of sperm starts ● Breasts grows larger and begin to
● Voice box enlarges and voice develop
deepens ● Uterus grows larger
● Facial hair starts to grow ● Menstruation and ovulation starts
● Muscle strength increases
Sex hormones cause these changes to the body and body functions during puberty
Menstrual Cycle
● 28 days in total (may differ due to stress, health conditions etc)
○ Day 1-5 Menstruation
■ Definition: The discharge of the uterus tissues through the vagina when
an ovum remains unfertilised
● The dead ovum and the uterine lining is shed
● Discharged out of the vagina
○ Day 6-10: Repair and growth of the uterine lining
■ The uterine lining thickens
■ It is richly supplied with blood vessels
● To provide nutrients and oxygen to support the development of an
embryo
○ Day 11-17: Fertile Period
■ Day 14: Ovulation
● Definition: A mature ovum is released into the oviducts (only 1
ovary release 1 ovum, alternating)
● Sexual intercourse around this period is likely to result in
pregnancy
○ Day 18-28: Cycle Repeats
■ Fertilisation: Continued thickening of the uterine lining and maintains in
thickness ✓
■ Fertilisation: The thickened uterine lining and the unfertilised ovum break
down and are discharged through the vagina (menstruation) ⛌
STIS
● Definition: Infections which are spread through sexual contact with an infected person
to another
Syphilis Gonorrhoea Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS)
Causative Agent Bacteria Bacteria Virus
● Human
Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV)
Modes of ● Contact with body ● Contact with bodily ● Contact with bodily
Transmission fluids fluids fluids
● Contact with ● From mother to child ● Contact with
infected blood during pregnancy or infected blood
● From mother to childbirth ● From mother to child
child during during pregnancy,
pregnancy or childbirth or
childbirth breastfeeding
● Prevention Methods:
○ Abstinence from sexual activity
○ Avoid having multiple sex partners
○ Avoid sharing personal instruments that are likely to break the skin and become
contaminated with blood (e.g. injection needles, razors, towels etc)
○ Use condoms during sexual intercourse
All Definitions
Concept Definition
Potential Difference (Voltage/V) The work done to drive a unit charge across
an electrical component
Sexually Transmitted Illnesses (STIs) Infections which are spread through sexual
contact with an infected person
All Formulas
Concept Formula
Temperature Conversion:
● K = ºC + 273
● ºC = K - 273
○ K is larger than ºC
Special Compounds:
● Water → H2O
● Ammonia → NH3
● Ammonium → NH4+
● Methane → CH4
Unreactive Metals:
● Copper
● Lead
● Gold
● Silver
● Platinum
Acid Reactions:
● Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
● Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide gas
● Acid + Alkali/Base → Salt + Water